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Cyclopedia of Farm Animals 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK ■ BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS 
ATLANTA ■ SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 



THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Lt» 

TORONTO 




Plate I. The native bison, noblest of American quadrupeds, and the only North American mammal that 
to contribute much to agriculture. (See page 287.) 



promises 



Cyclopedia of 
Farm Animals 



EDITED BY 

L. H. BAILEY 



Jgeto l?orfe 
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1922 

All rights reserved 



755 



Copyright, 1908 
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 



Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1908 



30UOS 



PREFACE 

The resourcefulness of an agricultural population depends very largely on the mastery of animals. 
The effective use and the skillful breeding of animals express one of the main elements in man's dominion 
over nature. The animal servant multiplies the man's power. The constant care of these servants, 
even the crudest response to their welfare, develops in the man a sense of responsibility. He has obligations. 
He may not leave his animals defenseless or in need of water and food. 

In our own time, the needs of the animal are more exacting. The practice of feeding for present-day 
results requires not only excellent care but close knowledge of rations and of the materials that compose 
them. It has come to be a clever art, that may not be considered casually or lightly. The literature is 
technical, and it must be understood. The current practices in safeguarding the health of the animal and 
in treating its ailments rest on good science and much recent discovery. We begin to understand the 
relation of animal health to human health. The veterinary profession has been greatly ennobled, and its 
contribution to human welfare is of vast importance. 

The quotations of farm animals in the markets of the world afford one of the fundamental measures of 
values. These values are indices to the food supply of mankind and to the stability and welfare of the 
vast populations that live from the land. The economics associated with live-stock markets and values is 
one of the major concerns of the day. 

The relation of the animal to plans and departments of farming has taken on new significance, with the 
careful studies of farm management. The place of the animal in the agr cultural scheme of things must be 
exactly understood, not only that individual farms may be better organized but also that the national 
domain may be effectively utilized. No longer is the animal a more or less accidental inhabitant of a 
piece of land or merely a population of barns. How many to the farm or to the acre, for what purpose, 
what relation to the cropping plan, what connection with the climate of the region, in what way the labor 
and other supply are involved, the fertilizer increment, the marketing facilities, the probable demand over a 
series of years, the particular breeds and kinds, the whole relation to the food supply, the capital to be 
invested, the buildings required, the risks in disease and otherwise, the plans for breeding, these and many 
other problems as insistent and as difficult come to the mind of the farmer of ability when he considers the 
rearing of animals. Good experience, much knowledge and clear thinking are required for the satisfactory 
approach to such questions. 

The literature of the animal husbandries is now not only large but it is able, exact, the result of much 
new study. It is a notable contribution to knowledge. Strong societies and associations have developed 
in these industries, both on the side of production and of distribution. The manufacturing and com- 
mercial interests are very large. The live-stock products afford vast supplies for the arts as well as contri- 
bute largely to the food support of the race. The live-stock industries have come to be one of the prime 
concerns of society. The interest in the subject is not alone agricultural, but in. a very important sense 
it is general. The census figures provide the subject for much study, reflection and prophecy. 

For these and many other reasons, this Cyclopedia of Farm Animals is separately published. It is 
Vol. 3 of the Cyclopedia of American Agriculture. The four volumes of that Cyclopedia are out of print, 
at least until manufacturing conditions are more auspicious; but this volume, together with the one on 
crops, is reprinted to supply the special need for them. 

The reader will see that this Cyclopedia is in three parts, more or less coordinate. Part I treats of 
the animal in general, as to the character of its domestication and its place in contemporaneous affairs; 
the physiology of the animal as a basis for understanding its life and its welfare; the feeding, with extensive 
figures for the computing of rations; diseases; exhibition of animals; the wild animals in their relation to 
agriculture, lacking knowledge of which the farmer misses much of his opportunity as a naturalist. The 
relation of birds and mischievous mammals to farming is of great importance. 

The manufacture and manipulation of animal products is the theme of Part II. It carries discussion 
of the dairy products, as milk, condensed and powdered milk, ice-cream, butter, and the many kinds of 
cheese; also of meats as they relate to the home industry, as the dressing, curing and preserving, the canning, 
the shipping of meat, and the making of leather. These various subjects, together with consideration of 
the nutritive value of meats, are approached particularly from the farm and community point of view. 

The many animals are discussed in Part III, in alphabetic sequence. "Farm animals" is conceived 
broadly, to include pets, fish, birds, game and productive insects as well as the usual poultry and live-stock. 



PREFACE 

Special attention is invited to such unusual articles, in a farm manual, as those on the cat and its care, 
dogs, pets in general including many animals about which questions are asked; frogs, fish, turtles, shell- 
fish, sponges, that may be adjuncts of farming in many places; camels, bison, buffalo, reindeer, hare, gnat, 
ostrich; the fur-bearing animals; silkworm, bees. 

The main burden of Part III, however, is naturally taken with the major domestic animals of American 
agriculture, — the cattle, horses and donkeys and mules, sheep, swine, poultry. Each of these great classes 
is introduced by a general discussion of origin and zoological position, statistics, management, disc is es, 
breeds, with many illustrations, and the text prepared by good authorities. The drawings of representative 
cattle are intended to show the salient features in outline without too much confusing detail. 

It is often said that the machine is to take the place of the work animal. This is an error. The 
automobile and motor-truck will take horses from the highway but the animals are needed on the farm for 
many kinds of work for which machines are unadaptable or uneconomical. The tractor will perform 
much of the large-area work, making it possible to till more land and yielding, thereby, more work for 
horses. Horse work may be more specialized but it cannot be eliminated. As for animals that yield food 
and by-products, the need of them increases daily. 

L. H. BAILEY. 
November 28, 1921. 



CONTENTS 

PART I— THE ANIMAL AND ITS RELATIONS 
CHAPTER I 

PAGE 

The Domestication op Animals. W. H. Brewer 4 

The Place of the Domestic Animal in Our Civilization. Thomas F. Hunt 7 

CHAPTER II 

Physiology of the Animal 15-26 

Physiology of Domestic Animals. S. J. J. Harger 17 

CHAPTER III 

The Breeding of Animals. Eugene Davenport 26-55 

Some of the Principles of Animal-Breeding. Frederick B. Mumford 28 

Animal Types and Score-Cards. Frederick B. Mumford 44 

CHAPTER IV 

The Feeding of Animals. W. H. Jordan 56-122 

Principles of Stock-Feeding. Henry Prentiss Armsby 58 

Feeding and Computation Tables ; 92 

Method of Exact Balancing of Rations. J. T. Willard 103 

Computing Balanced Rations. John L. Stone 106 

Stock-Poisoning. N. S. Mayo 118 

Poisonous Weeds and Their Eradication. E. V. Wilcox 119 

CHAPTER V 

Diseases and Management of Animals. James Law 122-151 

Infectious Diseases of Animals. Veranus A. Moore 124 

Some Details of Stock Management. N. S. Mayo and H. W. Mumford 146 

CHAPTER VI 

The Exhibiting of Animals 152-162 

. Fitting and Exhibiting Live-stock. C. S. Plumb 153 . 

Y Marketing Farm Stock. C. S. Plumb 158 

CHAPTER VII 

Wild Life and Its Relation to Farming 163-173 

Wild Mammals in Their Relations with Agriculture. Clarence M. Weed 163 

Birds in Their Relations with Agriculture. Edward Howe Forbush 169 



(v) 



vi CONTENTS 

PART II— THE MANUFACTURE OF ANIMAL PRODUCTS 

CHAPTER VIII 

PAOB 

Dairy Products 175-246 

Milk as a Market Product. Raymond A. Pearson 176 

Bacteria of Milk. W. A. Stocking, Jr 187 

Manufacture of Condensed Milk. 0. F. Hunziker 190 

Milk-Powder. Geo. W. Cavanaugh . - 194 

Manufacture of Ice-Cream and Other Frozen Products. H. E. Van Norman 195 

Butter-Making. Edwin H. Webster 198 

The Making of Cheddar Cheese. J. A. Ruddick 208 

Other Varieties of Hard Cheese. Charles Thorn, and others 218 

Soft Cheeses in America. Charles Thorn 220 

Creameries and Skimming Stations. H. L. Ayres 226 

Refrigeration of Dairy Products. Oscar Erf 232 

CHAPTER IX 

Meats and Related Products. W. D. Hoard 246-272 

/ Dressing, Caring for and Preserving Meats. Andrew Boss 248 

Shipping Meat and Hides. W. H. Tomhave 260 

The Canning of Meat and Fish. W. D. Richardson 261 

Meat : Its Nutritive Value, Selection and Preparation. Flora Rose 263 

Tanning Hides. John F. Porter 271 

The Leather and Hide Industry 272 

PART III— NORTH AMERICAN FARM ANIMALS 

Needs in Animal Husbandry. James Wilson 274 

Ass. C. S. Plumb 276 

Bees. W. K. Morrison 278 

Bison and Cattalo 287-292 

Bison. E. H. Baynes 287 

Cattalo 289 

Buffalo or Water-Buffalo. F. Lamson-Scribner 292 

Camels in North America. G. A. Mack 296 

Cat 299 

Cats and Their Care. E. R. B. Champion 299 

Cattle 301 

•Origin of Domestic Cattle. Frederick B. Mumford 302 

Selection and Management of the Dairy Herd. J. M. Trueman 303 

The Production of Milk. H. H. Wing , 309 

Feeding Dairy Cattle. F. W. Woll 313 

Feeding Beef Cattle. Howard R. Smith 317 

Determining the Age of Cattle. H. H. Wing 321 

Common Ailments of Cattle. John R. Mohler and George H. Hart 321 

Aberdeen-Angus Cattle. John S. Goodwin 330 

Ayrshire Cattle. Harry Hayward 33S 

Brown Swiss Cattle. Charles D. Nixon 331 

Devon Cattle. L. P. Sisson 339 



CONTENTS Tii 

PAGE 

Dutch Belted Cattle. Frank R. Sanders 341 

French-Canadian Cattle. G. E. Day 343 

Galloway Cattle. Charles Gray 345 

Guernsey Cattle. William H. Caldwell 348 

Hereford Cattle. Charles Gudgell 351 

Double-Standard Polled Herefords 355 

Holstein-Friesian Cattle. Solomon Hoxie 355 

Jersey Cattle. M. A. Scovell 361 

Oxen. C. S. Plumb 366 

Red Polled Cattle. H. A. Martin 367 

Shorthorn Cattle. Herbert W. Mumford 369 

Polled Durham Cattle 375 

Sussex Cattle. Overton Lea 376 

Some of the Lesser Known Breeds of Cattle. C. S. Plumb 377 

Black Welsh Cattle 377 

Brahmin, Sacred Cattle or Zebus 378 

Breton or Brittany Cattle 379 

Holderness Cattle 379 

Kerry and Dexter-Kerry Cattle 379 

Longhorn Cattle 380 

Normandy Cattle .381 

Simmenthal Cattle 381 

Texas Longhorn Cattle 381 

West Highland Cattle 382 

Dogs, Farm 383 

The Collie Dog. Herbert W. Mumford 383 

The Old English Bobtail Sheep-dog. Frederick Freeman Lloyd 386 

Sheep-dog Trials. Frederick Freeman Lloyd 388 

Fish 390 

Fish-culture. W. E. Meehan , 390 

Fish Food and Feeding-grounds. James G. Needham 392 

Plankton-culture. Julius Nelson 393 

Carp. James G. Needham 393 

Frogs. W. E. Meehan and E. A. Andrews 394 

Fur-Bearing Animals of North America. E. T. D. Chambers 395 

Goats 405 

Angora Goats. E. L. Shaw , 405 

Milch Goats. William C. Clos _ 408 

Hare, Belgian. U. G. Conover 412 

Horse .' 415 

Origin of the Domestic Horse. Frederick B. Mumford 418 

The Education, Harnessing and Gaits of the Horse. Thomas F. Hunt 421 

Practical Horse-training and Handling. Merritt W. Harper , 424 

Feeding the Horse. Merritt W. Harper 428 

Determining the Age of Horses. H. H. Wing 433 

Common Ailments of Horses. John R. Mohler and George H. Hart 436 

Arab Horse. Homer Davenport , 446 

Barb and Turk Horses. Carl W. Gay 449 

The Turk Horse 451 

Belgian Draft Horse. W. L. Carlyle 451 

Cleveland Bay and Yorkshire Coach Horse. John A. Craig 453 

Clydesdale Horse. John A. Craig 455 

French Coach Horse. John A. Craig 458 



viii CONTENTS 

PAQI 

French Draft Horse. W. L. Carlyle 460 

Ardennais Horse 460 

Boulonnais Horse 461 

Breton Horse 461 

Nivernaise Horse 462 

German Coach Horse. Merritt W. Harper 462 

Hackney Horse. John A. Craig 464 

Hunter Horse. W. C. Bacon 468 

Steeple-chase Horse 470 

Military Horse 470 

Orloff Trotting Horse. C. S. Plumb 474 

Pacing Horse, Standardbred. John A. Craig 476 

Percheron Horse. Charles F. Curtiss and John A. Craig 478 

Ponies. S. B. Elliot 481 

Polo Pony 482 

Mustang 483 

Other American Ponies 484 

Ponies of the British Isles 484-488 

Shetland Pony 484 

Welsh Pony 486 

Exmoor and Dartmoor Ponies 487 

New Forest Pony 487 

Hackney Pony 487 

Ponies of Scotland 488 

Galloway 488 

Connemara, or Pony of Ireland 488 

Celtic, or Pony of Iceland 488 

Arabian Pony 488 

Russian Pony 488 

Scandinavian or Norwegian Pony 488 

Miscellaneous Ponies 489 

Saddle Horse, American. David Castleman 489 

Shire Horse. John A. Craig 493 

Suffolk or Suffolk Punch Horse. John A. Craig 494 

Thoroughbred Horse. Carl W. Gay 496 

Trotting and Pacing Horse, American Standardbred. John A. Craig 500 

Mule. Charles Wm. Burkett 507 

Ostrich. Watson Pickrell 511 

Pets. C. H. Ellard 514 

Poultry '. 525 

Origin of the Domestic Fowl. Charles B. Davenport 528 

Breeding of Poultry. Charles B. Davenport 529 

Feeding Poultry. James E. Rice 533 

Feeding Water-fowl. George H. Pollard 536 

Fattening Poultry. W. R. Graham 538 

Capons and Caponizing. T. Greiner 540 

Incubation and Brooding. Charles A. Cyphers 542 

Preparing and Marketing Poultry Products. D. J. Lambert 544 

Judging Poultry. T. E. Orr 547 

Common Ailments of Poultry. Prince T. Woods 552 

Poultry-House Construction. James E. Rice 556 

Breeds and Types of Chickens. T. E. Orr 563 

Ducks. Charles McClave 569 



CONTENTS ix 

PAGE 

Geese. Charles McClave 572 

Grouse, Domestication of the Ruffed. C. F. Hodge 576 

Guinea-fowl. T. F. McGrew 578 

Pheasants and Related Fowls. Homer Davenport 579 

Pigeons and Squabs. Thomas Wright 582 

Quail, Domestication of the Bobwhite or American. C. F. Hodge 584 

Swan. Charles McClave 585 

Turkeys. T. F. McGrew 586 

Reindeer. C. C. Georgeson 588 

Reindeer for Labrador. D. W. Prowse 592 

Sheep 592 

Origin of Domestic Sheep 596 

Wool- and Mutton-Production. G. C. Humphrey 598 

The Feeding of Sheep. John A. Craig 600 

Determining the Age of Sheep. H. H. Wing 603 

Common Ailments of Sheep. Louis A. Klein 603 

Cheviot Sheep. David McCrae 609 

Cotswold Sheep. David McCrae 611 

Dorset-Horn Sheep. H. P. Miller 612 

Hampshire Down Sheep. H. P. Miller 614 

Leicester Sheep. David McCrae 615 

Lincoln Sheep. David McCrae 617 

Merino Sheep. Joseph E. Wing 618 

American Merino 621 

Delaine Merino ■ 622 

Rambouillet or French Merino 623 

Oxford Down Sheep. H. P. Miller 624 

Shropshire Down Sheep. H. P. Miller 626 

Southdown Sheep. H. P. Miller 627 

Suffolk Down Sheep. David McCrae 629 

Miscellaneous Breeds of Sheep 631 

Shell-fish 634 

Clam. Julius Nelson 634 

Crab. Julius Nelson 634 

Crayfish. E. A. Andrews 635 

Lobster. Julius Nelson 635 

Oyster. Julius Nelson 636 

Shrimp. Julius Nelson '. 640 

Silkworm. L. 0. Howard , '. .~ 640 

Sponges. Julius Nelson 643 

Swine 644 

Origin of Domestic Swine 646 

Lard- and Bacon-Production. Merritt W. Harper 647 

The Feeding of Swine. W. J. Kennedy, Wayne Dinsmore and J. A. McLean 649 

Determining the Age of Swine. H. H. Wing 653 

Common Ailments of Swine. John R. Mohler and George H. Hart 653 

Berkshire Swine. G. E. Day 658 

Cheshire Swine. G. E. Day 660 

Chester-White Swine. G. E. Day 661 

Duroc-Jersey Swine. G. E. Day ' 663 

Essex Swine. G. E. Day 666 

Hampshire or Thin Rind Swine. G. E. Day 667 

Large Yorkshire or Large White Swine. G. E. Day 669 



x PLATES 

PA OS 

Poland-China Swine. G. E. Day 671 

Small Yorkshire or Small White Swine. G. E. Day 674 

Suffolk Swine. G. E. Day 675 

Tamworth Swine. G. E. Day 676 

Victoria Swine. G. E. Day 678 

Miscellaneous Breeds of Swine. G. E. Day 679 

Turtles and Turtle-Farming. E. A. Andrews 681 

Index 683-708 



PLATES 



FACING 
PAGE 



I. The American bison Frontispiece 

II. The American turkey 26 

III. Cattle-feeding scene in the Far West 80 

IV. Fairfield dairy, where certified milk was first produced (see p. 175) 174 

V. A modern sanitary dairy stable 224 

••VI. A farm apiary, and forms of honey-making bees 279 

VII. Forms of the cattalo 287 

VIII. Types of beef cattle 302 

IX. Types of dairy cattle 320 

X. Galloway cow and Guernsey bull 345 

XL Jersey cow 361 

XII. Shorthorn bull and cow 369 

v XIII. Shahwan, a famous Arab horse 415 

XIV. Draft horses 460 

XV. Hackney and Saddler. Courtesy of Breeders' Gazette 468 

XVI. Shetland pony and broncho 481 

XVII. Morgan horse and trotter. Trotter photogragh from T. A. Knight 500 

XVIII. Poultry establishment ; turkeys 525 

XIX. Prominent breeds of fowls 546 

XX. Prominent breeds of fowls 563 

XXI. Sheep range in Far West 592 

XXII. Breeds of long-wool sheep 609 

XXIII. Merino sheep at pasture 618 

XXIV. White hogs 644 

XXV. Colored hogs 672 



COLLABORATORS 



LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 

Many of the contributors have assisted in reading proof and in other ways 



Andrews, E. A., Associate Professor in Biology, The 
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. (Frogs, 
in conjunction with W. E. Heehan. Crayfish. Turtles 
and Turtle-farming.) 

Armsby, Henry Prentiss, Director, Institute of Animal 
Nutrition, The Pennsylvania State College, State Col- 
lege, Pa. (Principles of Stock-feeding.) 

Ayres, H. L., Creameryman, New York State College of 
Agriculture at Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 
(Creameries and Skimming Stations.) 

Bacon, W. C, Assistant Manager, New England Farm 
Stock Company, Greenfield, Mass. (Hunter Horse.) 

Baynes, Ernest Harold, Secretary of the American Bison 
Society, Meriden, N. H. (Bison.) 

Boss, Andrew, Professor of Agriculture and Animal Hus- 
bandry, College of Agriculture and Experiment Sta- 
tion, University of Minnesota, St. Anthony Park, Minn. 
(Dressing, Caring for and Preserving Meats.) 

Brewer, W. H., Professor, Sheffield Scientific School of 
Yale University, New Haven, Conn. (The Domestica- 
tion of Animals.) 

Burkett, Charles Wm., Director, Kansas Experiment 
Stations, Manhattan, Eans. (Mule.) 

Caldwell, Wm. H., Secretary and Treasurer, The Ameri- 
can Guernsey Cattle Club, Peterboro, N. H. (Guern- 
sey Cattle.) 

Carlyle, W. L., Dean of Agriculture, The State Agricul- 
tural College of Colorado, and Agriculturist, Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colo. (Belgian 
Draft Horse, French Draft Horse, Ryeland Sheep.) 

Castleman, David, Clifton Farm, Pleasant Hill, Mercer 
County, Ky. (Saddle Horse, American.) 

Cavanaugh, Geo. W., Assistant Professor of Chemistry, 
New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. 
(Milk-powder.) 

Chambers, E. T. D., Secretary-Treasurer, North American 
Fish and Game Protective Association, Quebec, Can.; 
Librarian, Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, 
Can. (Fur-bearing Animals of North America.) 

Champion, Miss Ethel R. B., Recorder, Cat Fanciers' 
Association, Manor Road, Staten Island, N. Y. (Cats.) 

Clos, W. C, Inspector of Grazing, Forest Service, Wash- 
ington, D. C (Milch Goats.) 

Conover, U. G., Proprietor, The Pleasant Ridge Rabbitry, 
Cozaddale, Ohio. (Hare, Belgian.) 

Craig, John A., Oakmore Farm, San Antonio, Texas. Ex- 
Dean and Director, Texas Agricultural Experiment 
Station, College Station, Texas. (Cleveland Bay and 
Yorkshire Coach, Clydesdale, French Coach, Hackney, 
Shire, Suffolk, American Standardbred Trotting and 
Pacing Horses. Percheron Horse, in conjunction with 
Charles F. Curtiss. (The Feeding of Sheep. Black- 
face Highland, Wensleydale, Romney Marsh, Herd- 
wick Sheep.) 



Curtiss, Charles F., Dean of Agriculture, Iowa State 
College, and Director, Iowa Agricultural Experiment 
Station, Ames, la. (Percheron Horse, in conjunction 
with John A. Craig.) 

Cyphers, Charles A., President, Model Incubator Com- 
pany, Buffalo, N. Y. (Incubation and Brooding.) 

Davenport, Charles B., Director of Department of Ex- 
perimental Evolution, Carnegie Institute of Washing- 
ton, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. (Origin of the Domes- 
tic Fowl. Breeding of Poultry.) 

Davenport, Eugene, Dean of the College of Agriculture, 
and Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station 
of the University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. (The Breed- 
ing of Animals.) 

Davenport, Homer, President, Davenport Desert Arabian 
Stud, Morris Plains, N. J. (Arab Horse. Pheasants 
and Related Fowls.) 

Day, G. E., Professor of Animal Husbandry and Farm 
Superintendent, Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, 
Ontario, Can. (French-Canadian Cattle. Descriptive 
articles on the Breeds of Swine.) 

Decker, John W., State Professor of Dairying, College 
of Agriculture, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. 
(Gouda, Cococavallo, Ricotte, Brick and Limburger 
Cheese.) 

Dinsmore, Wayne, Associate Professor of Animal Hus- 
bandry, Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic 
Arts, Ames, la. ( The Feeding of Swine, in conjunction 
with W. J. Kennedy and J. A. McLean.) 

Ellard, C. H., Secretary - Treasurer, American Fur- 
Fanciers' Association, Great Neck, N. Y. (Pets.) 

Elliot, S. B., Proprietor, Belle Meade Farm, Bedford, 
Mass. (Ponies.) 

Erf, Oscar, Professor of Dairying, College of Agri- 
culture and Domestic Science of Ohio State Uni- 
versity, Columbus, Ohio. (Refrigeration of Dairy 
Products.) 

Forbush, E. H., State Ornithologist State Board of Agri- 
culture, Boston, Mass.; Organizer in New England for 
the National Association of Audubon Societies for the 
Protection of Wild Birds and Animals. (Birds in Their 
Relations with Agriculture.) 

GAY, Carl W., Professor of Animal Husbandry, Univer- 
sity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. In charge of 
horse-breeding, Dept. of Agriculture, Harrisburg. 
(Barb and Turk Horses. Thoroughbred Horse.) 

Georgeson, C. C, Special Agent in Charge of Alaska 
Investigations, United States Department of Agricul- 
ture, Sitka, Alaska. (Reindeer.) 

Goodwin, John S., of Black & Goodwin, Lawyers, 304 
The Temple, Chicago, 111. (Aberdeen-Angus Cattle.) 

Graham, W. R., Manager and Lecturer, Poultry Depart- 
ment, Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, Can. 
(Fattening Poultry.) 



(*i) 



COLLABORATORS 



Gray, Charles, Secretary, American Aberdeen-Angus 
Breeders' Association, 17 Exchange Ave., Chicago, 
111.; formerly Secretary of the American Galloway 
Breeders' Association. (Galloway Cattle.) 

Greiner, T., Editor, LaSalle, N. Y. (Capons and Capon- 
izing.) 

Gudgell, Charles, of Gudgell & Simpson, Breeders of 
Hereford Cattle, Independence, Mo. (Hereford Cattle.) 

Harger, S. J. J., Veterinarian, Veterinary Department, 
University of Pennsylvania. Address, 2108 Locust St., 
Philadelphia, Pa. (Physiology of Domestic Animals.) 

Harper, M. W., Assistant Professor of Animal Husbandry, 
New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell 
University, Ithaca, N. Y. (Practical Horse-training 
and Handling. Feeding the Horse. German Coach 
Horse. Lard- and Bacon- Production.) 

Hart, George H., Assistant, Pathological Division, Bureau 
of Animal Industry, Department of Agriculture, Wash- 
ington, D. C. (Common Ailments of Cattle, Horses 
and Swine, in conjunction with John R. Mohler.) 

Hayward, Harry, Dean of the Department of Agriculture, 
and Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, 
Delaware College, Newark, Del. (Ayrshire Cattle.) 

Hoard, W. D., Editor, " Hoard's Dairyman," Fort Atkinson, 
Wis. (Meats and Related Products.) 

Hodge, C. F., Professor, Biology, Clark University, Wor- 
cester, Mass. (Domestication of the Ruffed Grouse. 
Domestication of the Bobwhite or American Quail.) 

Howard, L. 0., Chief, Bureau of Entomology, Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. (Silkworm.) 

Hoxie, S., Ex-Superintendent of the Advanced Registry, 
The Holstein-Friesian Association of America. Ad- 
dress, 6649 Woodlawn Ave., Chicago, 111. (Holstein- 
Friesian Cattle.) 

Humphrey, George C, Professor of Animal Husbandry, 
College of Agriculture and Agricultural Experiment 
Station, Madison, Wis. ( Wool- and Mutton-Production.) 

Hunt, Thomas F., Dean of the School of Agriculture, and 
Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station of 
the Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pa. 
(The Place of the Domestic Animal in our Civiliza- 
tion. The Education, Harnessing and Gaits of the 
Horse.) 

Hunziker, 0. F., Professor of Dairying, School of Agri- 
culture of Purdue University and Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station of Indiana, Lafayette, Ind. (Manufacture 
of Condensed Milk.) 

Jordan, Whitman H., Director, New York State Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. (The Feeding 
of Animals.) 

Kennedy, W. J., Professor of Animal Husbandry, Iowa 
State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, and 
Vice-Director, Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, 
Ames, Iowa. (The Feeding of Swine, in conjunction 
with Wayne Dinsmore and J. A. McLean.) 

Klein, Louis A., Deputy State Veterinarian, State Live- 
stock Sanitary Board, Harrisburg, Pa. (Common Ail- 
ments of Sheep.) 

Lambert, D. J., Instructor in Poultry Husbandry, Rhode 
Island College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, 
Kingston, R. I. (Preparing and Marketing Poultry 
Products, and The Care of Eggs.) 

Law, James, Director, New York State Veterinary College 
at Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. (Diseases and 
Management of Animals.) 



Lea, Overton, Lealand Farm, Nashville, Tenn. (Sussex 
Cattle.) 

Lloyd, F. Freeman, Willow Mount, Norwood, N. J. (The 
Old English Bobtail Sheep-dog. Sheep-dog Trials.) 

Mack, G. A., Pleasantville, N. Y. (Camels in North 
America.) 

Martin, H. A., Secretary, Red Polled Cattle Club of 
America, Gotham, Wis. (Red Polled Cattle.) 

Mayo, N. S., Chief of Department of Animal Industry, Re- 
public of Cuba, Santiago de las Vegas, Cuba. (Stock- 
Poisoning. Some Details of Stock Management, in 
conjunction with H. W. Mumford.) 

McClave, Charles, Linwood Poultry Yards, New London, 
Ohio. (Ducks. Geese. Swan.) 

McCrae, Lieut. -Col. David, Breeder and Importer of 
Galloway Cattle, Clydesdale Horses and Cotswold 
Sheep, Guelph, Can. (Cheviot, Cotswold, Leicester, 
Lincoln, Suffolk Down and Tunis Sheep.) 

McGrew, T. F., Associate Editor of "The Feather," 
Washington, D. C. (Guinea-fowl. Turkeys.) 

McLean, J. A., Associate Professor of Animal Husbandry, 
Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, 
and Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. 
(The Feeding of Swine, in conjunction with W. J. 
Kennedy and Wayne Dinsmore.) 

Meehan, W. E., Commissioner of Fisheries, Department 
of Fisheries, Harrisburg, Pa. (Fish-Culture. Frogs, 
in conjunction with E. A. Andrews.) 

Miller, H. P., Secretary, The Ohio Sheep Breeders' and 
Wool Growers' Association, Westerville, Ohio. (Dorset- 
Horn, Hampshire Down, Oxford Down, Shropshire 
Down, Southdown Sheep.) 

Mohler, John R., Chief, Pathological Division, Bureau of 
Animal Industry, Department of Agriculture, Wash- 
ington, D. C. (Common Ailments of Cattle, Horses 
and Swine, in conjunction with George H. Hart.) 

Moore, Veranus A., Department of Comparative Pathol- 
ogy and Bacteriology and Meat Inspection, New York 
State Veterinary College at Cornell University, Ithaca, 
N. Y. (Infectious Diseases of Animals.) 

Morrison, W. K., Department Editor, "Gleanings in Bee 
Culture," Medina, Ohio ; formerly Bee-Expert, Imperial 
Department of Agriculture (British) ; part author of 
the ABC and X Y Z of Bee Culture ; author of 
Bee-keeping in the West Indies, etc. (Bees.) 

Mumford, F. B., Animal Breeder, Missouri Agricultural 
College Experiment Station, Columbia, Mo. (Some of 
the Principles of Animal -breeding. Animal Types 
and Score-cards. Origin of Domestic Cattle. Origin 
of the Domestic Horse.) 

Mumford, Herbert W., Professor of Animal Husbandry 
in the College of Agriculture, and Chief in Animal 
Husbandry, Experiment Station of the University of 
Illinois, Urbana, 111. (Some Details of Stock Manage- 
ment, in conjunction with N. S. Mayo. Shorthorn 
Cattle. The Collie Dog.) 

Needham, James G., Assistant Professor of Limnology, 
New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell 
University, Ithaca, N. Y. (Fish Food and Feeding- 
grounds. Carp.) 

Nelson, Julius, Professor of Biology, Rutgers College 
and Rutgers Scientific School, and Biologist, New 
Jersey Agricultural College Experiment Station, New 
Brunswick, N. J. (Plankton-Culture. Clam. Crab. 
Lobster. Oyster. Shrimp. Sponge.) 



COLLABORATORS 



Nixon, C. D., Secretary, Brown Swiss Breeders' Associa- 
tion, Owego, N. Y. (Brown Swiss Cattle.) 

Orr, T. E., Late Secretary-Treasurer, American Poultry 
Association, Beaver, Pa. {Judging Poultry. Breeds 
and Types if Chickens.) 

Pearson, R. A., Professor of Dairy Industry, New York 
State College of Agriculture at Cornell University, 
Ithaca, N. Y. (Milk as a Market Product.) 

Pickrell, Watson, Late President, Tempe Ostrich Farm, 
Tempe, Ariz. (Ostrich.) 

Plumb, Charles S., Professor of Animal Hushandry, 
College of Agriculture of Ohio State University, 
Columbus, Ohio. (Fitting and Exhibiting Live-stock. 
Marketing Farm Stock. Ass. Some of the Lesser 
Known Breeds of Cattle. Oxen. Orloff Trotting Horse.) 

Pollard, George H., Greenbush, Mass. (Feeding Water- 
fowl.) 

Porter, J. F., Robe and Fur Tanner, Amery, Wis. (Tan- 
ning Hides.) 

Prowse, Judge D. W., Writer and Late Judge, Central 
District Court of Newfoundland, St. Johns, Newfound- 
land. (Reindeer for Labrador.) 

Rice, James E., Professor of Poultry Husbandry, New York 
State College of Agriculture at Cornell University, 
Ithaca, N. Y. (Feeding Poultry. Feeding Turkeys. 
Poultry-house Construction.) 

Richardson, W. D. , Chief Chemist for Swift & Company, 
Chicago, 111. ( The Canning of Meat and Fish.) 

Rose, Flora, Lecturer in Home Economics, New York 
State College of Agriculture at Cornell University, 
Ithaca, N. Y (Meat : Its Nutritive Value, Selection 
and Preparation. ) 

Ruddick, J. A., Dairy and Cold Storage Commissioner, 
Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Can. (The Making 
of Cheddar Cheese.) 

Sanders, Frank Reed, Breeder of Dutch Belted Cattle, 
Mountain Lawn, Bristol, N. H. (Dutch Belted Cattle.) 

Scovell, M. A., Director and Chemist, Kentucky Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station, State University, Lexing- 
ton, Ky. (Jersey Cattle.) 

Scribner, Frank Lamson, Special Agent and Agrostol- 
ogist, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Chief of In- 
sular Bureau of Agriculture, Manila, P. I., 1901-04. 
(Buffalo or Water-Buffalo.) 

Shaw, E. L., Assistant in Animal Husbandry, Bureau of 
Animal Industry, Department of Agriculture, Wash- 
ington, D. C. (Angora Goats, Barbados, Persiacot 
and Persiarino Sheep.) 

Sisson, L. P., Secretary-Treasurer, American Devon 
Cattle Club, Newark, Ohio. (Devon Cattle.) 

Smith, H. R., Professor of Animal Husbandry, The Indus- 
trial College of the University of Nebraska and Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station of Nebraska, Lincoln, 
Neb. (Feeding Beef Cattle.) 



Stocking, W. A., Jr., Assistant Professor of Dairy Bac- 
teriology, New York State College of Agriculture at 
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y (Bacteria of Milk.) 

Stone, John L., Professor of Farm Practice, New York 
State College of Agriculture at Cornell University, 
Ithaca, N. Y. (Computing Balanced Rations.) 

Thom, Charles, Assistant in Charge of Investigation of 
Varieties of European Cheese, Dairy Division, Bureau 
of Animal Industry, United States Department of 
Agriculture. Address, Storrs, Conn. ( Varieties of 
Hard Cheese. Soft Cheeses in America.) 

Tomhave, W. H, Assistant in Animal Husbandry, School 
of Agriculture of the Pennsylvania State College, State 
College, Pa. (Shipping Meat and Hides.) 

Trueman, John M., Professor of Dairy Husbandry, Con- 
necticut Agricultural College ; Dairy Husbandman, 
Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station, Storrs, Conn. 
(Selection and Management of the Dairy Herd.) 

Van Norman, H. E., Professor of Dairy Husbandry, 
School of Agriculture and Experiment Station of the 
Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pa. (Manu- 
facture of Ice-cream and Other Frozen Products.) 

Webster, E. H., Chief of the Dairy Division, Bureau of 
Animal Industry, Department of Agriculture, Wash- 
ington, D. C. (Butter-making.) 

Weed, Clarence M., Teacher, State Normal School, 
Lowell, Mass. ( Wild Mammals in Their Relations 
with Agriculture.) 

Wilcox, E. V., Editorial Department, Office of Experi- 
ment Stations, Department of Agriculture, Washing- 
ton, D. C. (Poisonous Weeds and Their Eradi- 
cation.) 

Willard, J. T., Professor of Chemistry, Chemist Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station, Kansas State Agricultural 
College, Manhattan, Kan. (Method of Exact Balancing 
of Rations.) 

Wilson, Hon. James, Secretary of Agriculture, Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. (Needs in 
Animal Husbandry.) 

Wing, Henry H., Professor of Animal Husbandry, New 
York State College of Agriculture at Cornell Univer- 
sity, Ithaca, N. Y. (The Production of Milk. Deter- 
mining the Age of Cattle, Horses, Sheep, Swine. Swine 
notes.) 

Wing, Joseph E., Secretary, Continental Dorset Club and 
Editorial Correspondent for the " Breeders' Gazette," 
Mechanicsburg, Ohio. (Merino Sheep.) 

Woll, Fritz Wilhelm, Professor of Agricultural Chemis- 
try, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. (Feeding 
Dairy Cattle.) 

Woods, Prince T., Editor and Writer on Poultry and 
Agricultural Subjects, Middleton, Mass. (Common Ail- 
ments of Poultry.) 

Wright, Thomas, Manager, Kirkland Pigeonry, Scarboro 
Beach, Maine. (Pigeons and Squabs.) 



COLLABORATORS 



A PARTIAL LIST OF THOSE WHO HAVE ASSISTED IN READING PROOF 

AND IN OTHER WAYS 



Alexander, A. S., Professor of Veterinary Science, and in 
charge of Department of Horse Breeding, College of 
Agriculture and Agricultural Experiment Station of 
the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. 

Anderson, S. W., Farmer, Blaker Mills, W. Va. 

Avery, J. D., Lumberman and Farmer, Buckland (Post- 
office, Shelburne Falls), Mass. 

Bailey, Vernon, in charge of Geographic Distribution, 
Bureau of Biological Survey, United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

Baker, Frank, Superintendent, National Zoological Park, 
Washington, D. C. 

Ball, E. N., Secretary, American Tamworth Swine 
Record Association, and Secretary, International Von 
Homeyer Rambouillet Club, Ann Arbor, Mich. 

Battell, Joseph, Registrar, Vermont Morgan Horse 
Breeders' Association, Middlebury, Vt. 

Bell, G. Arthur, Assistant Animal Husbandman, Bureau 
of Animal Industry, United States Department of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

Benedict, F. H., President, Clover Leaf Live-Stock Com- 
pany, Mclean, N. Y. 

Benkendorf, G. H., Instructor in Dairy Husbandry, Col- 
lege of Agriculture and Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. 

Bennett, Miss C. R., Librarian United States Department 
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

Benton, Ralph, Instructor in Entomology, University of 
California, Berkeley, Cal. 

Best, Frank E., Registrar, American Trotting Register 
Association, Chicago, 111. 

Bonham, L. N., Farmer, Oxford, Ohio. 

Bouska, F. W., Associate in Dairy Bacteriology and in 
Dairying, Iowa State College of Agriculture and Me- 
chanic Arts and Agricultural Experiment Station, 
Ames, la. 

Boyd.Mossom M., Breeder of Cattle, Bobcaygeon, Ontario. 

Boyer, Michael K., Editorial Department, "Farm Journal," 
Philadelphia, Pa. 

" Breeders' Gazette," A Weekly Journal for the Ameri 
can Stock Farm, Chicago, 111. 

Broome, F. H., Librarian, Tennessee Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, Knoxville, Tenn. 

Brown, C. G., Editor, "The Holstein-Friesian World," 
Ithaca, N. Y. 

Brown, R. W., Secretary and Treasurer, American Gallo- 
way Breeders' Association, Chicago, 111. 

Bureau op Chemistry, United States Department of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

Burns, John C, Instructor in Animal Husbandry, Agri- 
cultural and Mechanical College of Texas, College 
Station, Texas. 

Burrell & Co., D. H., Little Falls, N. Y. 

Chesnut, V. K., Assistant Chemist, Bureau of Chemis- 
try, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

Clark, Vernon L., Arizona Ostrich Company, Phoenix, 
Ariz. 

Clay, John, of Clay, Robinson & Co., Chicago, 111. 

Coburn, F. D., Secretary, State Board of Agriculture, 
Topeka, Kans. 



Coffey, W. C, Associate in Sheep Husbandry, College of 
Agriculture and Agricultural Experiment Station of 
the University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. 

Couture, J. A., Secretary, French-Canadian Cattle 
Breeders' Association of Canada, Quebec, Province of 
Quebec. 

Cowan, B. 0., Assistant Secretary, American Shorthorn 
Breeders' Association, Chicago, 111. 

Crouch, Clifford M., Farmer, Naples, N. Y. 

Crouch, J., Secretary, German Hanoverian and Oldenburg 
Coach Horse Association of America, Lafayette, Ind. 

Darling, Elmer A., President, American Jersey Cattle 
Club, Fifth Avenue Hotel, New York City. 

Dawson, Alden, Magazine Illustrator, 57 East 59th St., 
New York City. 

Dean, H. H., Professor of Dairy Husbandry, Ontario 
Agricultural College, Guelph, Ontario, Can. 

Dietrich, William, Assistant Professor of Swine Hus- 
bandry, College of Agriculture of the University of 
Illinois, and Assistant Chief of Illinois Agricultural 
Experiment Station, Urbana, 111. 

Dryden, James, Poultryman, Oregon Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, Corvallis, Ore. 

Dunham & Fletcher, Importers and Breeders of Per- 
cheron and French Coach Horses, Oaklawn Farm, 
Wayne, 111. 

Eckles, C. H., Professor of Dairy Husbandry, College of 
Agriculture and Mechanic Arts of the University of 
Missouri, and Agricultural Experiment Station, Co- 
lumbia, Mo. 

Essex, Robert H., Secretary, Cyphers Incubator Com- 
pany, Buffalo, N, Y. 

Evermann, Dr. Barton W., Assistant in Charge of Scien- 
tific Inquiry, Bureau of Fisheries, Department of Com- 
merce and Labor, Washington, D. C. 

Fairchild, David, Agricultural Explorer in Charge, 
Foreign Explorations, Office of Seed and Plant Intro- 
duction, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States De- 
partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

Fairfield Dairy Company, Montclair, N. J.; Ste] hen 
Francisco, President, Caldwell, N. J. 

Farrinoton, E. H., Professor of Dairy Husbandry, College 
of Agriculture and Agricultural Experiment Station of 
the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. 

Felch, Isaack K., Breeder of Poultry, Natick, Mass. 

Fish, N. S., Ex-Secretary, Brown Swiss Breeders' Associa- 
tion, Groton, Conn. 

Fish, P. A., Professor of Veterinary Physiology and 
Pharmacology, New York State Veterinary College at 
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 

Frandsen, Peter, Biologist and Consulting Zoologist, 
College of Agriculture of the University of Nevada, 
and Agricultural Experiment Station, Reno, Nev. 

Fuertes, L. A., Ithaca, N. Y. 

Fulton, John W., Secretary, The American Angora Goat 
Breeders' Association, Helena, Mont. 

Gage, S. H., Professor of Histology and Embryology, 
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 

Galbraith, Alex., Importer of Clydesdale, Shire, Suffolk, 
Percheron and Hackney Horses, Janesville, Wis. 



COLLABORATORS 



Gardiner, E. V. R., Civil Engineer and Surveyor, Middle- 
town, N. Y. 

Gibbs, G. G., Breeder of Dutch Belted Cattle, Vail, N. J. 

Gigadlt, G. A., Deputy Minister of Agriculture, Quebec, 
Province of Quebec. 

Gilmobe, John W., Agronomist, Pennsylvania State Col- 
lege Agricultural Experiment Station, State College, Pa. 

Glen, C. ft, Secretary, The Percheron Registry Company, 
and also of The French Coach Horse Registry Com- 
pany, Columbus, Ohio, 1319 Wesley Ave., Columbus, 
Ohio. 

Goodnight, Charles, Breeder of Bison and Aberdeen- 
Angus Cattle, Goodnight, Texas. 

Goodwin, William R., Vice-President, Sanders Publish- 
ing Company, Chicago, 111. Associate Editor, "The 
Breeders' Gazette." 

Gbange, E. A. A., Veterinarian, 467 West 164th Street, 
New York City. 

Grenside, F. C, Durland's Riding Academy, New York 
City. 

Grindley, H. S., Professor of General Chemistry, College 
of Science, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. 

Geisdale, J. H., Agriculturist, Central Experimental 
Farm, Ottawa, Canada. 

Gboves, John W., Secretary, American Shorthorn Breed- 
ers' Association, Chicago, 111. 

Gutsell, H. S., Instructor in Freehand Drawing and 
Modeling, College of Architecture, Cornell University, 
Ithaca, N. Y. 

Haeckeb, Theophilus L., Professor of Dairy Husbandry 
and Animal Nutrition, Agricultural College of the 
University of Minnesota, St. Anthony Park, Minn. 

Hale, Philip H., Editor and Manager, "The National 
Farmer and Stock Grower," St. Louis, Mo. 

Hall, Eugene J., Portrait, Landscape and Commercial 
Photographer, Oak Park, 111. 

Hall, L. D., Associate in Animal Husbandry, College of 
Agriculture and Agricultural Experiment Station of 
the University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. 

Hansom, Ted., The Grand Circuit Photographer, New 
York City. 

Hays, Willet M., Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, 
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

Hendeeson, P. G., President, Red Polled Cattle Club of 
America, Central City, Iowa. 

Henry, W. A., Emeritus Professor of Agriculture, College 
of Agriculture and Agricultural Experiment Station, 
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin. 

Hildebeand & Smith, Specialists in Live-stock and Rural 
Photography, Chicago, 111. 

Holt, Renfeew & Co., Furriers, Quebec and Toronto, 
Canada. 

Hopkins, G. S., Professor of Veterinary Anatomy and 
Anatomical Methods, New York State Veterinary 
College at Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 

Hopley, Peter, Importer and Breeder of Suffolk, Belgian, 
Percheron and Shire Horses, Lewis, Iowa. 

Hornaday, Dr. W. T., Director, New York Zoological Park, 
New York City. 

Horseman and Spirit op the Times, The, Chicago, 111. 

Hodghton, F. L., Editor and Proprietor, " The Holstein- 
Friesian Register," and Secretary, The Holstein- 
Friesian Association of America, Brattleboro, Vt. 

Hunter, A. F., Associate Editor, "American Poultry Advo- 
cate," Abington, Mass. 



Hutchinson, W. Z., Secretary, National Bee-Keepers' 
Association, and Editor, " The Bee-Keepers' Review," 
Flint, Mich. 

Jackson, Mrs. Alfred, Vice-President, Cat Fanciers' 
Association, and President Lockhaven Cat Club, 
Rochester, N. Y. 

Jacob, Moses, Veterinarian, Tennessee Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, Knoxville, Tenn. 

Johnstone, J. H.S., "The Breeders' Gazette," Chicago, 111. 

Jones, C. J., Breeder of Bison, Cattalo and Persiarino 
Sheep, Garden City, Kans. 

Kennedy, P. Beveridge, Professor of Botany, Horticul- 
ture and Forestry, Nevada Agricultural Experiment 
Station, Reno, Nev. 

Kinzer, Roland J., Professor of Animal Husbandry, 
Kansas State Agricultural College, and Agricultural 
Experiment Station, Manhattan, Kans. 

Knight, Thomas A., Photographer, Lexington, Ky. 

Krum, Herbert J., Proprietor, The Indian City Horse 
Farm, Pontiac, 111. 

Lantz, D. E., Bureau of Biological Survey, Department of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

Lantz, William M., Breeder of Dutch Belted Cattle, 
Monroe, N. J. 

Lauman, G. N., Assistant Professor of Rural Economy, 
New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell 
University, Ithaca, N. Y. 

Leveeing, Moetimee, Secretary, American Shetland Pony 
Club, Lafayette, Ind. 

Lewis, L. L., Veterinarian and Bacteriologist, Oklahoma 
Agricultural Experiment Station, Stillwater, Okla- 
homa. 

Linfield, F. B., Professor of Agriculture, Montana State 
College of Agriculture, and Director, Montana Experi- 
ment Station, Bozeman, Mont. 

Lovejoy, A. J., Vice-President, Illinois State Board of 
Agriculture, Roscoe, 111. 

MacGilliveay, Alex. D., Assistant Professor of Ento- 
mology and Invertebrate Zoology, New York State Col- 
lege of Agriculture at Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. 

Maeks, W. F., President, New York State Association of 
Bee-Keepers' Societies, Clifton Springs, N. Y. 

Marshall, F. R., Professor of Animal Husbandry, Ohio 
State University, Columbus, Ohio. 

Matteson, Sumner W., Lecturer, Writer and Illustrator, 
1515 University Ave., Minneapolis, Minn. 

McClure, R. L., Photographer of Fine Horses, Lexing- 
ton, Ky. 

McDonald, W. T., Professor of Animal Husbandry and 
Farm Superintendent, Oklahoma Agricultural and Me- 
chanical College, and Agricultural Experiment Station, 
Stillwater, Oklahoma. 

McGill, A., Chief Analyst, Laboratory of the Inland Rev- 
enue Department, Ottawa, Canada. 

McGregor, J. H., Professor, Department of Zoology, 
Columbia University, New York City. 

McInnes, J. C, President, Dutch Belted Cattle Associa- 
tion of America, Worcester, Mass. 

McKissick, N. E., Cattle Salesman for McKissick Bros.' 
Commission Firm, Union Stock Yards, South St. Paul, 
Minn. 

McLaughlin Brothers, Importers of Percheron and 
French Coach Horses, Columbus, Ohio. 

McLaury Brothers, River Meadow Farm, Portland- 
ville, N. Y. 



COLLABORATORS 



McSparran, W. V., Breeder of Registered Jersey Cattle 
and Berkshire Swine, Fairfield Farms, Furniss, Pa. 

Melick, Charles W., Dairy Husbandman, Maryland Ag- 
ricultural Experiment Station, College Park, Md. 

Merriam, C. Hart, Chief, Bureau of Biological Survey, 
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

Moor-e, J. Percy, Assistant Professor of Zoology, Univer- 
sity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. 

Morris, Dr. J. Chestoh, President, American Devon 
Cattle Club, Philadelphia, Pa. 

Morton, G. E., Professor of Animal Husbandry, State 
Agricultural College of Colorado, Fort Collins, Colo. 

Nall, I. B., Secretary, American Saddle Horse Breeders' 
Association, Louisville, Ky. 

Ogilvie, R. B., Secretary, American Clydesdale Associa- 
tion, Union Stock Yards, Chicago, 111. 

Osborn, Henry Fairfield, Da Costa Professor of Zoology, 
Columbia University, and Curator, Department of 
Vertebrate Palaeontology, American Museum of Natural 
History, New York City. 

Pablo, Michael, Breeder of Bison, Elk, Horses and Cattle, 
Ronan, Mont. 

Pabst, Fred, Oconomowoc, Wis. 

Peer, F. S., Manager, New England Farm Stock Co., 
Greenfield, Mass. 

Philip, James, Breeder of Cattle, Fort Pierre, S. D. 

Phillips, E. F., In Charge of Apiculture, Bureau of Ento- 
mology, Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
D.C. 

Plath, Ludwig G., Pet Stock Breeder, York, Pa. 

Preston, G. L., M. D., Canisteo, N. Y. 

Purvis, Miller, Editor of "Poultry" and "Pigeons," 
Peotone, 111. 

Ramsdell, J. A. P., Proprietor, Powelton Farm, New- 
burgh, N. Y. 

Keid, Charles, Photographer, Wishaw, Scotland. 

Rice, William E., Breeder of Homing Pigeons for Squab 
Breeding, Bridgeton, N. J. 

Richards, H. B., Secretary, Dutch Belted Cattle Associa- 
tion of America, Easton, Pa. 

Robinson, John H., Editor of "Farm-Poultry," Boston, 
Mass. 

Rommel, Geo. M., Animal Husbandman, Bureau of Animal 
Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, 
Washington, D. C. 

Russell, Dr. H. L., Dean of the College of Agriculture, 
University of Wisconsin, and Director of the Wiscon- 
sin Experiment Station, Madison, Wis. 

Rutherford, J. G., Veterinary Director General and 
Live-Stock Commissioner, Department of Agriculture, 
Ottawa, Canada. 

Sanders, A. H., Sanders Publishing Co., Chicago, 111. 

Schreiber & Sons, Photographers, Philadelphia, Pa. 

Shields, G. 0., Editor and Manager "Shields' Magazine," 
New York City. 

Skinner, J. H., Dean of the School of Agriculture of 
Purdue University, and Professor of Animal Husbandry 
in College and Experiment Station, Lafayette, Ind. 

Smith, Archibald, Professor of Animal Husbandry, Mis- 
sissippi Agricultural and Mechanical College, Agri- 
cultural College, Miss. 



Smith, C. D., Ex-Director and Agriculturist, Experiment 
Station of Michigan, Agricultural College, Mich. 

Spillman, W. J., Agriculturist in Charge of Farm Man- 
agement Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, 
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

Sprague, E. C, Cincinnati, Ohio. 

Springer, F. S., Secretary, American Berkshire Associa- 
tion, Springfield, 111. 

Stevens, F. C, Attica, N. Y. 

Stevens, Henry, Proprietor, the Stevens Herd of Hols- 
tein-Friesian Cattle, Brookside Stock Farm, Lacona, 
N.Y. 

Stubbs, C. E., Secretary, National French Draft Horse 
Association, Fairfield, Iowa. 

Surface, H. A., Economic Zoologist, Department of Agri- 
culture, Harrisburg, Pa. 

Thomas, C. R., Secretary, American Hereford Cattle 
Breeders' Association, Kansas City, Mo. 

Towar, J. D., Professor of Agriculture, College of Agri- 
culture and Mechanic Arts of the University of 
Wyoming, and Director, Wyoming Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station, Laramie, Wyo. 

Trueman, J. G., President, The American Shire Horse 
Association, Bushnell, 111. 

Turnbull, Dr. Thomas, President, Ayrshire Breeders' 
Association, Casanova, Va. 

Van Natta, W. S., Fowler, Ind. 

Van Slyke, L. L., Chemist, New York State Agricultural 
Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. 

Van Wagenen, Jared, Jr., Farmer, Lawyersville, N. Y. 

Waters, H. J., Dean and Director, College of Agriculture 
and Mechanic Arts, and Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion, Columbia, Mo. 

Webber, Herbert J., Professor of Experimental Plant 
Biology, New York State College of Agriculture at 
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 

Wharton, J. R., Manager, Butte Electric Railway Com- 
pany, Butte, Mont. 

Wheeler, William Morton, Curator, Department of In- 
vertebrate Zoology, American Museum of Natural 
History, New York City. 

Wilder, Burt G., Professor of Neurology and Vertebrate 
Zoology, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 

Willet, D. E., 2112 Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 

Williams, Dr. W. L., Professor of Surgery, Obstetrics, 
etc., New York State Veterinary College at Cornell 
University, Ithaca, N. Y. 

Wilson, James W., Director and Animal Husbandman, 
South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, Brook- 
ings, S. D. 

Winslow, C. M., Secretary, Ayrshire Breeders' Associa- 
tion, Brandon, Vt. 

Woods, Charles D., Director, Maine Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station, Orono, Me. 

Woodworth, C W., Associate Professor of Entomology, 
University of California, and Entomologist of the 
Agricultural Experiment Station of the University c-i 
California, Berkeley, Cal. 

York, George W., Editor, " American Bee Journal,'" 
Chicago, 111. 

ZlON, J. F., Prescott, Ariz. 



PART I 

THE ANIMAL AND ITS RELATIONS 

There are about 12,000 known living species of mammals and about 15,000 species of birds. From 
the time when man began to emerge from the lower creation, he has possessed and enslaved his fellow 
animals. Great numbers of species have been brought into captivity, yet it is surprising how few of 
these have really been domesticated. The Editor of this book has made a diligent effort to record every 
species of animal of any kind that is now domesticated for agricultural uses in North America (north 
of Mexico), and he has interpreted the field of agriculture broadly ; yet the book does not contain 
accounts of twenty really domesticated species of mammals, not more than a dozen of birds, only one 
species of fish, and two of insects. In other words, the numbers of species of animals of all classes with 
which North American agriculture is really concerned do not much, if any, exceed thirty, or say, one 
species to every one thousand species of mammals and birds that are known to exist on the earth 
today. This means either that the domesticable species are exceedingly few, or that man has not 
yet improved his opportunities in adapting the animal kingdom to his uses ; or else that his necessities 
are now all supplied. 

More than thirty species are described in this volume, however, but many of them are not domesti- 
cated, and others are not really agricultural animals. Some occupations or sources of income directly 
or indirectly associated with agriculture — in the sense of being the products of land more or less 
under the control of man — rest on the capture or exploitation of wild animals. Of such are the fur- 
bearing animals, although some fur-bearers are bred under captivity. Other animals included in this 
volume are pets or companions, and are agricultural only in the sense that they may be bred and 




Fig. 1. Urus, the source of domestic cattle (see page 302). The original f this illustration is considered by A. Nehring, of 
Berlin, an eminent authority, to be the best known picture of the now extinct urus. This picture was found at an art 
dealer's establishment in Augsburg, Bavaria, in 1827, and was published in Vol. 4 of Griffith's edition of Cuvier's "Animal 
Kingdom," London, 1827; and from Griffith's print the above illustration is made, somewhat reduced. This picture was 
probably made for an Augsburg merchant about the year 1500. Three more or less reliable pictures of the urus are 
known. (See Nehring, in Landwirtschaftliche Jahrbucher, Vol. 25, 1896, p. 927.) 



CI 



(1) 



2 THE ANIMAL AND ITS RELATIONS 

sold by land-owners. Certain wild animals may be merely controlled or protected to a certain extent, 
when conditions require it, and their propagation and welfare are thus promoted. Of such are the 
various animals classed as shell-fish and frogs and turtles. Some animals, as fish, may be bred or 
propagated under captivity and then turned loose. Some animals are bred in captivity only to supply 
zoological parks and game-preserves, as pheasants, bison, wapiti or elk. The rearing of animals for 
park purposes is in the hands of a few specialists here and there, and the subject has not been dis- 
cussed in this volume to any extent. Many of them are kept as curiosities, because of some special 
interest that attaches to them rather than because of any immediate economic value they may 
possess. These animals have not been truly domesticated, and the rearing of them consists, for 
the most part, in protecting the animals and in learning enough of their habits to enable the 
operator to supply their natural wants and to facilitate their breeding. 

The Americas have contributed very few agricultural animals. The most important examples are 
the llama (Fig. 11) and turkey (Plate II), the former not being reared in the territory covered by this 
work. The bison (Plate I) is capable of domestication, and the hybrids with domestic cattle promise 
to produce an agricultural race. The elk is easily tamed and kept. The meat is good, and the animals 
may be readily broken to drive. The cochineal insect of Mexico has been much grown, under conditions 
of control nearly as complete as those that are organized for the rearing of the silkworm ; but it 
is doubtful whether the animal can be said to be domesticated in the sense of having produced domestic 
variations or races ; this insect is less reared in Mexico than formerly, owing to the competition of 
the chemical dyes. Many of our wild animals could undoubtedly be domesticated if the effort promised 
to be worth the while. Of such, for example, are the musk-ox of the arctic and sub-arctic regions, 
with good flesh and very useful pelts ; species of the deer, antelope and moose tribes ; prairie chicken, 
one of the staple game birds and said to be readily tamed ; wild geese and ducks ; various other 
game birds ; species of fish. 

It is worthy of note that certain families have contributed most of the important domestic animals, 
as, for example, the Bovidse, including the bovine or cattle-like and sheep-like ruminant animals ; the 
Equidae, including the horses and asses ; and the groups comprising the domestic fowls and the ducks. 
Certain great families or groups have contributed few or no domestic animals. No real agricultural 
animals are of the Carnivora, although the dogs and cats belong to that group. The great group 
of rodents has contributed only the hares, although cavies, rats and a few others, are reared as cage 
animals. The sea has yielded no domestic animal; and the fresh water has given only the carp as 
a domesticated food fish. Although man has always captured and enslaved others of his own kind, 
no species of the man-like animals, as apes, have ever been domesticated. 

Contrary to his expectation, the Editor has found the compilation of this volume much more difficult 
than the making of the volume on crops. Animals are less tractable to investigate than plants, and the 
scientific method does not seem to have been so successfully applied to the study of them as to crops. 
In the matter of breeds, the expert knowledge is likely to be in possession of advocates or even of par- 
tisans, and it is very difficult to arrive at agreement or a common basis of comparison and judgment. 
Existing writings are largely descriptive and historical. Even on questions of feeding and general 
management, there are almost irreconcilable differences of opinion. The Editor hopes, however, that 
the compilation has brought together the soundest opinions and practices, and he is sure that the 
names of the contributors to this volume will make the work authoritative. The articles on breeds 
are largely from men engaged in practice and from specialists in the breed, whereas the articles 
on crops in Vol. II are largely from teachers and investigators ; this dissimilarity is representative 
of the kinds of interest that attach to these two great groups of agricultural products. 

Any work of this kind is necessarily tentative. It is intended that it shall express and record the 
status of live-stock knowledge of the present day. The reader must make his choice if opinions conflict. 
The reader may be confused by the lack of a strictly alphabetic arrangement, but such arrangement is 
impossible, as he will discover if he tries seriously to make one : he will find that the index will land 
him at the right place. The Editor will be glad of any suggestions that may enhance the value of 
future editions. 



CHAPTER I 




THE DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS 

By W. H. BREWER 

, NIMALS ARE BRED BY MANKIND FOR NUMEROUS USES ANT) FANCIES. 
Although common biological laws govern all higher animals, wild and tame 
alike, the truly domestic animals constitute a class by themselves, differing in 
1 several characteristics from wild ones or from the direct offspring of wild 
ones that have been tamed individually by man for similar uses and fancies. 
All species of animals and birds can probably be tamed as individuals if we 
begin at the right period of their lives ; yet few have been transformed into 
domestic animals. 

As denned here, the term "domestic animals" implies that the animals 
may be bred by man for an indefinite number of generations. They are the 
animals cherished in our homes and on our farms, and belonging solely to the 
higher groups of the animal kingdom, the mammals and the birds. Animals 
belonging to a few other species are so abundantly tamed and used for the 
same purposes as truly domestic ones, that in common speech and in certain 
laws and ordinances they are made domestic animals for legal consideration, 
inasmuch as they may constitute property. Indeed, many species that are nat- 
urally wild may be bred and protected in captivity for a certain time and then 
"S. allowed to live the remainder of their lives as wild ones. Various kinds and 

- species of birds and animals for hunting, turtles among the reptiles, honey- 
bees and silkworms among insects, fishes and lobsters in the sea, even so low as oysters in our harbors, 
are multiplied by artificial means on an enormous scale, protected for a time from the many dangers 
that beset them, and then turned loose to spend .their lives as wild creatures. They are sometimes 
classed legally as domestic animals and sometimes not. 

Characteristics of domestic animals. 

The term "domestic animals" as here used and limited practically applies to a distinct class having 
aptitudes and characteristics that distinguish them from wild and even from tamed individuals. These 
special characteristics differ greatly in degree according to the species or the breed. Two especial char- 
acteristics they must have, and incidentally a third they do have, especially those long bred by man. 
First, they must breed freely in captivity for an indefinite number of generations ; second, they must 
be able to thrive under the artificial conditions man imposes ; third, and incidentally, they are naturally 
tamer, and their instincts are often modified and some are lost. The mental capacity for education with 
some species is also modified, better to adapt the creature to man's uses and fancies. Although many 
animals are tamed for use, but relatively few species have been transformed into domestic ones as here 
defined. Innumerable unsuccessful experiments have been made with many species. Carnivorous animals 
have been trained for the chase for ages, and herbivorous animals have been semi-domesticated for a 
long time, but may never have become strictly domestic. The number of species that have become truly 
domestic is perhaps not greater than three score in all the many thousands known to science. The 
actual number of species that are used is scarcely two score in any one country. 

(1) While very many species have been tamed by man to do his bidding, which live long and healthy, 
and, as far as we know, happy lives, very few breed freely in captivity. Some never breed at all ; of 
those that breed at all, the offspring die young or the descendants die out in two or three generations. 
For example, the tame elephant has rarely if ever raised offspring. Of all of the animals of the cat kind, 
but a single species has ever become "domestic," although enormous numbers have been tamed and many 
of them have produced young. This same law holds good for birds. On the contrary, domestic animals 
increase greatly in their fertility when such increase is desirable, hogs among mammals, hens among 
poultry, being sufficient examples. 

(3) 



THE DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS 




Fig. 2. Variation in the horse, from draft horse to trotter, coach, Celtic pony and Shetland pony. 

(2) The second requirement needs no explanation. For example, take the horse. While probably 
originally a native of an open country and leading the freest of lives and easily reverting to wildness, 
yet in domestication it will live to healthful old age in stables or other enclosures, and in unnatural con- 
ditions. It will live in mines without light for years, and under the artificial conditions of cities for a 
longer term of life than it ever could have done as a wild horse. During the long ages and the many 
generations that they have been bred by man, some animals have slowly become adapted so completely 
to the conditions man has imposed that now many kinds could not exist for two generations if turned 
loose in any large country of the world, to make their own living and to bring their young to maturity. 

(3) Their instincts and mental requirements have been modified. Some have lost instincts that 
were useful in their wild state but have now become reduced from lack of use. Thus they become, 
as a whole, a new class depending on mankind. He is, in one sense, their creator. They would not have 
existed but for him. He provides their parents ; he furnishes them their food ; he protects them from 
the dangers that await them in nature ; he builds shelter from storms for them ; he educates doctors to 
cure them when ill, and to prevent their epizootic diseases. They are an artificial production. Nature 
has provided man with the raw material ; he has turned this to a more ideal and useful animal for his 
purposes. It is tamer to deal with ; it is less intelligent as a whole than the wild creature that was its 
ancestor. Its form, its strength, its size, its various physical characteristics and mental capacities have 
been molded, the better to suit the environment and the better to serve the uses and pleasures of man- 
kind. These improvements have been made according to the ideals of the people among which the ani- 
mal has been developed. In its relations to mankind as well as to nature, it is as truly artificial as is 
wood or stone wrought to new shapes and adapted to new uses or new ideals. 

Plasticity of animals. 

In the scheme of nature, each species is given a certain degree and kind of plasticity as it were, by 
virtue of which it adapts itself to a new environment when the old one changes. The whole dogma of 
the evolution of species in nature is founded on this law. Species differ in the degree of plasticity, but 
every species and every individual of each species has it to some degree. If the environment changes 
faster than the species, then in nature it dies out. A very large proportion of the wild animals in exis- 




Fig. 3. Variation in the sheep, showing fine-woolled wrinkled Merino, long-wooUed Black-face Highland, flat-tailed 
Persian, small Faroe island sheep, and a four-horned sheep. 



THE DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS 




I ■.'•'.» 'v.- ■-..■: 



Fig. 4. Variation in dogs, represented by St. Bernard, poodle, dachshund, greyhound. 



tence cannot change from their wild to a domestic environment fast enough for man's convenience and 
profit, and hence we have domesticated but few species. The most of the useful species we now have 
were domesticated so early that we have no record of the process. Most kinds originated in the Old 
World. But few have been domesticated since the Christian era. America, since its discovery, has 
contributed three — the turkey, the guinea pig and the llama. 

Some breeds we wish to keep essentially as they are, and further improvement is practically limited 
to retaining and enhancing the special excellencies now possessed. For such we have devised a way of 
preserving the breeds pure by means of pedigrees, recorded in studbooks, herdbooks, or other publica- 
tions. Along with the pedigrees, for some breeds we record the excellencies of the individual animal 
thus registered ; and we have also devised ideal " scales of points " of especial excellence to be recorded. 

History of mankind as affected by domestic animals. 

The part that domestic animals have played in the history of mankind is intensely interesting. What 
kind of civilization might have risen without them is scarcely a subject for speculation. Low savagery 
may be lifted into a respectable scale of barbarism by them. We have many illustrations of this ; the 
most familiar is that of the Indians of the plains. Those of a century ago were feeble tribes, following 
the bison on foot and with dogs, and remained feeble until they adopted the horse ; then they became 
the most powerful foe to the advance of the white race in America. 

The material foundation of civilization is agriculture. In all civilized countries, agriculture is con- 
sidered in its two great branches, — the production of animals and the production of crops. With animals 
alone, a tolerably respectable barbarism may be attained, intermediate between savagery and civiliza- 
tion. In all ages, and especially in new communities, there is a certain antagonism between the two 
branches. It is a belief with many persons that the story of the first human conflict in history is an 
allegory of the conflict between the grower of live-stock and the tiller of the soil. That conflict goes on 
still between roving peoples and settled farmers ; and the story of Cain and Abel is reflected in our 
own peaceful times in the "fence" and "no fence" struggles in this country. When the "man with the 
hoe" ultimately prevails, as he always does if the climate permits, it does not mean the expulsion of the 
animals, but merely the restraint of the owner. 





Fig. 5. Variation in fowls, showing Light Brahma, bantam, game-cock, long-tailed oriental Jowl, jungle-towl and others. 



(5 THE DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS 

In this country, the economic relations of farm animals to material wealth is interesting history. In 
colonial times, they and their products formed a relatively small part of our foreign exports. So, too, 
during more than one-half of our existence as a republic, the exports of animal products constituted a 
small part of our agricultural exports. It is only within the last few years that the animal products have 
constituted such a large percentage of our home wealth and our export trade. From the nature of the 
case, the industry must increase with the growth of the country. Large areas are suited for pasturage 
which cannot be devoted to tillage. In the great areas tilled, the production of animal products will 
fluctuate as other products fluctuate in production, according to the rules of economics. Under present 
and increasing knowledge, the production will surely increase in excellence and in quantity. 

In considering their purely economic relations to mankind, the capital they represent, their value as 
property, they are so widely distributed and so vast in their numbers that the immense total can only 
be guessed. We have many statistics relating to the farm animals of various civilized countries, — statis- 
tics, so-called, but in fact statistics of only a part and estimates of the remainder. This is true not only 
for their numbers but also for their money value. With some kinds, as poultry, for example, while grown 
for their economic value, we have so little knowledge as to the actual numbers grown in the world that 
we have never seen so much as a guess as to the number. 

With other of the domestic animals useful to man, as cats and dogs, sentiment as well as use plays 
an important part. This is especially true of the latter animal, the most widely distributed among man- 
kind and of every grade of usefulness. Among certain tribes and peoples dogs are the most important 
part of their material wealth, their very lives depending on it. They could not exist in the country 
without their dogs ; and so through every grade of economic use down to the pets of expensive luxury. 
While insignificant in size, little, perhaps, in usefulness, nevertheless the dog is sometimes rated at 
thousands of dollars for a single animal. So it is with various other pets also, as the canary, for example, 
— one of the most harmless luxuries of rich and poor alike, representing no economic use, yet whole 
communities living on its breeding and education. 

Domestic animals have played an interesting part in the religions, myths, and superstitions of man- 
kind. How early this relation began, we do not know. We need not trace it back before Zoroaster 
wrote, nor discuss the part it played' in the old civilization of Egypt and Assyria. It is enough to say 
that it still exists in every degree of intensity of belief, from that which considers the t slaughter of 
sacred cattle and the eating of their flesh a most heinous sin and crime, down through every shade of 
belief to the innocent superstition that many persons do not like to tolerate or even to see a black cat. 
Its importance in some countries as a religious belief is such that it has been an excuse for war. 

Pedigree. 

A pedigree is a record of the parents and ancestors of an animal for a specified number of genera- 
tions, extending through all the lines of descent. In all our important breeds, ancestry has been the 
prime factor in their making and betterment. From the nature of the case, each breed has been a long 
time in the process of formation, and has been produced by the selection of parents and ancestors. 

For the preservation of the purity of the breeds and to enhance their excellencies, a system of record- 
ing the pedigrees of animals has been devised. Studbook, herdbook or register, is the general term 
applied to the record in which all the individual ancestors are named, while flockbook or similar terra is 
used for the record of such classes of animals as sheep and swine, of which whole flocks may be recorded 
as a unit. Without the help of these or similar publications, the present excellence of most of our better 
breeds could never have been attained nor their excellence preserved. The greater the purity of the 
breed, the greater the probability of the transmission of its peculiar excellencies ; and there has been 
no better way devised to lessen the uncertainties of breeding, than through purity of pedigree. Varia- 
tion is so universal that no two animals are ever exactly alike. Some are better than others. Crossing 
breeds or varieties of animals promotes variation ; hence, any breed is more uniform and fixed in charac- 
ter than are mongrels, which represent the extreme of indiscriminate crossing. Among the latter we 
sometimes find an animal very much better than its parents and the average of its ancestors ; but it 
rarely or never transmits its excellencies to the majority of its offspring. 

The keeping of studbooks for horses began with that of the English Thoroughbi-ed in 1808. With 
cattle, the Shorthorn herdbook was begun in 1820. At the present time, similar publications are issued 
for many breeds and species of farm animals. The aim of all is the same : To make the breed more uni- 
form, to improve it until it reaches the highest practical excellence, and to increase the proportion of 
animals in it which reach an excellence near the highest. 



THE PLACE OP THE DOMESTIC ANIMAL IN OUR CIVILIZATION 



THE PLACE OF THE DOMESTIC ANIMAL 
IN OUR CIVILIZATION 

By Thomas F. Hunt 

Domestic animals may be considered in three 
aspects, namely, (1) their relation to human de- 
velopment, (2) the extent and progress of animal 
husbandry in the United States, and (3) the relation 
of domestic animals to farm management. Pigs. 6- 
17 suggest some of the animals and their uses that 
are closely related to human development. 

(1) Animals in their relation to human development. 

Animals as a primary motor. — If one visits a 
certain farm along the Olentangy river in Delaware 




Dogs as a primaiy motor. 

county, Ohio, he will find other evidences of a 
former race of people than that indicated by 
the good Indian names. Here may be seen a 
large circular embankment which, in connection 
with a bend in the river, encloses perhaps twenty- 
five acres of land. The high bluff, which here con- 
stitutes the bend in the river, suggests the use to 
which it may have been put, especially as no other 
such vantage ground exists for miles around. The 
large embankment, several feet in height and 
width, now entirely overgrown with timber, re- 
quired a large amount of labor in its construction. 
A building contractor, who appreciates the amount 
of work required to move a small amount of earth, 
remarked that it would take a great deal of labor 
with teams and scrapers to make such an embank- 
ment. The reply was that the people who made 
this embankment did not have teams, 
much less scrapers, with which to do ..rAY--.-.'. """ "' 
the work. These North American ;',-. : ; 
Indians built their fortifications, as v,-\- .-- •- ■''■'■' 
well as their mounds, without draft >v 
animals or beasts of burden. U 

While the Indian was not lacking I- 
in native ability or even a consider- S 
able degree of intelligence, it may \) 
be confidently asserted that, under 
such conditions, he never would have '• 
developed beyond the stage of bar- 
barism. Because there were on the 
American continent no domestic ani- 
mals except the dog and the com- 



paratively inefficient llama and alpaca, the peoples 
of America failed to develop as did those in the Old 
World. Domestic animals are a prime requisite of 
civilization. Man has developed just as rapidly as 
he has been able to subjugate the forces of nature 
to his own use. Working alone and unaided, man 
would have a sorry existence. By the aid of domes- 
tic animals he has been able to increase his produc- 
tive power. Formerly, transportation that was not 
by boat was largely on the backs of animals, the 
draft animal being chiefly used at the plow. Since 
the moving of commodities has come to be done 
largely on wheels, and since coal, oil and gas have 
been applied to the moving of wheeled vehicles, and 
more recently a large application of falling water 
through electric transmission to the 
same purpose, the use of animals as 
a motive power has declined rela- 
tively. 

Notwithstanding the tremendous 
improvements in transportation by 
means of mechanical motors which 
took place in the last half of the last 
century in the United States, the 
number of horses in proportion to 
population has not changed materi- 
ally. This is more significant in 
view of the fact that so much larger 
proportion of the population now 
lives in cities. The following table 
gives the number of horses and 
mules in the United States, exclu- 
sive of those in cities, the popula- 
tion of the United States, and the number of per- 
sons in the United States for each horse or mule 
kept on farms : 





Horses and 
mules, millions 


Population, 
millions 


Persons per 

horse or mule 

on farms 


1850 . . . 


4.9 


23.2 


4.8 


1860 . . . 


7.4 


31.4 


4.2 


1870 . . . 


8.2 


38.6 


4.7 


1880 . . . 


12.2 


50.2 


4.1 


1890 . . . 


17.6 


62.6 


3.6 


1900 . . . 


20.0 


75.6 


3.8 



The fact that horses continue in as large num- 
bers as ever, relative to population, is due to a well 




Fig. 7. Reindeer as a primary motor. 



THE PLACE OF THE DOMESTIC ANIMAL IX OUR CIVILIZATION 



known attribute of human progress. The activities 
of man increase with his ability and his opportuni- 
ties. A number of instances have been reported in 




' Fig. 8. Camel as beast of burden. 

which better and cheaper parallel transportation 
has been provided without reducing materially the 
transportation on the original road. The better and 
cheaper facilities not only cause more people to 
travel but also the same people to travel more 
often. Every invention which enables mechanical 
power to supplant animal power is a distinct 
advantage to society. The great advancement in 
material wealth in recent times has been due 
largely to the increased application to the world's 
work of the stored up carbon derived from coal, 
oil and gas. It is not probable, however, that these 
improved methods will supplant horse-power. They 
will merely augment man's resources. 

Animals as a source of clothing. — Animals have 
enabled man to conquer nature not only by adding 
their force to his relatively weak body, but they 
have furnished him clothing which has made it 
possible for him to extend his habitat. The exten- 
sive cultivation of cotton, which came about in the 
nineteenth century, has made wool and silk rela- 
tively less important, but it may be doubted 
whether the demand for leather was ever greater 




than at the present time. In this age of substitu- 
tions there have been few attempts to supplant 
leather. Although relatively less extensively used 
than formerly, silk and wool possess qualities found 
in no other fiber. Flax has suffered more than silk 
and wool from the competition of cotton. 

Animals as a source of food. — Much the larger 
part of the vegetation which grows on the earth's 
surface is unsuited for human consumption. Ac- 
cording to the United States Census in 1900, only 
12 per cent of the land surface in this country was 
cultivated in any other crop than grass ; therefore 
88 per cent of the land area was either woodland, 
grassland, or waste land. Of the 12 per cent in 
farm and garden crops other than grass, 10 per 
cent was in cereals. A large part of these cereal 
grains and parts of the straw and stover are con- 
verted int" milk, butter, cheese, meat or animal 
fats. As an example, over 80 per cent of all the 
corn raised in the United States is consumed in the 
county in which it is raised, a large part of this 
being fed locally to the domestic animals. Not 
only do animals add to the quantity of available 
food, but it must be admitted that their flesh and 
other products have added greatly to the quality 
of man's dietary. Among all the food products of 




f k : i'Jft : 





Fig. 10. The dog as a working animal. "A dog of Flanders.' 



Fig. 9. Bactrian, or two-humped camel. 

man, none are more efficient or more refined than 
dairy and poultry products. 

The domestication of animals has also added to 
human progress by increasing the stability of the 
food supply. Like grain elevators in primary 
markets, domestic animals are storehouses of food 
to be called on when soil products are temporarily 
limited, and allowed gradually to accumulate when 
these products are plentiful. A nation in which a 
considerable part of its food supply is stored in 
meat-giving animals seldom suffers from famine. 

Animals as civilizing agents. — While domestic 
animals have occupied such an important role in 
advancing the material welfare of the human race, 
they have not been less important to our spiritual 
welfare. Whether animals are kept merely as 
companions (pets) or as slaves (for labor, clothing 
and food), they compel habits of care and responsi- 
bility and inculcate habits of mercy. Such habits 
are essential to the highest success in the rearing 
of dumb animals. These habits, together with the 
sympathetic influences involved, in all ages, have 



THE PLACE OF THE DOMESTIC ANIMAL IN OUR CIVILIZATION 



had and still continue to have, an elevating and 
civilizing influence. Shaler puts it thus : 

" It is perhaps too much to attribute the advance 
of the agricultural classes of our civilized peoples, 
in all that serves to remove them from the brutal- 
ity of their savage ancestors, altogether to the 
nature of their work, — to the very large element 
of kindly care for which it calls, and which is the 
price of success in the occupation. Yet when we 
note the immediate way in which the people bred 
in cities, under circumstances of excitement are 
wont to behave like savages of the lower kind, 
showing in their conduct a lack of all sympa- 
thetic education, and contrast their behavior 
with that of their kinsmen from the field, we see 
essential differences in character which cannot 
well be explained save by the diverse natures of 
the training which the men have received. Thus, 
in the French Revolution, the baser, more inhu- 
man deeds were not committed by the 
peasants, who had been the principal suf- 
ferers under the regime which was over- 
thrown, but by the people of the great 
towns who had been less oppressed by 
the iniquities of the old system of govern- 
ment. 

" If it be true, as my personal experi- 
ences and observations lead me firmly to 
believe is the case, that man's contact 
with the domesticated animals has been 
and is ever to be one of the most effective 
means whereby his sympathetic, his civil- 
ized motives may be broadened and affirmed, there 
is clearly reason for giving to this side of life a 
larger share of attention than it has received." 

Characters essential to domestication. — Besides 
having the ability to make effective use of the 
available food and render this food into products 
or service useful to man, animals must possess 
other characters to be domesticated. The most 
obvious of these characters are readiness with 
which they become subject to the will of man and 
their ability to breed freely and abundantly in cap- 
tivity. The elephant is much more easily brought 
under the will of man than the lion or the jaguar, 
the horse than the zebra, the ox than the rhi- 
noceros. Although one of the most intelligent of 
animals, probably because his brain has been 
trained in guiding his proboscis just as man's brain 
has been trained through the necessity of guiding 
his hands, the elephant has never been domesticated, 
and man has always depended on taking him into 
captivity from the wild state. The reason for this 
practice is that the elephant has seldom been 
known to breed in captivity. Further, an elephant 
is not matured until thirty years of age. Useful 
domestic animals breed freely in captivity and are 
fairly prolific. 

(2) The extent and progress of animal husbandry. 

Extent. — Practically every farm in the United 
States keeps domestic animals of some kind, either 
for their labor or their products, or both, and 
nearly every household in the land keeps one or 
more animals for companionship. On about one- 



third of the farms of the United States, constitut- 
ing 47 per cent of the total farm area, 40 per cent 
or more of the gross income was in 1900 from 
animals or animal products. The total value of 
farm products produced in the United States was 
in round numbers $3,000,000,000, of which $1,000- 
000,000 was fed to live-stock. The value of ani- 
mals and animal products sold and animals slaught- 
ered on the farm was approximately $1,750,000,- 
000. The value of animal products, therefore, is 
only slightly less than the soil products not directly 




Fig. 11. Use of llamas as beasts of burden. South America. 

fed to animals on the farm. Animals sold and 
slaughtered were valued at $900,000,000, dairy 
products at $472,000,000, and poultry and eggs at 
$180,000,000. 

Increase in production. — For purposes of com- 
parison, the statistics concerning domestic animals 
are unsatisfactory both because the basis of 
enumeration has varied and because it is uncertain 
just what the basis has been at different times. 
The Twelfth Census is probably the most complete 
and accurate enumeration of domestic animals that 
has ever been made, and hence some apparent in- 
crease in numbers may be attributed to this greater 
completeness of enumeration. Taking the census 
figures as they stand during the last half of the 
last century, horses and mules have increased about 
four times, neat cattle about three times, milch 
cows rather less and other cattle rather more than 
three times, while sheep and swine have each 
doubled in numbers in the fifty years. The popula- 
tion in the same period increased about three and 
one-third times. Considering horses, mules and cattle 
as units, and assuming five sheep and five hogs to 
be a unit, in 1850 there were 1.4 animal units per 
capita, while in 1900 there were 1.2 animal units 
per inhabitant. 

Improvement. — While animals have increased 
about three times in numbers in fifty years, in 
value they have increased six times. In the same 
way, while the number of animals in proportion to 
farm area was the same in 1900 as in 1850, the 
value has doubled in proportion of the area of the 
land in farms. Perhaps part of this increase in 



10 



THE TLACE OF THE DOMESTIC ANIMAL IN OUR CIVILIZATION 



value is due to the greater cost of producing ani- 
mals, but, without question, it is in part due to the 
greater intrinsic worth of the animals. In 1850, 
sheep in this country produced 2.4 pounds of wool 




Fig. 12. Use of elephants in the forests of Burma. 

per fleece ; in 1900 they produced 6.9 pounds per 
fleece. While in fifty years sheep have not quite 
doubled in numbers, the amount of wool produced 
has increased more than five times. A large part 
of this improvement in wool production is due to 
breeding and not to feeding, and offers one of the 
most striking illustrations of the economic applica- 
tion of the principles of breeding. This constitutes 
a present to society on the part of American 
breeders annually greater than the combined chari- 
ties of the captains of industry. The increase per 
cow in the production of milk, and more particu- 
larly of butter-fat, in the same period would hardly 
be less striking if statistics existed to show it. 
When the first American Fat Stock Show was 
instituted in Chicago in 187S, prizes were offered 
for four-year-old steers. Today, no Fat Stock Show 
in America offers premiums for a steer that has 
reached the age of three years. If animals can be 
matured in their third instead of their fifth year, 
it is obvious that a much less number of animals 
must be kept on the farm in order to supply the 
same number for slaughter. In 1848, Randall, 
writing of Cleveland Bay horses, then recently 
imported to America, spoke of them as enormously 
large horses. With the importation of Louis Napo- 
leon into Ohio in 1851, the breeding of draft horses 
began in earnest in this country. The ordinary 
farm horse in America today is probably 25 per 
cent more effective than it was then. In riding 
thirty miles on a railway train in northern Illinois 
recently, twenty-five teams were observed working 
on the land. Two were two-horse teams, six were 
four-horse teams, and the remainder were three- 
horse teams. Thirty-five years ago in this region 
the common team was a pair of thousand-pound 
horses ; today it consists of three horses weighing 
nearer 1,500 pounds each. This is an important 



factor in the economy of production and hence has 
materially influenced the price of land in that 
region. 

Comparative progress. — While animals have not 
kept pace with the population in numbers, 
they have probably done so in intrinsic worth. 
Notwithstanding, the production of domestic 
animals has not kept pace with that of farm 
crops. Furthermore, the number of animals 
kept in the United States is much less per land 
area than in older countries. For example, in 
the United States there are nine acres of land, 
of which four and a half acres are improved, 
per animal unit, while in Great Britain there 
is one animal unit for every two and a half 
acres. 

Recent progress. — It may be of interest to 
note the trend in numbers and values in 
recent years. The following table gives the 
estimates of the United States Department of 
Agriculture for 1897 and 1907, of the num- 
ber and value of farm animals. These figures 
are estimates and not the result of enumera- 
tion. There is reason to think that part of 
the increase shown in the table is the result 
of changes in the basis of making the esti- 
mates rather than actual changes in the num- 
ber and value of the animals themselves : 





Number, in 
millions 


Value, in millions 


Horses and mules 
Milch cows . . . 
Other cattle . . 


1897 
17 
15 

31 
37 
41 


1907 

23 
21 
52 
53 
55 


1897 
$550 00 

370 00 

508 00 

67 00 

166 00 


11107 

$2,275 00 
645 00 
882 00 
204 00 
418 00 




141 


204 


$1,661 00 


$4,424 00 



This table shows a marked increase in the num- 
ber of all classes of domestic animals during the 
decade, and the still more marked increase in 
values. Of this enormous increase in values — some- 
what more than two and a half times in ten years — 
none is more surprising than that in horses and 
mules, which have, in the period named, increased 
over four times in value, while increasing 35 per 
cent in numbers. 

Future progress. — The economic conditions inci- 
dent to a rapidly increasing farm area have led to a 
distribution of domestic animals which is not likely 
to continue. While the white man has been subdu- 
ing the North American continent, a large part of 
the meat- and wool-producing animals have been 
reared on soil still untouched by the plow. In 1875, 
about 65 per cent of the live-stock of the United 
States was reared east of the Mississippi river; fif- 
teen years later, less than 38 per cent. In 1875, only 
7 per cent of the live-stock was reared on the ranches 
of the far West ; fifteen years later one-fifth of all 
live-stock was raised in this territory. Over this 
vast area, cattle and sheep have been reared without 
cost for land and at a trifling expense for labor. 
It was in 1805 that beef cattle first reached an 



THE PLACE OP THE DOMESTIC ANIMAL IN OUR CIVILIZATION 



11 



eastern market from beyond the Allegheny moun- 
tains. From that time until very recently, govern- 
ment land, or land on which conditions are similar, 
has constituted the cattle and sheep pasture of the 
nation. Here most of the sheep and many of the 
beef cattle have been reared, large numbers of 
which have been subsequently fattened on farms 
where hay and grain have been produced cheaply 
and in abundance. The reason for rearing meat 
and wool on these areas has not been due to their 
natural adaptation to the production of grass, but 
to the uncapitalized condition of the land and to 
the fact that animals could be cared for in large 
numbers, therefore at little expense for labor. 
During the last century, the farmers in the culti- 
vated areas in the older section of the country 
have suffered not alone because of the lack of 
profit from the rearing of domestic animals, but 
also because the cultivated areas have decreased 
in the crop-producing power from the lack of 
sufficient numbers of domestic animals. There 
is every evidence that the number of domestic 
animals kept on a cultivated area has begun to 
increase in recent years. As the country develops 
internally, rather than tangentially, and as the 
capital invested in land and improvements becomes 
somewhat equalized, the breeding and rearing of 
young animals may be expected to develop in those 
regions where the soil and climate especially favor 
the growth of grass and forage crops. Those 
regions where cereals are produced cheaply and in 
great abundance will furnish the materials for 
fattening the cattle. 

(3) The relation of domestic animals to farm man- 
agement. 

(a) Purposes and advantages of keeping live- 
stock. — (1) Animals furnish labor and food on the 
farm. Even when it is not considered profit- 
able to rear domestic animals for sale, the 
cost of living on the farm may be reduced 
by the judicious production of the home food 
supply. The number of acres of land that 
can be cultivated by each horse manifestly 
depends on the character of the farming, the 
character of the soil and the topography of 
the land. In England it is estimated that 
two horses will cultivate eighty acres of 
light and sandy soil and sixty acres of heavy 
or clay soil. In the United States it appears 
that one horse or mule of working age is 
kept for every thirty acres of improved land. 
The horses are kept not only for their labor 
but also for breeding purposes. Formerly a 
considerable number of oxen were kept as 
draft animals on the farm, and even today 
about one animal in twenty-five kept for draft 
purposes is an ox. While, as a draft animal, 
the power which an ox can exert is relatively large 
in proportion to his weight, the slowness of his 
movement has caused him to be discarded with the 
increasing value of human labor. 

(2) Animals make use of land that would other- 
wise be wholly or partly unproductive. Such, for 
example, is land next streams, land partially 



covered with trees, and land too hilly or too stony 
to cultivate. Even today only one-half of the farm 
area in the United States is improved land, and 
only two-thirds of the improved land is in farm 
crops, including meadows. The other third of the 
improved land, and a considerable part of the un- 
improved land, are utilized as pasture for domestic 
animals. 

(3) They make use of farm crops which would 
be wholly or partly wasted. For example, straw, 
corn-stalks, clover, alfalfa and many other legumi- 
nous forage crops would not have sufficient value 
to pay for raising, if animals were not kept to con- 
vert them into useful products. 

(4) Animals act as machines for manufacturing 
raw materials which are coarse and bulky into 
finished products which are more concentrated and 
valuable. It takes ten pounds of dry matter to pro- 
duce a pound of beef, and thirty pounds of dry mat- 
ter to produce a pound of butter. The farmer not 
only has the profit which comes from the manufac- 
turing of this thirty pounds of raw material into 
one pound of butter, but, while the butter may be 
sent a thousand miles to market, it might not be pro- 
fitable to ship ten miles the products from which 
the butter is made. 

(5) In manufacturing these finer products, ani- 
mals leave much fertilizing material on the farm. 
In fattening animals the experiments of Lawes and 
Gilbert show conclusively that more than nine 
pounds out of every ten of the essential fertilizing 
ingredients of the food reappear in the solid and 
liquid excrement. A Flemish proverb reads : 

" No grass, no cattle, 
No cattle, no manure, 
No manure, no crop "; 
or, as Prothero says, "Farming in a circle, unlike 
logic, is a productive process." 




Fig. 13. Use of -water-buffalo in plowing f oi rice. Philippines. 

(6) Live-stock enables a farmer to arrange more 
readily a good rotation of crops. So far as main- 
taining the fertility of the land is concerned, and 
reducing the cost of production, a five-course rota- 
tion is better than a four-course, and a six-course 
is better than a five-course rotation. It enables the 
farmer to keep a larger proportion of his land in 



12 



THE PLACE OF THE DOMESTIC ANIMAL IN OUR CIVILIZATION 



grass and clover, thus requiring less plowing ; it 
enables him to keep each piece of land longer in 
grass and thus reduce the exhaustion of his land, 
provided these products are fed to live-stock on 
the farm. 







Fig. 14. Use of oxen in haying. 



(7) Animals enable the farmer to make a more 
constant use of his capital. The wheat-farmer in 
North Dakota sows his wheat in April and May, 
and harvests and threshes it in July and August, 
and is practically without employment for himself, 
his men or his teams from September 1 to April 1. 
When live-stock is kept, the labor that is used 
in the summer to raise crops is needed in the winter 
to care for the animals. The teams and tools are 
also more constantly used. 

(8) The management of 1 i ve-stock and the manipu- 
lation of dairy products, and the rearing of poultry, 
may be made to require higher skill than the ordi- 
nary extensive production of farm crops. The prod- 
uct of skilled workmen always commands higher 
return than that of unskilled workmen. In this 
country the communities that have given the most 
attention to live-stock have in general been the 
most prosperous, although to this there are some 
exceptions. 

(9) It is interesting to observe that with certain 
methods of farm management more land can be 
farmed with the same labor when live-stock is 
kept than when almost exclusively hay-and-grain- 
farming is practiced. This is the case when sheep 
are grazed over large areas, or when beef cattle 
are reared, especially young animals. The 
War of the Roses in England so reduced the 
laboring population of Great Britain as to 
cause a revolution in the agriculture of the 
island, the raising of live-stock taking the 
place of grain-farming. The land was en- 
closed, and, in consequence, the communal 
use of land largely, if not wholly dis- 
appeared. On the other hand, the keeping 
of live-stock may greatly increase the 
amount of labor required to manage a farm, 
especially when dairy cattle are kept, 
and when partial or complete soiling is 
practiced. 



(b) Disadvantages of keeping live-stock. — (1) 
It requires large capital. This is especially true 
when animals are kept as usual in connection 
with the production of hay and grain. On a 160- 
acre farm, forty head of cattle, worth $1,500, 
forty head of sheep, worth $200, and .twenty 
hogs, worth $100, may be kept and the farm 
made to raise the necessary food for them. 
This increases the capital required $1,800, as 
practically the same other capital would be 
required for the production of hay and grain. 
In addition to the capital for live-stock, usu- 
ally more capital must be invested in farm 
buildings. In a self-contained farm, that is, 
one which raises food enough for the animals 
kept, ten dollars an acre may be considered a 
moderate investment for live-stock. If, how- 
ever, the farm is to raise only the coarse feed 
and the necessary grain is largely purchased, 
a farm may easily carry twenty-five to thirty- 
five dollars' worth of live-stock per acre. 

(2) This live-stock capital is of a perish- 
able nature. Not only the products of a sin- 
gle year but all the capital may be destroyed 
by disease. Thus, not only may several crops 
be lost but also the capital invested in producing 
these crops, which has been the accumulation of 
years. Tuberculosis in cattle, cholera in hogs and 
liver rot in sheep are striking examples. Formerly, 
many farmers kept one hundred hogs where now 
they keep only twenty-five or fifty, because they 
dare not take the risk of disease. 

(3) Products when grown cannot be indefinitely 
held. If held for a better market they must often 
be held at an expense. Cold storage and the pres- 
ervation of meats have lessened this difficulty 
slightly, but there is still a great difference be- 
tween animal products and the cereals, which can 
be held for long periods, either by the farmer or 
in great elevators of primary markets. 

(4) A scarcity of food and consequent rise in 




A stm frequent use of animals as motive powei. 



THE PLACE OF THE DOMESTIC ANIMAL IN OUR CIVILIZATION 



13 



price of hay and grain may cause a loss instead of 
a gain from feeding. Many illustrations of this 
fact could be quoted. For example, in 1S90 a de- 
crease of about 30 per cent in the yield of grain 
caused an increase in the price of over 50 per cent, 
so that if the whole crop could have been sold it 
would have brought more than the crop of the pre- 
vious year. Facts like these have frequently 
caused people to assert that, although society suf- 
fered, the farmers were benefited by a short crop. 
Fortunately, this is not the fact, because only 
about 20 per cent of the corn is sold by farmers, 
and when there was a decrease of 30 per cent many 
farmers not only had no corn to sell but they either 
had to purchase corn or use other crops, such as 
oats, which they would otherwise have sold. 



weighing 125 to 250 pounds, followed three steers 
or heifers on a two-acre pasture. The cattle were 
fed shelled corn liberally but the pigs were given 
none. The pigs made a gain of a little more than a 
half pound per day, and when subsequently put on 
full feed made in one trial a gain of nearly seven- 
teen pounds for one bushel of corn, while in general 
about eleven pounds of pork are produced from a 
bushel of shelled corn. Second, swine are noted for 
their prolificacy. Ten sows, worth $100 to $150, 
are sufficient to produce 100 pigs ; 75 to 80 ewes, 
worth $300 to $500, will be required to produce an 
equal number of lambs ; 110 cows, worth $4,500 
to $5,500, to produce 100 calves ; and 200 mares, 
worth $20,000 to $30,000, to produce 100 foals. 
To put it in another way, the capital invested in 




Fig. 16. Simmenthaler oxen. The best draft type of cattle. 



(c) Cost of producing live-stock. — In estimating 
the amount of food required to carry live-stock 
through the year for the purpose of determining 
what part of a crop may be sold, twenty-five 
pounds of dry matter per day may be allowed for 
each thousand pounds of live-weight of horses, 
cattle and sheep, and forty pounds per thousand 
pounds of swine ; or, in calculating the amount of 
food required for swine it may be more convenient 
to do so on the basis of the increase in live-weight, 
allowing five pounds of dry matter for each pound 
of increase. 

Cost of producing hogs. — Pigs are unique in two 
particulars : (1) They are usually fed on concentrated 
foods only, and (2) they produce nothing but meat 
and fat. From cows we get milk, in addition, from 
sheep, wool, and from poultry, eggs. Because of 
this limited range of usefulness and because of the 
high value of much of the food consumed, it would 
not be possible economically to rear swine were it 
not for two characters which they possess. First, 
the pig is a scavenger. Many corn-fed cattle of the 
central West are fed without direct profit. The 
profit comes from the pigs which follow the cattle. 
In many other ways pigs use up products which 
would otherwise be wasted. In an experiment at 
the Illinois Station during two seasons, two pigs, 



pigs may be reproduced in the offspring ten times 
in one year, the capital invested in horses perhaps 
once in five years. In general, 500 pounds of corn 
will produce 100 pounds of pork, which is equiv- 
alent to eleven pounds of pork from a bushel of 
corn. Since hogs are so largely produced from 
corn, the relation between the price of corn and 
the price of pork is very intimate. For example, 
when corn is worth fifty cents a bushel, the food 
required to produce a pound of increase will be 
about five cents ; for forty cents a bushel, four 
cents ; and -for thirty cents a bushel, three cents ; 
and so on. 

Relative cost of producing sheep and swine. — 
In experiments at the Wisconsin Station it was 
found that the expense of producing a pound of 
increase in sheep was less than in swine because 
of the less expensive character of the food. It was 
also found that sheep required less food per pound 
of gain than steers. These agree with Lawes' and 
Gilbert's experiments, who found that eleven 
pounds of increase in sheep and nine pounds in 
steers were obtained for every 100 pounds of dry 
matter eaten. 

Comparative cost of producing meat and milk. 
— American experiments show that 100 pounds of 
dry matter will produce ten pounds of increase in 



14 



THE PLACE OF THE DOMESTIC ANIMAL IN OUR CIVILIZATION 




steers, or, when fed to cows, seventy-four pounds 
of milk containing three and one-fourth pounds of 
butter-fat plus one pound of increase. In general, 
therefor*, the food required to produce a pound of 
butter-fat is about three times that required to 
produce a pound of increase in steers. So far as 
food consumed is concerned, therefore, assuming 
it to be of equal quality, steers at five cents a 
pound would be equivalent to butter-fat at fifteen 
cents per pound. If butter-fat sells at thirty cents 
a pound, half the income may be charged to labor 
or profit. By selling 
butter -fat at thirty 
cents a pound instead 
of steers at five cents 
a pound, the gross in- 
come per acre of the 
farm may be doubled; 
or, what is perhaps 
more to the point, 
when animals are 
kept for the produc- 
tion of meat instead 
of the production of 
butter-fat the farm 
area should be doub- 
led. 

Cost of producing 
milk and butter - 
jat. — Well - selected 
and properly fed 
grade cows may be 
expected to produce 
240 pounds of butter- 
fat annually. This is 
equivalent to 8,000 pounds of 3 per cent milk, 
6,000 pounds of 4 per cent milk, or a trifle less 
than 5,000 pounds of 5 per cent milk. If each 
cow is dry six weeks, the daily average of the 
herd in milk will be three-quarters of a pound of 
butter-fat per day. Occasional herds will make 
a daily average of .9 of a pound of fat, but this 
requires superior cattle, careful feeding and more 
than ordinary care. The standard ration for milch 
cows weighing 1,000 to 1,200 pounds is twenty-five 
pounds of dry matter, two-thirds of which is digest- 
ible material containing not less than two pounds 
of digestible protein. In ordinary practice, about 
ten pounds of dry material of the ration is secured 
from corn silage, nine pounds from hay and about 
six pounds from grain or other concentrates. In 
general, this is obtained by feeding thirty-five 
pounds of corn silage, ten pounds of hay and seven 
to eight pounds of concentrates. In general, the 
silage may be estimated at one-tenth of a cent 
a pound, hay at one-fourth to one-half a cent per 
pound and concentrates at three-quarters to one 
and a quarter cent per pound, although these 
prices will vary somewhat with the different sec- 
tions of the country. The amount of food needed 
will vary with the size of the cow, although not 
in direct proportion to weight, and should be 
varied more largely in proportion to the milk and 
butter - fat produced. Careful feeders vary the 
amount of concentrates fed to the individual 



Fig. 17. Horseman with panniers, 
showing method of riding. 
Porto Rico. 



animals in the herd, although maintaining substan- 
tially the general averages given above. 

Cost of maintaining icork horses. — The cost 
of maintaining work horses depends both on the 
size of the horses and on the work done. Since 
the work capable of being done varies greatly with 
horses of different size, and since the work which 
horses of the same size are called on to do often 
varies greatly, the amount of food consumed is 
perhaps more variable than that of any other class 
of domestic animals. In general, horses weighing 
1,200 to 1,500 pounds consume twelve to eighteen 
pounds of grain, ten to twenty pounds of hay at 
full work and half the amount of grain when idle. 
The expense of each day's labor depends not alone 
on yearly expense but on the number of days of 
labor. At the Ohio State University, a record was 
kept in order to determine the number of days of 
labor performed, as well as the cost of food con- 
sumed and other expenses. It was found that four 
draft-horses, averaging a little less than 1,400 
pounds each, performed 2,185 hours of labor per 
year, and that four horses weighing 1,225 pounds 
averaged 1,641 hours. The average work done for 
the horses was thus about 200 days per horse, 
equivalent to two-thirds of the secular days of the 
year or about six and two-thirds hours per day for 
each secular day of the year. Taking no account 
of three colts, one two-year old and two sucklings, 
the average cost of care, including feeding, groom- 
ing, harnessing and cleaning stables was $23.50. 
The cost of shoeing, repairs on harness and stable 
supplies was $6.50, and the cost of food $51, 
making the average total expense of keeping each 
horse $84 per year, not counting interest on the 
investment of stables, horses or harness, nor 
anything for depreciation of horses through age. 
It is possihle that under ordinary conditions the 
growth of the three colts may more than cover the 
latter point. As each horse worked approximately 
200 days per year, the average cost of each day's 
work was a trifle less than 42 cents. At the 
Minnesota Station, the total cost of feeding and 
maintaining a farm work horse for one year, 
including interest on investment and depreciation, 
was estimated to be $75 to $90, of which about 
$20 was charged for interest and depreciation. 
On the basis of 3.3 hours for the length of the 
working day, the cost per horse per hour was 
estimated at seven and a half cents. 

Literature. 

The references to literature on this subject are 
neither numerous nor direct. N. S. Shaler, Domes- 
ticated Animals, Charles Scribner's Sons, New 
York ; R, H. Thurston, The Animal as a Machine 
and a Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics, 
John Wiley & Sons ; Rowland E. Prothero, The Pio- 
neers and Progress of English Farming, Longmans, 
Green & Co., London (1888); Report of the Twelfth 
Census of the United States (1900), Vol. V, Part I, 
pp. cxliii-ccxxxvi ; L. H. Bailey, Principles of 
Agriculture, Macmillan Co.. New York (1901); 
H. C. Taylor, An Introduction to the Study of 
Agricultural Economics, Macmillan Co. (1905). 



CHAPTER II 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ANIMAL 




|HYSIOLOGY IS THE SCIENCE OP THE PROCESSES OP LIFE. A knowledge 
of it underlies all rational '.reatment of animals and plants. Very little funda- 
mental knowledge of physijiogical laws and phenomena has been available to 
the farmer, and he has been greatly handicapped thereby. Lacking this foun- 
dation and a point of view, his attempts to explain what he has seen have too 
often followed his prejudices and the traditions that have come down to him. 

It is not necessary that the layman's knowledge of physiology be deep, but 
it should be rational : that is, whether much or little, it should be founded on 
fact and be true as far as it goes, his mind should be free of prejudice, and 
his point of view should be correct. But in order that the public point of view 
may be rational, somebody must delve for the fundamental facts. We are 
greatly in need of a recognized body of leaders in these matters, who shall 
shape public opinion. There are already many such men, but not enough as 
yet to fertilize the agricultural mind. The farmers are willing to learn and 
to accept sound doctrine. 

The necessity, therefore, is for a more liberal organization and support of chairs and institutions 
that shall be devoted to research into the central facts of physiology, as well of plants as of animals. 
The study of animal physiology is involved in special difficulties because of the fact that animals are 
what may be regarded as personalities and because experimental physiology demands large numbers 
of animals and extensive quarters. Physiology is not merely the study of the vital processes within 
the animal body, as text-books would lead us to think : it is quite as much a study of the whole life 
relation. Life processes express themselves in welfare. This welfare is the result not only of alimen- 
tation and reproduction, and the processes of the internal organs ; it results also from the whole 
relation or reaction of the animal to heat and cold, to altitude, to contest with fellows and to the 
habits of life that are imposed upon it. Ecology, or the study of habits and seasons of animals 
and plants, is properly a department of physiology. All good artificial breeding must proceed on a 
knowledge of physiological laws. 

It will be seen, therefore, that the study of physiology has a broader significance than merely to 
enable us to understand the nature and treatment of disease. Veterinary instruction, as ordinarily 
conceived, covers chiefly the pathological phases of physiology, much as the instruction in human medi- 
cine has looked to the treatment of disease more than to the preservation of health. Veterinary 
colleges range themselves with medical colleges rather than with agricultural colleges, and their chief 
purpose seems to have been to turn out practitioners. This is well, but veterinary practice is of right 
only a means to an end : the end is the welfare of the animal industries. 

It is to be expected that the association of veterinary colleges in the future will be with colleges 
of agriculture as well as with colleges of medicine. In fact, this association is already working itself 
out in the veterinary departments of colleges of agriculture ; these departments may not train veter- 
inary practitioners, but they align their subject directly with agricultural welfare. It is certainly 
worth while to give all agricultural students a point of view on animal health and disease and to 
instruct them in the methods of handling common ailments and accidents, although there are those 
who fear that all knowledge of this kind, short of a degree in veterinary medicine or its equivalent, 
is dangerous. It is a fact that most stockmen will handle a certain part of the treatment of their 
animals themselves anyhow, and it is better that they have some instruction. It is due all stockmen 
that they be afforded the opportunity to receive instruction that will enable them to handle their 
herds ; and it is not true that partial training is worse than no training. All training, even the 
best, is partial or fragmentary. 

(15) 



16 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ANIMAL 

On the other hand, there has never been so great need as now for well-trained professional veter- 
inaries. The animal husbandries are expanding; intercommunication is spreading parasites and diseases ; 
the value of individual animals is increasing ; the relations of live-stock to public health are being 
understood ; governmental regulation is extending. A few colleges have set the mark for very high 
attainments in the veterinary profession, and this idea should spread. The training of the veterinary 
physician should be every bit as good as that of other physicians and should be enforced by equally 
rigid statutes. The endowments of these schools or colleges of veterinary science need to be much 
increased. The office of the well-educated veterinarian is only beginning to be appreciated. He will 
exert great influence on public health and on agriculture. 

The point is that all farmers should be put in touch with the real facts in regard to the main 
physiological laws and phenomena, that a person can be of great service to himself by knowing some- 
thing of the treatment of his herds, and that there should be over all a larger body than now of highly 
trained veterinary physicians. There is need that the formal etiquette of the medical profession do 
not handicap the welfare work of a good veterinary practitioner by forcing him into mere profes- 
sionalism, nor of a good veterinary college by preventing it from engaging in some kinds of extension 
work. The veterinary profession needs to range itself very closely with agriculture, rather than 
too closely with medicine, if it is to accomplish the greatest good for the people. The profession 
will grow in power in proportion as it aids directly in the development of the live-stock interests, not 
only in subjects of disease but also of sanitation and in its influence in developing the right conditions 
under which animals may be reared. From the point of view of the state, animal physiology and 
pathology are primarily agricultural subjects. 

If these various results are to be secured, it follows that instruction in physiology should begin 
long before the student enters college. The point of view on physiology should be established in 
earliest youth, inasmuch as the first concern of every person is to live ; and but very few persons 
have the opportunity of going to college. The very general lack of any sound understanding of the 
commonest physiological laws is evidenced in the wide extent of the medicine habit. If only a bottle 
has a reassuring label, persons will immediately deposit the contents in their stomachs without the 
least knowledge of what the stuff contains and in the sublimest faith in its possibilities. This is a 
most astonishing mental attitude, but so common that we do not challenge it. It is astonishing that 
we should consider a medicine to be a sufficient antidote or corrective to the plain faults of the daily 
living. [Consult the editorial on pages 278, 279, in Vol. I.] 

The ordinary school teaching of physiology is not likely to put a pupil into real touch with the 
common necessities of his daily life : it is likely to be a reflection of the physician's anatomy and 
physiology. The teaching of physiology that is enforced by organizations, whereby great emphasis is 
placed on the injuries of certain substances, is likely to be partisan, and to that extent is peda- 
gogically unsound. All partisanship should be eliminated from school teaching : science is impartial. 
The fact is, that knowledge of physiology should be the natural result of the teaching of plants 
and animals. The farm youth should have a distinct advantage here, for his whole experience is an 
experiment in making animals and plants to thrive. We have been teaching fragmentary views of 
"botany" and "zoology," but we should teach animals and plants in such a way that the pupil shall 
have a real conception of the processes of life. When the farmer once realizes that his daily experi- 
ence with his live-stock may constitute a real study in physiology, he ought to arrive at a new 
point of view on the means of studying himself and of caring for his body. 

If a person once gains an understanding of the underlying laws of physiology, his common 
practice with his animals will be rational. He will see, for example, that bovine tuberculosis is not 
occult and is not a matter of course or of chance. There are certain conditions that make it pos- 
sible for the disease to spread, and these conditions can be overcome. He will see, then, that the 
mere slaughtering of all tuberculous animals will not stop the disease, any more than the death of 
all patients in a tropical seaport will annihilate yellow fever. All the conditions and circumstances 
under which the animals are kept must be made sanitary, and the elimination of the disease will 
proceed with the increase in care. This care will include the destruction of animals that are dan- 
gerously diseased, the control of commerce in infected animals, and the isolation of infected and 
suspicious cases. The control of tuberculosis, as of other diseases, is a question of rational popular 
education rather than of statutes. 









PHYSIOLOGY OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



17 



PHYSIOLOGY OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 

By S. J. J. Harger 

The exploitation of live-stock is one of the great 
sources of national wealth. By means of special 
precautions by the breeder in selecting and mat- 
ing animals, economic feeding and farming, good 
hygiene and proper surroundings, the domestic 
breeds have been much improved. To act on the 
animal organism so as to increase its productive- 
ness, develop special qualities and create new 
breeds, requires some knowledge of the natural 
functions of the body. 

Digestion. 

The animal body is constantly excreting certain 
waste products representing wear and tear. To 
maintain the nutritive balance, this expenditure 
must be replaced by nutrients elaborated from the 
food. The principal nutritive ingredients in all 
food-stuffs are proteids, — represented by albumen 
and its derivatives, — starches and sugars, cellulose 
in the diet of herbivora, and fats. These must 
undergo certain transformations for absorption 
and assimilation. 

Preparation of food. Mouth digestion. Mastica- 
tion. — Mastication is performed principally by the 
molar teeth or grinders, the jaws being moved by 
powerful muscles. The surface of the grinders is 
flat and roughened. The jaws in herbivora move 
from side to side. The food is chewed on only one 
set of lateral grinders at a time, and this may 
continue in the horse for an hour. When the 
muscles become tired the action is reversed. 
Unilateral mastication is possible because the 
upper jaw is wider than the lower and the apposi- 
tion of the teeth such that the inner edge of the 
upper and the outer edge of the lower molars are 
worn most. Thus, the external and internal borders 
of the molars, respectively, become long and sharp 
and may require filing or "floating." A horse re- 
quires two and one-half hours to chew ten pounds 
of hay, the jaws moving eighty times per minute ; 
one pound of hay makes sixty-five boluses. In the 
pig, dog and cat, mastication is chopping; the teeth 
overlap and a perfect hinge-joint unites the lower 
jaw to the skull. Mastication mixes the food and 
saliva, facilitates swallowing and, by crushing the 
hard envelopes of the food particles, prepares them 
for action of digestive juices. Hay absorbs four 
times its weight of saliva, and oats an equal weight. 

Swallowing. — In swallowing or deglutition, the 
tongue forces the bolus into the back part of the 
mouth and squirts it into the pharynx. Here it is 
grasped by the constrictor muscles and passed into 
the esophagus or gullet. Its downward course can 
be seen best in the left side of the neck. 

The food cannot pass into the larynx and wind- 
pipe for the following reasons: Muscles close the 
opening (glottis) of the larynx by adducting the 
vocal cords and arytenoid cartilages, breathing 
and swallowing at the same time being impossible; 
the base of the tongue pushes the epiglottis, like 
a lid, over the opening; certain muscles pull the 
larynx forward under the tongue. The muscle 

C2 



movements of swallowing are controlled by a 
swallowing center in the brain. The pharynx of 
the ox, sheep and goat is very capacious and very 
large objects can be swallowed. 

Saliva. — The saliva is a watery opalescent fluid 
secreted by three principal salivary glands, — the 
parotid on the side of the throat below the ear, 
the submaxillary and the sublingual between the 
branches of the lower jaw. These discharge their 
secretion into the mouth by special ducts. In the 




Fig. 18. Transverse section through body of horse, as seen 
from behind, a, Abdorain.il surface of the diaphragm; 
6, &i, 6u. lobesof the liver; c. right broad ligament; d, round 
ligament: e, glandular part of stomach; ei, non-glandular 
part of stomach, "blind sac"; eu. pylorus; f, duodenum; 
fir, right kidney: h, spleen; i. left kidney; k, splenic liga- 
ment; Til, cut edge of splenic ligament; n. pancreas; Hi, left 
pancreatic lobe; ny. right pancreatic lobe; o, portal vein; 
p, aorta ; r, inferior vena cava. 

horse 84 and in the ox 112 pounds are secreted 
in twenty-four hours (M. Smith). 

The saliva assists (1) in swallowing. (2) It 
contains a soluble ferment (ptyalin) that converts 
the starch of the food into sugar (maltose) and, in 
the horse, converts cane-sugar into grape-sugar 
(glucose). This amylolytic action, beginning in 
the mouth, is continued in the stomach until 
arrested by the hydrochloric-acid acidity of this 
organ. The salivas of the pig, dog, sheep, horse 
and ox possess this property in the order named. 
(Ellenberger). When the saliva is diverted, swal- 
lowing is difficult and the animal loses flesh. 

Stomach digestion. — The stomach of the horse 
has a capacity of twelve to fifteen quarts. In the 
left compartment (cardia), the mucous lining is 
non-secretory ; in the right (pyloric) side it is vel- 
vety, reddish, and has numerous glands to secrete 
gastric juice. The gastric juice contains pepsin, — 
a soluble ferment, — free hydrochloric acid (.02 per 
cent), rennin and lactic acid. 

Pepsin, in the presence of free acid, converts 
the proteids of the food into absorbable peptones. 
In the left compartment the saliva continues to 



18 



PHYSIOLOGY OP DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



act for several hours on starch. Ellenberger and 
Hofmeister hold that starch conversion takes place 
in the stomach through the development of fer- 
ments from the food itself. Oats yields such an 
enzyme; it is destroyed by boiling. These facts help 
to explain the universal use of oats as a food and 
its lessened digestibility when boiled. 




Fig. 19. Side view of interna] organs of mare. 1, Scapula; 2, humerus; 3, 
ulna; 4, radius; 5, ribs; 6, vertebral column; 7, ilium; 8, pubis; 9 
ischium; 10, femur; 11, tibia; a, heart; 6, pulmonary artery; c, aorta; 
d, stomach; e, liver; f, cut edge of diaphragm; gg, hh, large colon; i 
small intestine; A-, kidney; m, small colon; n, uterus; o, rectum; p 
vagina; r, urocyst or bladder; 3, auus; (, vulva. 

The duration of stomach digestion varies. A hay 
ration requires six to eight hours; one of oats, five 
to six hours. When no other food is given, the 
stomach empties itself in fifteen to twenty-four 
hours. A sudden change of diet retards digestion 
and thus predisposes to indigestion and fermenta- 
tion. The food undergoes a sort of churning 
motion and becomes mixed toward the pylorus. 
After entering the left sac it is rapidly forced to 
the right side and its passage into the small intes- 
tine, regulated by a constrictor or sphincter 
muscle around this orifice, is rapid at the beginning 
of feeding and then slows until the stomach is 
about two-thirds filled. In this state, digestion is 
most active; over-distension arrests it. After this 
period the outgo equals the income until digestion 
is completed. 

The stomach, being small, empties itself two or 
three times during a meal. Different foods leave 
the stomach successively in the order fed. Hence, 
since proteid digestion is the principal function of 
the gastric juice, proteid concentrates, as oats, 
should be given after the hay to secure the benefit 
of prolonged stomach digestion. The incorrect 
practice of giving grain first is partly mitigated 
by some hay remaining in the stomach from the 
previous meal and retarding the passage of the 
grain into the intestine. Water may pass into 
the intestine two minutes after drinking, and car- 
ries with it some undigested food. Horses should 
be watered before feeding. 

The stomach of the ox is divided into four 
compartments : (1) The rumen or paunch, hold- 
ing 40 to 60 gallons or nine-tenths of the total 
stomach capacity, occupies the major part of the 
abdominal cavity. Its mucous lining is covered 



with long leaf-like eminences and always peels off 
immediately after death. (2) The reticulum, honey- 
comb or water-bag has its mucous surface arranged 
in large honeycomb-like spaces. The contents are 
liquid and often contain foreign bodies — nails, wire, 
stones and the like, — which may penetrate through 
the diaphragm into the chest cavity and cause 
traumatic pericarditis, or " nail in the 
heart." The reticulum in its interior 
shows the esophageal groove. This is 
an inverted gutter with thick borders 
extending from the gullet to the third 
stomach. The muscular arrangement 
is such that during its contraction the 
gutter forms a canal to convey food 
from the gullet into the manyplies 
without dropping into the paunch or 
the honeycomb. (3) The third stomach, 
omasum or manyplies, has numerous 
large, flat, fleshy leaves projecting 
from the inner wall and studded with 
pointed horny eminences. (4) The 
abomasum is the true digestive stom- 
ach. The arrangement of the stomach 
of the sheep and of the goat is almost 
identical. 

In the rumen the action of the 
saliva is continued, and 60 to 70 per 
cent of the cellulose is digested. In 
the third stomach the food is further triturated 
by the fleshy leaves, and the liquid parts squeezed 
out into the abomasum. The contents are always 
hard and dry. In the abomasum proteids are con- 
verted into peptones. 

The stomach of the pig is of a type between that 
of ruminants and carnivora. The digestive secre- 
tion contains pepsin, hydrochloric acid, lactic acid, 
milk-curdling and starch-converting ferments. The 
stomach of the dog is capacious. The digestive 
juice is very strong, although dogs have lived for 
four years after removal of the stomach. It con- 
tains pepsin, more hydrochloric acid (1.7 per cent) 
than in other species, and is four times as strong as 
that of sheep. Twelve 
hours are required to 
digest a full meal of 
meat. Meat and liver 
are most digestible 
when fed raw. 

Rumination. — Cud- 
chewing animals or 
ruminants include, 
among others, the ox, 
sheep, goat and camel. 
Food is partly masti- 
cated and enters the 
paunch. It must be 
returned to the mouth 
for a further chewing. 
This is called rumina- 
tion. Finely divided 

semi-solid food may pass into the third stomach 
through the esophageal groove without rechewing. 
Liquids pass into all four compartments, but the 
greater part enters the paunch. 




Fig. 20. Section through stomach 
of horse, a a a. End of esoph- 
agus, showing muscular wall 
and mucosa; b, non-glandular 
mucosa (fore-stomach) ; e. the 
villous mucosa or true diges- 
tive part; C|, pyloric orifice; 
rf, duodenum ; e , orifices of 
bile and pancreatic ducts. 



PHYSIOLOGY OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



19 



The mechanism of rumination is as follows : A 
churning movement by the paunch forces the con- 
tents toward the orifice of the gullet. A deep 
inspiration followed by compression of the paunch 
by the diaphragm and the abdominal muscles forces 
the macerated contents of the paunch into the 
funnel-shaped orifice of the gullet, which cuts off a 
bolus and by reverse peristalsis conveys it into the 
mouth. The water-bag (second stomach) also shares 
in this contraction and supplies water to saturate 
the mass. After swallowing the second time, the 
bolus either passes into the rumen again or reaches 
the third stomach through the esophageal gutter. 
The formation of the bolus and its ascent require 
three seconds, mastication fifty seconds and the 
descent one and one-half seconds. A given amount 
of water in the rumen and a certain degree of dis- 
tention are necessary. After a meal cattle may not 
begin to ruminate unless watered. At least seven 
out of twenty-four hours are given to rumination. 
It is a voluntary act. " Losing the cud " is a myth. 
During sickness rumination ceases ; when the 
appetite returns the cud returns of its own accord. 
This imaginary disease belongs to the same cate- 
gory as the "hollow horn" and "wolf in the tail." 
All horned cattle, excepting the very young, nor- 
mally have hollow horns. 

Vomiting. — Vomiting is a reflex act caused by 
stimulation of the vomiting center in the brain, 
inducing spasmodic contraction of the stomach, 
diaphragm and abdominal muscles. The pig, dog 
and cat vomit readily ; it is nature's method of 
relief. Cattle vomit infrequently, and horses only 
in extreme circumstances for the following rea- 
sons : (1) The esophagus, where it enters the 
stomach, has a thick and contracted wall. (2) 
There are spiral muscular fibers in its wall at this 




Fig. 21. The stomach of a sheep. 

point. A stomach inflated artificially with gas 
through the small intestine will rupture under 
compression before leaking through the esophagus. 
The inability of the horse to belch makes acute 
indigestion with bloating of the stomach very dan- 
gerous. (3) Close to the constricted orifice of the 



esophagus is the relaxed intestinal opening, giv- 
ing exit to the contents under compression. (4) The 
stomach is not in contact with the abdominal wall. 
Vomition in the horse nearly always causes a rup- 
tured stomach and is fatal. In horses and cattle 
the vomiting center seems to be insensitive to 
nauseating drugs. 



-4 ^\fdVmk, .fmk 





Fig. 22. Liver of horse, a. Left lobe; 6, left part of middle 
lobe; c. right lobe; d, vena cava inferior; ee, hepatic 
veins; f, left broad ligament; g, right broad ligament; h, 
ronnd ligament; i, coronary ligament; k, esophageal fissure 
or notch. 

Intestinal digestion. — The contents of the stomach 
on entering the small intestine constitutes chyme. 
Here it is acted on by three digestive secretions — 
the intestinal and pancreatic juices and the bile. 
The intestinal juice (succus entericus) is secreted by 
numerous small glands in the mucous lining of the 
large and small gut. It contains three ferments : 
Proteids are converted into peptones, starch into 
sugar, cane-sugar into grape-sugar and, according 
to some, maltose into dextrose. A vermicular move- 
ment (peristalsis) rapidly forces the contents into 
the caecum ; considerable liquid is absorbed and the 
gut is never found in a state of repletion. 

The liver is a large gland weighing in the horse 
eleven pounds. A large blood-vessel (portal vein) 
returns from the digestive tract and carries to the 
liver sugar, peptones and certain products of intes- 
tinal decomposition to be elaborated for the nutri- 
tion of the tissues. The functions of the liver are : 
(1) Secretion of the bile. The bile is a yellowish 
green liquid conveyed by the bile duct into the 
small intestine. In the horse nine ounces and in 
the ox four ounces are secreted per hour. Its main 
solid constituents are coloring matter or pigment 
(bilirubin and bilivirdin), bile acids (glycocholic 
and taurocholic) and salts (glycocholate and tauro- 
cholate of soda). The bile emulsifies fats for ab- 
sorption. Fatty acids develop in the intestine from 
fermentation ; these unite with the sodium salts to 
form soaps, which emulsify the fats. When the 
bile duct is ligated, fat absorption is reduced 50 
per cent and the stools become "clayey." Bile also 
acts as a natural laxative or aperient. 

(2) The liver has an emunctory function. Intes- 
tinal putrefaction of proteids develops certain 
toxic products. These, when conveyed to the liver, 
are there converted into benign compounds, as 
urea, excreted through the kidneys. The liver also 
converts the muscle break-down (creatin) into urea 
and uric acid. After obstruction of the bile duct, 



20 



PHYSIOLOGY OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



the coloring matter is absorbed by the blood-ves- 
sels and we have biliary jaundice. The bile acids 
also are toxic ; when formed in excessive quantity 
and absorbed as free acids they cause hepatic tox- 
emia or poisoning. Most of the solids of the bile 
represent waste products. 

(3) The glycogenetic function of the liver is, in a 
word, as follows : The sugar conveyed from the 
intestines to the liver is by a special function of 
the liver cells converted into a form of animal 
starch called glycogen and stored up here as a sur- 
plus nutrient to be called on by the body as needed. 
Then it is reconverted into sugar and as such 
enters the circulation. Thus, besides its intimate 
association with the digestion of foods, the neutral- 
ization of, and elimination from the body of waste 
materials, the liver plays an important part in 
nutrition. 

The pancreas, called the abdominal sweetbread, 
is a gland weighing two pounds, placed against the 
backbone close to the kidneys. It secretes a clear 
fluid called the pancreatic juice. In the horse and 
ox, seven to nine ounces are secreted per hour. 
This secretion contains three digestive ferments : 

(1) Trypsin, converting proteids into peptones ; 

(2) amylopsin, changing starch into sugar ; (3) 
steapsin, splitting up fats into fatty acids and 
glycerine, the fatty acids emulsifying fats in the 
same way as in the case of the bile. 




Fig. 23. Surface of mucous membrane of the intestine. Show- 
ing villi with central lacteal duct and blood vessels, and on 
the surface the absorbing epithelial cells. 

Removal of the pancreas from the body is 
followed by diabetes or sugar in the urine, emacia- 
tion and death. The blood will not hold more than 
.3 per cent of sugar without excreting it in the 
urine. From this it is surmised that the pancreas 
secretes a sugar-destroying ferment. 

The large intestine comprises the caecum and the 
large and small colon. The caecum or blind gut of 
the horse lies in the right flank, is about three 
feet long and blind at its anterior end. The oppo- 
site end has the two openings for the entrance and 
exit of the food, which in passing out is moved 
against gravity. It is capacious and compensates 
for the smallness of the stomach. The contents 
are soft. 

The large or folded colon has six times the 
capacity of the stomach. Its contents are firmer 



than those of the caecum. It terminates in the 
horse in the small colon by an abrupt narrowing, 
where frequently impactions take place. It is 
thought by some that in the caecum and colon, fat, 
starch and proteids are acted on by various species 
of bacteria. Cellulose in particular is digested 
here and large quantities of water are absorbed. 
Water rapidly passes from the stomach into the 
caecum, which is also thought to act as a recep- 
tacle for water for the needs of the body. The 
food remains in the colon about forty-eight hours. 

In the small colon the ingesta lose their water, 
become drier as they approach the rectum and are 
moulded into balls by its sacculated wall. An 
animal may be nourished through the rectum and 
colon, or narcosis can be produced by drugs. 

In the ox, the rumen partly takes the place of 
the caecum and colon of the horse. In the small 
intestine absorption is most active. The ox digests 
more cellulose than the horse, and can thrive 
better on coarse, woody forages. 

In the pig, intestinal digestion is of short dura- 
tion. The same is true of the dog, whose intestines 
are relatively short. 

The character of the feces varies with the 
species. Their softness depends on the moisture in 
the food and the movements of the bowels and not 
on the quantity of water drank. The horse defe- 
cates ten to twelve times in twenty-four hours, 
and more during the night than during the day. 
It requires in the horse ninety-six hours and in the 
ox seventy-two hours for the food to pass through 
the body; in the goat as much as seven days for 
some foods. In the horse and ox, 40 per cent of 
the nutrients of the food are lost in the feces; in 
the dog, only 2 per cent. 

Circulation of the blood. 

The heart is the propelling organ in the circu- 
lation of the blood. In circulation, it distributes 
nutrient matter throughout the body and collects 
waste materials to be excreted by the lungs, 
kidneys and skin. The blood cycle is as follows: 
The blood leaves the left side of the heart (left 
ventricle) as red or arterial blood, and passes 
through the arteries and capillaries. Here it gives 
oif nutrients to nourish the tissues as well as 
oxygen for oxidation, especially in the muscles, 
in order to produce heat and energy. It also takes 
up carbonic acid gas and other waste products. It 
is now venous blood and reaches the right side of 
the heart (right ventricle) through two large 
veins, — anterior and posterior vena cava. From 
the right ventricle the blood passes through the 
pulmonary artery to the lungs, where it is oxidized 
into arterial blood that reaches the left side of the 
heart again through the pulmonary veins. Every 
beat of the heart is accompanied by two sounds 
separated by a short interval. These can be heard 
very distinctly on the left side behind the shoulder. 
They furnish valuable information as to the state 
of health and disease of the cardiac apparatus. 

The blood from a vein is blue-red and flows in a 
continuous stream; that from an artery is light 
red and escapes in intermittent streams corre- 



PHYSIOLOGY OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



21 




Fig. 24. Heart of the horse, a. 
Right lateral wall of the 
heart; b, left side of the 
heart; c. coronary artery; c,, 
descending branch; c B . right 
branch; d, e, superior vena 
cava; d, terminal part; f, in- 
ferior vena cava; g, appendage 
of right auricle; h, azygous 
vein; i, left auricle; k, pul- 
monary veins; m, stem of 
the aorta; mi, descending 
aorta: m a , ascending aorta; 
o, pulmonary artery. 



sponding to the heart-beats. Venous hemorrhage 
is more easily arrested than arterial. The velocity 
of the blood varies at different points; the farther 
away from the heart the slower the current: hence 
the legs, the parts farthest from the heart, become 
" stocked " when this organ becomes weakened and 
the blood vessels re- 
's laxed. The velocity is 
greatest in the large 
arteries and veins, — 
12 to 16 inches per 
second in the carotid 
artery, and 8.85 
inches in the jugular 
vein. A complete 
cycle is made in the 
horse in 31.5 seconds, 
and in the dog in 16.7. 
The pulse is a dila- 
tation of the elastic 
wall of an artery at 
the moment of the 
heart-beat. Its char- 
acter is some indica- 
tion of the state of 
health. It is felt in 
the horse on the lower 
jaw-bone ; in the ox 
on the jaw, the inside 
of the elbow and can- 
non and the base of 
the tail ; in the dog on 
the inside of the thigh. 
The number per minute varies : Horse, 36 to 40 ; 
ox, 45 to 50 ; sheep and pig, 70 to 80 ; dog, 90 
to 100 ; camel, 28 to 32 ; elephant, 25 to 28. It is 
slower in the male than in the female. It is more 
rapid in the young than in the old, as, for example, 
in the foal, 100 to 120; in the calf, 90 to 130. 
The daily work of the heart is estimated at 1,539, 
000 foot-pounds, or one-third of a horse-power. 

The normal temperature of animals varies: 
Horse, 100° Fahr.; ox, 101 to 102.5; sheep and 
swine, 103; dog, 102.5 and very changeable. It is 
lowest about 4 a. m., and highest at 6 p. m. The 
liver, of all the organs, has the highest tempera- 
ture, 106.2° Fahr. 

The amount of blood in the body varies consider- 
ably: In the horse, T V (6.6 per cent); ox, -fs (7.7 per 
percent); sheep, T V (8.01 per cent); pig, ^V (4.6 
iercent!;dog,rg-toxj(5.5-9.1 percent) (Sussdorf). 
An average horse has about 66 pounds, or nearly 
50 pints of blood. In bleeding horses, about one 
pint of blood for every hundred pounds of body 
weight is removed. 

The principal formed elements in the blood are 
the red and the white blood-cells or corpuscles, in 
the proportion of 1 red to 800 white. The red cells 
have a diameter of rohns to ^Vo" of an inch. One 
cubic centimeter (16 drops) contains 7,000,000 to 
8,000,000 red cells. They contain a red coloring mat- 
ter called hemaglobin, essential to respiration. The 
white cells are larger than the red. They destroy 
bacteria in the blood and in this way protect the 
body against germ diseases. 



Respiration. 

Respiration comprises two distinct acts — inspi- 
ration and expiration. Inspiration or inhaling of 
air is a purely muscular act. Contraction and 
descent of the diaphragm increases the antro-pos- 
terior depth of the chest by four to five inches. The 
forward rotation of the ribs widens the chest later- 
ally; only the last twelve or thirteen ribs participate 
in this action inthe horse, and the saddleshould never 
be so fitted as to interfere with their movements. 
The pleural cavity, or the space between the lungs 
and the chest wall, having a negative pressure, the 
inspiratory movements create a vacuum in this 
space, which, as it were, sucks in the air and dilates 
the lungs in a mechanical manner. In forced inspi- 
ration other muscles are called into play. 

Expiration is largely mechanical. The inspiratory 
muscles suddenly relax, the chest walls collapse, 
the abdominal muscles balged out during inspira- 
tion contract, compress the abdominal organs and 
force the diaphragm up into the chest cavity. All 
this tends to expel the air from the lungs by com- 
pression. The elasticity of the lungs also plays an 
important role. The air-sacs or vesicles have elastic 
walls and act like a rubber bag inflated by blowing 
air into it; when distended it will recoil and expel the 
air. At repose the expiration in the horse is longer 
than the inspiration, and is continuous. In chronic 
diseases of the lungs, such as heaves, in which the 
air-sacs are permanently dilated or ruptured and 
therefore not amenable to treatment, the expiratory 
movement of the flank has a double jerk. The fetal 
lung contains no air and sinks in water. This fact 
indicates whether a fetus was born dead or alive. 

The number of respirations per minute are : 
Horse, 8 to 10 ; ox, 12 to 15 ; sheep and goat, 12 
to 20 ; dog, 15 to 20 ; pig, 10 to 15. They are con- 
trolled automatically by the respiratory center in 
the medulla of the brain. They increase rapidly 
during exercise. 

The respiratory changes in the blood consist 
principally in the interchange of oxygen and 
carbon dioxid. Atmospheric air contains by volume 
20.96 per cent of oxygen, 79.01 per cent of nitro- 
gen, .03 per cent of carbon dioxid and a small 
amount of moisture (Smith). The interchange of 
gases between tbe pulmonary air-sacs and the 
blood-vessels is based on the law of the diffusion 
of gases. The pressure of the oxygen in the lungs 
is higher than that in the capillaries ; the pressure 
of the carbon dioxid in the lungs is lower than that 
nrthe capillaries. The gases will diffuse until the 
pressure on both sides is equalized. Carbon dioxid 
passes from the blood into the air-sacs, and oxygen 
from the air-sacs into the blood. Oxygen forms a 
weak combination with the hemaglobin of the red 
blood-cell, called oxyhemaglobin. No free oxygen 
is found in the muscles. It forms a new combina- 
tion from which it is liberated as needed. The 
carbon dioxid taken up from the tissues converts 
hemaglobin into reduced hemaglobin. Some carbon 
dioxid is fixed in the blood by the sodium carbonate. 
The lungs also give off free nitrogen and other 
organic products that render the expired air 
impure and unfit for respiration. 



22 



PHYSIOLOGY OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



The lungs of the horse contain about one and 
one-half cubic feet of air. During repose, between 
eighty and ninety cubic feet are inhaled per hour ; 
three and one-half cubic feet of oxygen are absorbed 
and three cubic feet of carbon dioxid exhaled. The 
volume of the expired air, however, is greater than 
that of the inspired because of its expansion by 
the heat of the lungs. An average inspiration 
represents about 250 cubic inches or one-tenth 
of the total lung capacity. The lungs are never 
entirely emptied during expiration. A certain 
amount, called residual air, always remains. 

These phenomena are rapidly increased by mus- 
cular exercise. Training in the horse is based 
largely on the amount of blood pumped into the 
lungs by the heart and that going from the lungs 
back into the heart. If more blood is pumped into 
the lungs than 
leaves it in a given 
time, congestion 
and breathlessness 
result and the 
animal becomes 
"choked." 




Fig. 25. Lungs of horse, a. 
Trachea; b, left bronchus: 
Oi, bronchia, or branch of 
bronchus: c. left lung: ci. 
cephalic lobe of left lung; 
d, right lung; e, medial 
lobe. 



In the nose and the facial sinuses, — large cavi- 
ties within the sides of the face, — the air is warmed, 
receives moisture and loses dust particles. The 
absence of these changes explains the unsatisfac- 
tory results obtained from the use of permanent 
tubes in the windpipe. In a horse full of spirit a 
peculiar vibrating or " flopping " noise is some- 
times made by the nostrils. It is not an unsound- 
ness. The horse and ox do not breathe through the 
mouth except when in great distress ; the soft 
palate is so large and pendulous that it practically 
closes the opening between the mouth and the 
throat. 

The larynx, the organ of voice, is composed of 
five articulated cartilages surrounded and moved 
by muscles. In its interior it has a V-shaped pas- 



sage, called the glottis, prolonged by the windpipe, 
though much smaller. The to and fro movements 
of the membranous vocal cords and the arytenoid 
cartilages widen the glottic opening during inspi- 
ration and narrow it during expiration. Vibration 
of the vocal cords produces the voice. Degenera- 
tion of the left inferior laryngeal nerve often 
causes an atrophy of the muscles on that side. This 
immobilizes the corresponding vocal cord and the 
arytenoid cartilage, and the air rushing through 
the insufficiently dilated glottis produces in the 
horse a sound called "roaring" or "broken-wind." 
In the ox, sheep and goat the nostrils are small 
and immobile. The respiratory organs are less 
active, less adapted for muscular exercise and not 
so susceptible to disease as those of the horse. 

The urine. 

The kidneys are like a filter in removing from 
the blood noxious materials. Urine has a specific 
gravity of 1015 to 1036, is turbid, and yellow or 
yellowish red in color, due to broken-down blood 
pigment. It contains urea, uric and hippuric acids, 
creatin and creatinin ; also sodium, potassium, cal- 
cium and magnesium combined with chlorine, 
oxalic, sulfuric, phosphoric and carbonic acids. In 
meat-eating animals the urine is acid. Uric acid 
only is found ; it exists as urates. Where it is 
formed is not known. In herbivora the urine is 
alkaline, and hippuric acid replaces the uric acid. 
Hippuric acid, existing as hippurates of lime and 
potash, is derived from the benzoic acid of plants 
combined with glycin from albumen decomposition. 

The organic group of urine constituents repre- 
sents the nitrogen combustion. The more albumen in 
the food, as in carnivora, the more the urea. Urea 
itself is not found in the muscles. It exists here as 
creatin, the conversion of which into urea takes 
place in the liver and possibly some other glands. 
After removal of the kidneys, urea accumulates in 
the blood and gives rise to uremic poisoning. The 
inorganic salts are derived from the food. 

The horse excretes nine to twelve pints of urine 
daily, and less at work than at rest. In herbivora, 
30 per cent of the water escapes through the kid- 
neys and 70 per cent through the lungs and skin ; in 
carnivora, 60 per cent escapes through the kidneys, 
showing that there is relatively more urine in the 
latter. The ox secretes ten to forty pints daily. 
The urine of the pig resembles that of the dog. 

The urine passes, drop by drop, from the kidney 
through a tube called the ureter into the bladder. 
The relaxation of the neck of the bladder and the 
contraction of its wall during urination are con- 
trolled by a spinal center in the loins. Disease of 
the spinal cord may cause paralysis of the bladder 
with incontinence of urine. In short, the kidneys, 
together with the lungs and skin, save the organ- 
ism from rapid auto-intoxication by removing 
waste materials from the blood. The kidneys of 
the domestic animals are much less susceptible to 
disease than in man because animals work more 
constantly and the dietetic violations are not so 
flagrant ; the organs are not so overtaxed by 
excreting surplus food. The layman's conception 



PHYSIOLOGY OP DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



23 



of " trouble with the kidneys " or with the " water" 
when the horse shows colicky pain from indigestion, 
is purely traditional and mythical. 

The skin. 

The skin or external integument of the body has 
several functions : (1) It acts as an organ of touch. 
The long hair (tentacles) on the lips and nostrils 
have a special tactile function. (2) It is a protec- 
tion to the body. With its hairy covering on top 
and a layer of fat underneath it retains the animal 
heat. The horn of the hoof, especially, is a poor 
conductor of heat. The length of the coat depends 
on the surrounding temperature. It changes twice 
a year in fall and spring. Work horses with a long 
winter coat sweat freely and are predisposed to 
"cold" and diseases of the lungs. This can be 
remedied by clipping if they are properly cared for. 
In the dog and cat, under excitement, and in the 
horse exposed to cold or to the direct rays of the 
sun after coming out of the stable, the hair 
becomes erect. This is caused by the contraction 
of the muscle fibers in the skin attached to the 
base of the hair. Blisters and other injuries to the 
skin may cause white hair to grow, which may be 
evidence of a previous disease of the parts. White 
horses can not stand heat so well as those of dark 
colors. The coat of the young animal often changes 
before it is adult. The black horse is a mouse- 
colored foal ; brindle is yellow or lemon-colored in 
the puppy; the coach-dog puppy is entirely white. 

(3) The skin has numerous glands secreting 
sweat or perspiration. Solipeds are the only do- 
mestic animals perspiring over the entire body. The 
glands in these species are most abundant. Perspi- 
ration is seen first at the base of the ear, then at 
the side of the neck and shoulders, and lastly over 
the hind- quarters. The ass and mule sweat less 
profusely than the horse. The quantity of perspira- 
tion in the horse in 24 hours varies with the tem- 
perature and humidity of the atmosphere ; at rest, 
about 6.4 pounds are given off ; working on a trot, 
14 pounds, and 7 pounds emitted by the lungs. 

Perspiration and radiation regulate animal heat. 
Perspiration lowers the body temperature : a horse 
that does not sweat on a hot day is liable to suffer 
from "heat stroke." Some animals, as the frog, 
breathe through the skin, and it is asserted that in 
the horse oxygen and carbon dioxid interchange in 
minute quantities. The sweat glands also abstract 
from the blood waste products, such as urea, in 
inverse ratio to the kidneys. This is witnessed in 
eczema and other inflammatory eruptions. 

Sweat contains serum-albumen and is rich in 
soda and potash. The loss of serum makes exces- 
sive sweating weakening and can be remedied by 
clipping. The serum mats the hair together and 
the salts form a fine sand-like coating. 

The ox sweats on the muzzle and but rarely over 
the body ; the dog and cat sweat on the nose and 
foot-pads and the pig on the snout only. The dog 
really " perspires " through the lungs. 

(4) Numerous sebaceous glands in the skin 
secrete a fatty substance, called sebum, which im- 
pregnates the skin and hair, keeps the skin pliable 



and the coat glossy. It lessens heat radiation and 
drains off the water. Horses living in the open 
need it for protection from rain and cold and should 
not be groomed too much. The sebum contains lan- 
olin. The fleece of sheep contains large quantities 
of sebum which is used as a base for ointments. 
It is also found in the hoof and feathers. In cows 
the abundance of these glands gives to the ear, 
thigh and other parts the yellow color indicating 
butter qualities. Morphologically, the mammary 
glands are similar to the sebaceous glands. 

Dandruff consists of dried epithelial scales, fat, 
silica, dirt and chlorophyl (the coloring matter of 
plants). Good grooming removes the dandruff, 
opens the orifices or pores of the gland ducts, stim- 
ulates the circulation and activates the sweat and 
sebaceous secretion. 

The skin is also an absorbing surface for drugs. 
Extensive Spanish-fly blisters may cause suppres- 
sion of the urine and even inflammation of the 
kidneys. In cattle, mercurial poisoning may be 
produced by mercuric blisters. The skin of bovines 
is very dense ; blisters are therefore not very 
effective and are little used. 

Reproductive functions. 

The organs of sex are most remarkably con- 
structed in order not to fail of procreation and the 
perpetuation of the species. The practical breeder 
should have some knowlege of their function. The 
reproductive functions and processes are discussed 
at length in Mumford's article on Some of the Prin- 
ciples of Animal-Breeding, in Chapter III. A few 
additional notes are in place here. 

The essential facts in the fecundation of the 
female egg by the spermatozoon of the male are 
the same in all species. The sexual act is con- 




Fig. 26. Generative organs of mare, o, Eight ovary; 6, 
right oviduct; c, right uterine horn; d, left uterine horn; 
e, body of the uterus: e\, vaginal part of uterus; eu, 
mouth of uterus; f, broad ligament; f\, suspensory liga- 
ment of the ovary; /u, round ligament; g, vagina; h, 
vulva; i, vulvar cavity; ii, posteri or commissure; iu t 
anterior commissure; k, muscle constrictor eunni; m, 
corpus cavernosum vestibule; n, abdominal wall; o, left 
kidney; p. left ureter; r, bladder; s, urethra; t y rectum; 
w, anus; v, external sphincter muscle of anus; w, point 
where the levator ani muscle passes under the external 
sphincter; £, levator ani muscle; y, longitudinal fibers of 
the rectum: yt, posterior band of fibers; z. muscle con- 
strictor vestibule; 1, utero-ovariau artery; li. branch to 
the ovary; lu, branch to the horn of the uterus: 2, exter- 
nal uterine artery; 3, umbilical artery; 4 and 5, sections 
through pelvic bone. 



24 



PHYSIOLOGY OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



trolled by the nervous system. The penis, vagina 
and clitoris enjoy a special sensibility. The 
erection and rigidity of the penis are due to the 
engorgement of its blood-vessels and venus sinuses, 
which increases its size two or three times. The 
penis of the bull does not increase much in volume ; 
it has a double curve like a flattened S and the un- 
folding of this curve gives to the organ its length. 
The penis of the ram has a pointed vermiform 
extremity that seems to be necessary for success- 
ful impregnation ; after its removal the ram is 
sterile. The penis of the dog contains a bone and 
two ovoid enlargements at its posterior part. The 
sphincter muscles of the vulva grasp the penis 
behind these enlargements during copulation and 
"fasten" the male and female until complete 
relaxation occurs. Except in the dog and pig 
coition is of short duration. In the ram and bull it 
is almost instantaneous. In the horse it lasts ten 
to twelve seconds. 

Ejaculation is due principally to a spasmodic 
contraction of the seminal vesicles and urethra 
canal. In the bull and ram, because of the pointed 
penis, a part of the seminal fluid may be ejected 
into the womb directly. In other animals it is 
deposited in the vagina. To insure the entrance of 
the semen into the uterine cavity, the uterus may 
be " opened." The os may be closed by a spasmodic 
contraction of its muscular wall or plugged up by 
thick mucus. To overcome this, first one and then 
two and even three fingers are slowly forced into 
the orifice. The semen may be injected into the 
uterus artificially. A sterile, long-muzzled, metallic 
syringe filled with the semen deposited in the 
vagina is passed through the os and emptied into 
the womb. The writer has seen mares which 
remained sterile before, become pregnant after 
this treatment. In the stallion ejaculation is 
accompanied by rhythmical movements of the tail, 
indicating the completion of the act. 

The vitality of the sperm cells is destroyed by 
excessive acidity of the vaginal secretion from 
altered secretory functions or bacterial fermenta- 
tion. This is overcome by flushing out the vagina 
with a solution of baking-soda. Washing out the 
vagina with a solution of yeast several hours be- 
fore stinting has led to successful impregnation in 
mares heretofore barren. Loading the back and 
moving briskly are practiced to prevent straining 
after service. 

The mucus from the prostate and Cowper's 
glands dilutes the semen ; after too many services 
in one day it constitutes the principal part of the 
ejaculatory discharge and impregnation fails. The 
uterus, during the orgasm, expels a small quantity 
of mucus into the vagina. 

In woman, who represents the most highly 
domesticated female, there is a period in life 
between forty and fifty years, called the mena- 
pause, when menstruation and fecundity cease. 
This phenomenon does not exist in females of 
domestic animals. The reproductive faculty ceases 
gradually with progressive senility. There are 
some remarkable instances of prolificness in the 
mare. A mare gave birth to twenty-nine foals in 



thirty-eight years (Degive). Some stallions are 
prolific until very old age. 

At the period of puberty certain changes take 
place in conformation and temperament, more 
particularly in horses. The body becomes more 
filled out and better consolidated; the colt becomes 
less awkward, the head and neck more developed, 
the voice deeper, the temperament irritable and 
sometimes vicious; there is more life and vigor. 
The physical and mental characteristics peculiar 
to the sex become more accentuated. 

Hybrids, which are the progeny of two different 
species, are, with few exceptions, sterile. The best 
known hybrids are the mule from the ass and mare 
and the hinny from the stallion and the jennet; 
also those from the sheep and the goat, the dog 
and the wolf, the dog and the fox. Hybrids possess 
sexual organs but spermatogenesis and ovulation 
are abortive. In bovines, the female of twins, the 
other being a male, is usually barren. It is called 
a "free-martin." Chauveau states, on what author- 
ity the writer does not know, that a mare stinted 
at short intervals to a stallion and an ass, gave 
birth successively to a horse foal and a mule foal. 

Hermaphrodites, or "morphodites," as called by 
the laity, possess the genital organs of both sexes. 
They exist only among low animal life. In the 
foetus of higher animals the primordial genital 
organs of both sexes are present and at a given 
time in its development the sex of the future adult 
can not be prognosticated. In the female, some of 
the male foetal organs are preserved in a very rudi- 
mentary state, and vice versa with the male. In the 
so-called hermaphrodites, one or more of the organs 
are abnormally developed but never sexually perfect. 
We, have seen the clitoris of the mare, which corre- 
sponds to the male penis, attain a length of several 
inches and protrude from the vulva like a penis. 
In the ox an incomplete uterus was found and the 
testicles occupied the position of the ovaries as in 
the foetus. In the sow the ovaries have been found 
in the position of the testicles. 

Physiology op Poultry 

Digestion. — Fowls have no teeth. The jaws are 
encased by the horny beak. The mouth shows a 
large opening into the pharynx, the soft palate 
being absent ; its roof has a cleft leading into the 
nasal cavities. 

The esophagus is wide and at its lower part has 
a dilated pouch called the crop. In the pigeon the 
crop is double. In grain-eating birds the grain 
dilates the crop and becomes macerated by a watery 
secretion poured out by the glands of its mucous 
lining. During the latter part of hatching and the 
first week afterward the crop secretes a milky 
secretion which is regurgitated and fed to the 
young birds ; it is abundant in pigeons, and is 
known as pigeon's milk. 

The first stomach (ventriculus) is a sacular dilata- 
tion of the gullet continued by the gizzard. Itsmucous 
membrane secretes an acid gastric juice, but no 
actual digestion takes place here because the cellu- 
lose covering of the grain particles is not crushed. 



I'HYSIOLOGY OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



25 



The gizzard or second stomach is the triturating 
apparatus. It is an ovoid organ with very thick 
muscular walls and contains small pebbles and 
sand necessary to crush the food. An acid secre- 
tion is also poured out here and proteid digestion 
begins. In flesh-eating birds the crop is absent 
and the gizzard thin- walled. The food of these fowls 
requires no trituration. The orifice between the 
gizzard and small intestine is small and large indi- 
gestible masses of 
food unable to pass 
through are vomited 
up. The solvent ac- 
tion of the gastric 
juice is strong. 

In the intestine the 
food is acted on by 
the intestinal juice, 
the bile and the 
pancreatic secretion 
poured into the duo- 




Fig. 27. The digestive apparatus of a common fowl. 1, 
tongue; 2. esophagus, first part; 3, crop; 4, esophagus, 
second part; 5. succentrie ventricle; 6, gizzard: 7, origin 
of duodenum; 8, second blanch of duodenal flexure; 9, 
origin of floating part of small intestine; 10, small 
intestine: 11, caeca: 12, insertion of ca?ca; 13, rectum; 14, 
cloaca; 15, pancreas; 16, liver; 17, gall-bladder; 18, spleen. 

denum. Villi for absorption are numerous. Fowls 
have two club-shaped ceeca six to eighteen inches 
long ; they secrete a macerating fluid. The rectum 
terminates inside of the anal opening in a cavity 
called the cloaca, a dilated receptacle for the feces, 
the urine, the egg from the oviduct and the semen. 
The cloaca also lodges the penis. 

Circulation of the blood. 

The circulation of the blood in fowls offers few 
practical differences when compared with other 
domestic species. The blood is characteristic in 



that the red blood cell is bi-convex, neucleated and 
oval instead of round. The temperature of the blood 
is much higher than in mammals, being 41° to 42° 
C, and even 44° C. in health. For this reason 
poultry are immune to certain diseases, as anthrax, 
whereas, when surrounded by a cold chamber or 
swimming in cold water so as to lower the tem- 
perature, such immunity ceases. 

Respiration. 

The disposition of the respiratory organs shows 
some marked peculiarities. The last ring of the 
windpipe is disposed to resemble a second larynx, 
which in song-birds is the source of vocal sounds. 
The lungs are small, fastened to each side of the 
backbone, and only partly fill the chest. A modi- 
fied diaphragm is present. 

Most remarkable is the air-reservoir or air-sac 
system in the avian species. The large air-sacs are 
situated between the backbone and the organs in 
the thorax and abdomen. They are connected with 
the lungs through the bronchial tubes. Peripherally 
they are continued by means of membranous tubes 
into a series of smaller sacs in the pelvis and be- 
tween the muscles of the thigh, shoulder and arm. 
Here they enter small orifices in the bones and open 
into air-sacs in the marrow cavity. Bones so hol- 
lowed are the vertebras of the backbone, breast- 
bone, ribs, pelvis, thigh, shoulder-blade and arm 
bones. Contraction of the surrounding muscles com- 
presses the air-sacs and expels the air through the 
lungs; when the compression ceases, the air is again 
sucked in and the sacs distended. Inspiration thus 
is passive and expiration active, and the air during 
both acts passes through the lungs. The inter- 
change of oxygen and carbon dioxid is similar 
to that in the lungs. The air-sacs render the 
body lighter, promote equilibrium during 
flight and increase the range and power of [HJ 
the voice. 

Reproductive functions. 

The testicles, oval in form, are 
situated against the roof of the 
abdomen opposite to the last three 
ribs and in front of the kidneys. 
They lie close to a large vein, the 
vena cava, which can be readily 
torn in caponizing. There are no 
seminal vesicles. The semen passes 
through the spermatic ducts into 
the cloaca. In the crowing species 
the penis is only a small eminence 
at the cloacal margin, and is 
traversed by a furrow through 
which the semen flows. In 
dueks and geese it is of a 
corkscrew form. During copu- 
lation the anus of the male is 
placed against the cloaca of 
the female. 

In the female there is one 
ovary, the left, the right being — 28 

nearly always atrophied. The Crop and ^ zali 
situation is the same as that f fowl. - 




26 



THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS 



of the testicle. In it can be seen the ripened eggs 
in the ovarian vesicles in various stages of develop- 
ment, — some young, small and white, others older, 
large and yellow. 

The egg consists at first of the yolk or vitellus. 
In about six hours it reaches the lower third of the 
oviduct, surrounded by the albumen or " white of 
the egg," enveloped by a thin membrane in which 
calcareous matter is deposited to form the egg- 
shell. In about twenty-four hours it passes into 
the cloaca and thence to the exterior. During 
incubation life is maintained by the white of the 
egg, and respiration takes place through the pores 
of the shell. The male is not necessary for egg- 
laying, but the non-fecundated egg will not hatch. 
Nor is a separate copulation required for every 
fertile egg laid. In some species of poultry cohabi- 
tation with the male for a limited time suffices for 
the remainder of the laying season. 



The urine. 

The urinary apparatus in fowls is simple. The 
kidneys are oval in form. The urine passes into the 
cloaca, and is discharged mixed with the feces. In 
all species except the ostrich, the cloaca replaces 
the bladder. 

Literature. 

Much valuable literature has been prepared on 
this subject. It is impossible here more than to 
suggest a few references. Robt. M. Smith, Physi- 
ology of the Domestic Animals ; F. Smith, A Manual 
of Veterinary Physiology ; Chauveau, A Compara- 
tive Anatomy of the Domesticated Animals : C. Cor- 
nevin, Traite de Zootechnie, Rev. Generate de Mede- 
cine Veterinaire ; Mills, Animal Physiology ; Prof. 
Dr. W. Ellenberger, Leisering's Atlas der Anatomie 
des Pferdes und der Ubrigen Haustiere [Figs. 
18-20, 22, 24-26, adapted from Ellenberger's Atlas]. 



CHAPTER III 



THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS 

By EUGENE DAVENPORT 

MPROVEMENT OF DOMESTICATED ANIMALS means their increased capacity 
for service to man. This great fact of service gives the keynote to all 
breeding operations and affords the only basis for rational procedure. 

In this sense animal-breeding is to be distinguished from mere multi- 
plication of numbers ; it is distinctly qualitative, and the need for it lies 
in the fact that we are engaged in the attempt to adapt what were once 
■ wild animals to civilized conditions, and to readapt qualities useful to the 
animals themselves in a state of nature until they shall serve to the highest 
degree the needs and purposes of man. 

Viewed from this standpoint, fads and fancies must be disregarded 
so far as business considerations permit, and everything not useful to 
man must be eliminated from consideration save only those qualities that 
have to do with the health and vigor of the animal, and hence with the 
perpetuation of his species. We have proceeded about as far along certain 
lines as we are likely to go until this principle is more fully recognized ; 
until, for example, a combination of blood lines that ought to be made 
can be accomplished without destroying the commercial value of the animal 
because his pedigree is thereby unfashionable. 

In most directions, function rather than form is the chief consideration. What can the animal 
do, rather than what is his form or color, is the question always to be in the mind of him who expects 
really to improve our animal servants. Form is striking because it appeals directly to the eye, but 
it has been greatly over-emphasized, not only as the direct object of breeding but also as an index 
of quality, for all studies yet made indicate that the correlation between form and function is in most 
cases far less than has been hitherto supposed. 

The individual as a whole has occupied too much attention in the mind of the breeder. The single 
character is the real object of thought and selection in all successful breeding operations ; it is the 
real unit of study in all problems of heredity, and the actual basis of operations in all cases of 
variability. The individual is but a single instance of the many patterns that may be cast out of 
the various characters that belong to the race, and he is not to be taken too seriously. The dominant 








•'■*' ■ 



*. "v 



Plate II. Turkey gobbler, developed from the native stock, and the only species of North American bird that 
has contributed to agricultural live-stock. (See page 586.) 



THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS 27 

characters of the race, and their correlations — this is the great question in all the problems of the 
breeder and in all efforts at further improvement. 

Breeding operations have been surrounded by too much of mystery and by far too much of that 
traditional knowledge accepted as truth only by reason of its frequent repetition. Breeding is by 
nature an exact science, but it will never come into its own until it is freed from the dense mass 
of superstition that has come to us largely through the " back alleys," handed down in whispers from 
mouth to mouth, clouded with inexact observation, faulty memory, and hastily drawn conclusions. 

Present-day biological knowledge teaches us that under the law of chance all conceivable com- 
binations of racial characters may arise, limited only by what is physiologically impossible. With 
this view of the case mere freaks are worse than valueless. When, however, the new thing represents a 
really new and fortunate combination of valuable characters, it is not a freak but a real contribution 
to the race. In no other business is there greater need of settling down to systematic operations 
based on definite conceptions of what is desired and accurate knowledge of the materials with which 
we have to work. 

One broad distinction should always rest clearly in the mind of the individual breeder : Is he 
trying really to improve the breed beyond anything attained before, or is he endeavoring only to 
possess himself of as much as possible of what has been accomplished by others ? If only the latter, 
his problem is comparatively simple. He can easily multiply individuals of known breeding, or, 
which is cheaper, resort to grading, and in four to six generations by the use of sires alone he can 
possess himself of practically all that has been accomplished by others. 

If, on the other hand, he aspires to produce something distinctly in advance of what others have 
produced, really to create animal excellence, then he has a more difficult problem, for he is aspiring 
to the very acme of undertaking in this field. Much confusion arises in the public mind and in that 
of the individual by reason of insufficient clearness at this point. 

Breeders' associations have much to do in the matter of advancing and upholding rational ideals 
of breeding. It is for them to distinguish sharply between that which is legitimate breeding and 
that which is mere multiplication of numbers. They have a work to do in increasing the practice 
of grading, both for the general good and for their own benefit ; for the real business of all pure- 
bred flocks and herds is the production of sires to go on the common stock of the country and improve 
it. The over-enthusiasm of many breeders exerted to induce everybody, or, as many as possible, to 
breed pedigreed stock, — this mistake alone is responsible for many failures in the breeding business 
and for an insufficient market for sires. 

In the matter of applying scientific principles to the business of practical breeding, one economic 
fact must be reckoned with, — stock must be bred that will sell, and if that is done then the breeders 
must produce what the people want. The desires of the buyer may be all wrong, and if so he should be 
educated to sane standards with as little delay as possible ; but, until he is corrected, he must be dealt 
with on his own terms, for no man's pocketbook is deep enough to enable him to continue the breeding 
business much beyond what the buying public will support. The breeder must correct his own fads, 
whatever they may be, and associations cannot too rapidly free the business from the last traces of 
arbitrary standards. At both of these points the practical breeder can take aggressive ground, but 
beyond that he must be more careful, for he dare not break with the buyer. This is not saying that the 
buyer is to be encouraged in his notions, but it is saying that he must be patiently considered. And' 
when the breeder warps his practice against his better judgment in order to continue in the business, 
he will not, if he is wise, submit to non-conditional surrender. He will stay as near to safe practice 
as circumstances will permit and will recover and possess himself of lost ground at the very first 
opportunity. 

Students and breeders, alike, overlook the importance of grading as a necessary adjunct to success- 
ful breeding. Because it is not in itself a highly developed phase of the breeder's art, it is commonly 
left out of consideration in the discussion of breeding operations. The importance of an economic outlet 
has been alluded to and cannot be overestimated. The chief drawback to the business of further improv- 
ing our domestic animals is the absence of an adequate market for surplus stock. Breeders are selling 
back and forth among themselves at large prices, but the market for sires, for grading purposes, is 
largely undeveloped, and, strangely enough, it seems not to be much noted by the breeders themselves, 
who are inclined to treat it as a problem impossible of solution. The fact is that the common stock of 
the country needs the improvement that can come only with a better grade of sires, and, at the same 
time, it is also true that the breeders are suffering from an insufficient market for the produce of their 



28 



SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL-BREEDING 



flocks and herds. The business of every breeding herd is the production of good sires, most of which 
should go for grading purposes ; and one of the largest and most urgent phases of the breeding 
business is to take hold of this situation boldly and to develop, among common farmers everywhere, 
an adequate market for sires. 

From all considerations of business foresight, the breeder cannot afford to be ignorant of the 
principles that underlie the business he undertakes and with which he must reckon at every step. 
These principles are complex, not simple ; many, not few ; and their combinations are so varied and 
the results so diverse as to lead to the frequent assumption that breeding is a "jumble." Nothing 
is further from the truth. The laws and principles that underlie the breeding business are always 
present and always operative ; they are well defined if not well understood, and if the same condi- 
tions are not apparently followed by the same results it is only because of our inability fully to 
recognize all the facts and all the principles in any particular instance. Much progress has been 
made in recent years toward securing accurate knowledge of these principles, and much yet remains 
to be learned. Important investigations are under way in many places from which new knowledge 
should come, and enough is already known to point fairly well to the direction from which further 
light may be expected. 



SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF 
ANIMAL-BREEDING 

By Frederick B. Mumford 

The real object sought in breeding animals is 
the development of those characters which have a 
peculiar value to man. Breeding is an art, and the 
breeder's work consists in the development and 
improvement of those domestic animals which 
furnish such valuable products as labor, meat, milk, 
butter, cheese, wool, hair and leather. Breeding is 
also a science in that it deals with the principles of 
biology, and particularly with that branch of 
biology which we call evolution. 

The successful breeder requires a knowledge of 
the reproductive functions and the laws of hered- 
ity, variation and selection, which together com- 
prise the great problem of evolution in all its 
varied relations and manifestations. 

I. Reproductive Functions and Processes 

The unit of organic life is the cell, and the recent 
investigations have demonstrated that many of the 
unsolved problems of progressive development will 
ultimately find their solution in cell study. It is 
desirable therefore that the essential characters 
and functions of the cell unit be first described. 

The cell. 

The essential constituents of the cell consist of 
a mass of protoplasm in which floats a specially 
formed part called the nucleus. The cell wall is 
usually present and was earlier thought to be 
essential, but it is now known that cells may be 
functionally perfect when the cell wall is totally 
absent. In the substance of the cell occur all those 
processes of assimilation, absorption and formation 
which together determine the existence and dura- 
tion of life in the animal body. The cell is there- 
fore the seat of those highly important processes 
which are responsible for the hereditary trans- 
mission of characters. The fundamental causes of 
variation are to be found in the protoplasm of 
the cell. Unfortunately, our methods of investiga- 
tion are not yet sufficiently accurate to discover 



the cell processes that determine when and how 
animal characters are transmitted. In the higher 
forms of life, groups of cells become more or less 
segregated, and while to a certain extent interde- 
pendent, they may carry forward an existence 
separate and apart from the organism as a whole. 
For example, the female reproductive cell, the egg 
or ovum, may be fertilized, developed and finally 
expelled from the uterus without fixing any of its 
peculiar characters on the mother organization. 

The most important vital property of the cell is 
its ability to divide and subdivide, thus producing 
new individuals and new tissues in the same 
individual. This process of division brings about 
growth and consequent increase in size. The life 
of the cell, and its highly important content, pro- 
toplasm, reaches after a time a point when it has 
no longer the ability to accomplish its functional 
activities and death ensues. To provide for a con- 
tinuation of the species, nature has endowed all 
organic beings with the ability to reproduce. The 
essential steps in the process of reproduction are 
first, the formation of an egg by the female and, 
second, the fertilization of this egg by the male 
fecundating fluid. 

Essential organs of reproduction. (Figs. 26, 29-31.) 

Ovaries. — The growth and development of the 
female egg-cell takes place in the ovaries. In the 
domestic animals these are two in number, gener- 
ally bean-shaped and in more or less close prox- 
imity to the uterus and united with it by means of 
the egg-canals, the Fallopian tubes. The ovary 
consists of a mass of connective tissue permeated 
with blood vessels, nerves and lymphatics. A cross- 
section of the ovary shows the whole structure to 
be filled with closed sacs of various sizes, contain- 
ing a fluid substance in which floats one, or at most, 
two cells with well-developed nuclei. These are the 
Graffian follicles producing later the ova or eggs 
that are destined to become the embryos of new 
individuals. At certain periods, recurring with 
considerable regularity, the female is said to be in 
heat and will then accept the attentions of the 
male. At this time, if the ovary be carefully ex- 
amined, it will be seen that one or more of the 



SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL-BREEDING 



29 



Graffian follicles has become considerably enlarged 
and has arranged itself close nnder the covering 
of the ovary. During the period of heat this folli- 
cle bursts through the covering of the ovary and 
is either lost in the abdominal cavity or, which is 
normally the case, passes into the Fallopian tube 
and finally reaches the uterus. It is not known at 
just what time during 
the period of heat the 
egg passes downward and 
finally reaches the uterus. 

Fallopian tube. — The 
canal through which the 
ripened ovum reaches the 
uterus is not in close 
union at the upper end 
with the ovaries, but, on 
the contrary, empties di- 
rectly into the abdominal 
cavity. This extremity of 
the Fallopian tube forms 
a trumpet-shaped enlarge- 
ment possessing numerous 
finger-like projections. At 
the time the egg is thor- 
oughly mature, this trump- 
et-shaped end closely en- 
circles and imprisons that 
part of the ovary from 
which the matured egg is 
expelled. Under normal 
conditions the egg passes 
downward and finally 
reaches the uterus. It is 
not known how long the 
egg remains in the Fal- 
lopian tube, but in the 
mare it may be eight or 
ten days, and in the cow twenty-four hours (Vere- 
bungslehre, Keller). It may sometimes happen that 
the egg is thrown out into the abdominal cavity 
instead of passing into the Fallopian tube. In very 
rare cases such an egg may become fertilized and 
abdominal pregnancy result. 

The uterus. — This organ is a large muscular sac 
in which the embryo is nourished until sufficiently 
developed to lead an independent existence. The 
walls are fortified with powerful muscles which 
play an exceedingly important part in bringing 
about the final expulsion of the fcetus at the time 
of birth. The inside lining of the uterus of the 
cow is thickly studded with wart-like projections, 
the so-called cotyledons which, connected as they 
are with the nutritive membrane (decidua) sur- 
rounding the fcetus, are closely associated with the 
nutrition of the embryo. The uterus is joined as 
above described with the Fallopian tubes, and on 
its lower and posterior part it becomes constricted 
and forms the neck or cervix which marks the end 
of the uterus and the beginning of the vagina. 
Failure to breed on the part of many females is 
often due to a severe contraction of the neck of 
the uterus, closing the entrance to the womb and 
thus preventing the male fecundating fluid reaching 
the female egg. 



Egg-cell (ovum). — The egg-cell is the largest cell 
in the animal body. It is filled with dark-colored 
protoplasm and granular materials which have been 
stored during its development in the ovary. These 
materials form a reserve of nutritive substance for 
the rapid development of the embryo. The nucleus 
of the egg-cell is called the germinative vesicle, and 




Fig. 29. Ovaria, oviducts and uterus of sheep (Owen). 



this nucleus, after the fertilization of the egg, 
seems to acquire the power of slow movement. It 
moves to one surface of the egg and there under- 
goes changes preparing it for growth by division. 

The male cell, (spermatozoon.) — In all higher 
animals the male cell is composed of a nucleus and 
a vibratile cilium. The latter seems to exist for 
the purpose of propelling the male cell through a 
fluid medium. Thus, as a result of the activity of 
this organ the male cells may be and often are 
conveyed through the opening of the uterus 
through the uterine sack into the Fallopian tubes 
and finally to the ovary itself. This property of 
the spermatozoon renders the fertilization of the 
egg almost certain at some point of its descent 
from the ovary. 

The male cells originate in the testicles of the 
male. The cells involved in the production of the 
spermatozoa are long tubules lined with epithelial 
cells with" well-defined nuclei. This nucleus is the 
one part preserved throughout all the changes from 
the epithelial cell of the testicle to the finally 
perfect spermatozoon. 

Fertilization of the ovum. 

The spermatozoon pushes its way along until it 
meets the ovum through the tissues of which it 



30 



SOME OP THE PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL-BREEDING 



forces its way into the interior of the cell. The 
nucleus of the male cell passes through changes 
similar to those already described in the egg, and 
this changed nucleus unites with the nucleus of 
the ovum. Changes immediately occur which lead 
to the growth and development of the embryo. 
The new nucleus divides and subdivides, forming 
new cells and continually increasing in size and 
complexity, passes successively through those 
interesting stages of embryonic development, end- 
ing finally in a perfect individual with the charac- 
ters of its parents more or less clearly indicated. 
It is thus that the process of fertilization results 
in a quantitative and qualitative distribution of 
the germ substance of both the male and female 
parents. The so-called daughter cell, which is 
formed by the fusion of the male and female cells, 
rapidly develops by the division of the nuclear 
substance. The significant result of this division 
is that every new cell is supplied with the germ 
elements of both parents and hence may exhibit 
the characteristics of both. 

The mature breeding animal. 

The reproductive functions in animals are not 
fully developed at birth, and after reaching their 
fullness, decline with age. As the animal approaches 
maturity, the sexual organs become fully developed 
and the sexual instincts are prominent. This stage 
in the animal's life is called the period of puberty. 

Puberty. — In the female, puberty is coexistent 
with the ripening of the first egg, and indicates 
the time at which the young animal becomes cap- 
able of reproduction. The age at which puberty 
occurs, varies considerably with the breed of the 
animal and the methods of handling during the first 
months of the animal's life. Young animals gener- 
ously fed on a nutritious diet, reach the period of 
puberty considerably earlier than those fed on a 
sparse diet. Cattle arrive at the period of puberty 
at four to eighteen months of age ; horses at 
twelve to twenty-four months ; sheep at six to ten 




Fig. 30. Typical mammalian ovum (Schafer). 

months, and swine at three to seven months. The 
period of puberty does not represent the best time 
to breed. The artificial conditions which surround 
our domestic animals cause them to' come in heat 
much younger than in a wild state. Great injury 
has been done by breeding females too young. The 



results of this practice have diminished the size and 
decreased the fecundity of many domestic animals, 
especially in the case of swine. 

The best age to breed will vary somewhat with 
conditions. When the breeding animals are very 
valuable, it is important to give 
each individual an opportunity to 
develop perfectly. In commercial 
stock husbandry, it is sometimes 
more profitable to sacrifice some- 
what of full development to early 
maturity and quick returns. The ex- 
perience of breeders indicates that 
the following ages are the best for 
breeding: Horses, two to three years; 
beef cattle, twenty to twenty-seven 
months ; dairy cattle, eighteen to 
twenty-four months; sheep, eighteen 
to twenty months ; swine, eight to 
twelve months. 

Tlie period of heat. — The begin- 
ning of puberty in the female is 
characterized by the ripening of a 
mature egg, and external symptoms 
which together are called the period 
of heat, or, in some wild animals, 
the rutting season. This period is 
accompanied by various manifesta- 
tions. The external genitals become 
swollen and red, and this is accom- 
panied by the discharge of a reddish 
mucous. There is frequent urination Spermatozoon of 

, ,. ^ it j. .i Bos taurus, 

and sometimes a swelling of the tte ox 
mammary glands. The female is often 
restless and utters loud cries. The duration of heat 
varies, but normally continues in the mare two to 
three days, in the cow twelve to twenty-four hours, 
in the sow one to three days, and in the ewe two to 
three days. The frequency with which the heat 
recurs in different animals varies within rather 
narrow limits. The period of heat in the mare recurs 
rather irregularly, but most stallioners agree that 
the mare will come in heat nine days after delivery 
and each two or three weeks thereafter. The cow 
comes in heat forty to sixty days after delivery, if 
suckling the calf, and twenty to thirty days if the 
calf is taken away at birth. After the first appear- 
ance of heat in the cow, the period recurs with con- 
siderable regularity each three weeks thereafter. 
The sow invariably shows signs of heat three days 
after weaning the pigs, and recurs every nine to 
twelve days. The mare and ewe come in heat regu- 
larly during the spring and autumn months. At 
other seasons, the period is irregular and often 
entirely absent. 

If the animal is bred at the time of heat, con- 
ception in normal cases will result, and, after a 
period of development in the uterus of the mother, 
there will be expelled from the generative organs 
a perfect individual. This period of development is 
called the period of gestation. 

The period of gestation. — The period of gestation 
is the time between the impregnation of the ovum 
and the birth of the young. In egg-laying animals 
it is the period of incubation. The length of this 



Fig. 31. 



SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL-BREEDING 



3x 



period is subject to considerable variation, deter- 
mined by various causes not well understood. In 
general its length is in relation to the size of the 
animal. The following is a list of a few animals 
and the period of gestation of each : 

Elephant 20 to 30 months. 

Giraffe 14 months. 

Buffalo 10 to 12 months. 

Ass 12 months. 

Mare 11 to 12 months 

Cow 9 to 9J months (285 days). 

Bear 6 months. 

Sheep and goat .... 5 months (21 weeks). 

Sow 4 months. 

Beaver 4 months. 

Lion 34 months. 

Dog, fox or wolf ... 2 months. 

Cat 50 days. 

Rabbit 30 days. 

Squirrel and rat . . . 28 days. 

The period of incubation extends as follows for 
domestic fowls : 

Turkey 26 to 30 days. 

Guinea 25 to 26 days. 

Peahen 28 to 30 days. 

Ducks 25 to 32 days. 

Geese 27 to 33 days. 

Hens 19 to 24 days (average 21). 

Pigeons 16 to 20 days. 

Canary birds 13 to 14 days. 

Small breeds hatch earlier. Hamburgs hatch at the 
end of the twentieth day ; game bantams at the 
end of the nineteenth day. Duck eggs hatch earlier 
under hens than under ducks, probably because of 
the higher temperature of the hen's body. 

Small breeds of animals require rather less time 
than larger breeds, although early maturity short- 
ens the time. Cold weather retards the process of 
incubation, especially. According to Youatt, all 
animals vary greatly without any known cause. 
The period of gestation in a horse has been known 
to vary from ten to over twelve months. Tessier 
reports 582 cases among mares with a range of 
287 to 419 days ; 1131 cows ranged from 240 to 
321 days. Earl of Spencer reported 764 cows with 
a range of 220 to 313 days. L. F. Allen reports 
results for one year among a herd of 50 Short- 
horns, Heref ords and Devons, as ranging from 268 
to 294 days, or an average of 284 days. Tessier 
observed 912 ewes with a range of 146 to 161 days. 
Darwin found that Merinos run about 150 days, 
while Shropshires and Southdowns require only 
about 144 days. Swine vary from 109 to 123 days, 
but usually run 116 days. 

In practice there are some, causes which hasten 
birth. A sudden cold spell will hasten the birth of 
a litter of pigs. Nervous excitement will hasten 
birth, especially in cows. Parturition of a neighbor- 
ing cow often hastens birth. It is a popular opin- 
ion that male offspring require a longer period of 
gestation. There is not sufficient evidence to war- 
rant this, but in one case of observation on cattle, 
the average period for five years was males 288 
days, females 283 days. Heredity may influence 
the period somewhat. 



Superfcetation. — Normally, animals do not come 
in heat while pregnant, but cases are known in 
which heat recurred during pregnancy. When this 
occurs and the animal is bred, double pregnancy 
may result and the mother may, at the same time, 
carry embryos of different ages in the uterus. 
This condition is called superfcetation. Several 
cases of this kind have come under the writer's 
observation in the mule-breeding districts of the 
South. Mr. W. E. Carmichsel, of Shelbyville, Mis- 
souri, bred a mare to a stallion and thirty days 
later to a jack. At the end of the period of gesta- 
tion the mare gave birth to twins, one a mule and 
the other a horse-colt. They were both dead at 
birth. A mare belonging to Charles Bailey, of 
Gault, Missouri, dropped twins, a mule and a horse- 
colt. Both lived but a short time. 

Superfecundation. — A similar condition, known as 
superfecundation, occurs when a female is covered 
by two different males during the same period of 
heat, and conceives to each. 

Pregnancy. — When, in the normal course of 
events, the female comes in heat and is bred to the 
male, pregnancy results. The more important 
indications of pregnancy are : (1) The cessation of 
the symptoms of heat which, normally, do not recur 
during pregnancy. However, this is not an infalli- 
ble sign of pregnancy, as some mares will accept 
the services of the male when pregnant. (2) A 
sudden change of disposition, after service, from a 
more or less nervous, excitable and sometimes 
vicious mare to a condition of unusual gentleness 
is a good symptom of pregnancy. (3) Tendency to 
lay on fat and gain in weight. (4) Increased size 
of the abdomen and depression of the loins. (5) 
After the seventh month in the mare the foal may 
be felt by pressing the hand firmly against the 
abdomen, in front of the left stifle. The movements 
of the foal may also be felt, especially after the 
mare has taken a drink of ice-cold water. 

The care of pregnant females of the, domestic 
animals is of vital importance to the initial exist- 
ence as well as future welfare of the unborn 
young. When possible, the pregnant animal should 
have the run of a good pasture at least a part of 
the day. Exercise is a prime essential in the care 
of breeding animals, and no other treatment can 
replace it. Especial care is needed to encourage 
exercise in those domestic animals that are closely 
housed in winter. Rations which furnish all the 
necessary nutrients in the right proportions must 
be fed to insure the normal development of the 
unborn young. 

Parturition. — At the end of the period of ges- 
tation, certain important changes take place in the 
body of the mother which result finally in the 
expulsion of the young animal and the beginning 
of its existence as an independent being. This is 
called the period of parturition. As parturition 
approaches, certain external changes occur which 
warn the breeder to be prepared with such aid as 
occasion may demand. Parturition is heralded by 
a swelling of the udder and sometimes of the 
abdomen in front of the udder. Two to six days 
before the final expulsion of the fcetus, a wax- 



32 



SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OP ANIMAL-BREEDING 



like substance exudes from the teats. The vulva 
becomes slightly swollen and has an appearance of 
redness. Shortly before the labor pains actually 
begin, the belly droops, the flanks and rump fall 
in and the loins become depressed. The animal 
evinces great uneasiness, continually lying down 
and getting up, and in other ways exhibiting 
unusual anxiety. In normal cases violent muscular 
contractions, known as labor pains, finally result in 
the birth of the young animal. 

Difficult parturition. — It may sometimes happen 
that the mother is unable to cause the expulsion 
of the foetus. This failure may be due to a wrong 
presentation of the foetus, to disease or weakness, 
fractured hips, or, in rare cases, to twins, which 
tend to come forth together. In such cases arti- 
ficial aid is imperative. The normal presentation 
consists in extending first the fore-legs and head, 
and in this position the young animal may usually 
be born without outside assistance. It frequently 
happens that other parts of the body of the foetus 



non-contagious. Non-contagious abortion is usually 
accidental, and may be caused by an injury, by 
great nervous excitement or irritation, extreme and 
sudden fright, the sight or smell of fresh blood, the 
eating of ergot, emaciation and disease, confine- 
ment in dark, damp, and unhealthy stables, and 
severe cases of indigestion. In practice, abortion 
may occur as the result of a blow inflicted by a 
vicious caretaker, by hurrying pregnant animals 
through a narrow doorway, by giving a heated 
animal a drink of ice-cold water, and in other ways 
suggested by the causes recounted above. The treat- 
ment of non-contagious abortion is very simple and 
consists in removing the causes. 

Contagious abortion. — Contagious abortion is a 
germ-disease caused by the germs entering the 
generative system. These may be carried from one 
female to another by the male. This is one of the 
most serious diseases with which the breeder has to 
contend, and often baffles the most careful and skill- 
ful stockman. The symptoms of this condition are 




Fig. 32. Normal presentations of foal, a, Lnmbo-sacral: b, vertebro-sacral. 



are first extended, in which case it becomes neces- 
sary to rearrange the young animal before 
attempting to withdraw it from the mother. If 
the hind -legs are first extended it is possible for 
the animal to be born in this position. 

To determine the character of the presentation, 
it is necessary to make an examination. In making 
this examination, the most rigid cleanliness should 
be observed. The hands should be thoroughly 
washed with soap and hot water, and the hands 
and arm carefully greased with fresh lard or 
vaseline. Introduce the hand and arm into the 
vagina with great care and gentleness when the 
mother ceases to strain. Determine whether the 
foetus is in proper form to be delivered, and, if so, 
let nature have ample time to expel the young 
animal in the regular way. If the mother is 
unable to accomplish this, then it becomes necessary 
to give some aid. At all stages extreme gentleness 
and patience should be exercised. The fewer 
helpers at such a time the better. After delivery, 
leave the animal alone for some time to rest. In 
very difficult cases it is always better to call in the 
services of a skilled veterinarian. 

Abortion. — Abortion is defined to be the expul- 
sion of the foetus before it is viable. If the 
foetus is expelled prematurely and lives it is more 
often spoken of as premature birth. There are 
two important kinds of abortion, contagious and 



similar to those of parturition, except that the symp- 
toms occur long before the period of gestation has 
run its normal course. 

The treatment for this condition is exacting and 
often unsatisfactory. When an animal has aborted, 
the undeveloped foetus and afterbirth, together 
with the stall litter, should be carefully collected 
and burned. The stall should be sterilized by the 
application of lime and other antiseptics. The 
aborting animal should be quarantined, and her 
generative organs washed out with an antiseptic 
solution composed of chlorid of zinc in the pro- 
portion of 1 to 1000. 

When contagious abortion is known to be present 
in the herd, medical treatment is demanded. This 
treatment had best be given under the direction of 
a veterinarian. If the breeding herd is a valuable 
one and the condition persists, it sometimes becomes 
necessary to separate the young female breeding- 
animals from the contaminated herd and breed 
them to a healthy young bull known to be free from 
the germs of contagious abortion. [This subject is 
further discussed on page 143.] 

Fecundity. — Fecundity is the quality in animals 
of producing young in abundance. It is synony- 
mous with fruitfulness, prolificacy and fertility. 
This quality is greatly influenced by various natural 
conditions, but especially by the more or less arti- 
ficial conditions resulting from domestication. The 






SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL-BREEDING 



33 



fruitfnlness of animals is influenced by climate, 
confinement, kind of food, age, size, degree of fat- 
ness, crossing, inbreeding, disease, season, changed 
conditions and heredity. 

In general, a cold climate is unfavorable to fecun- 
dity, while a warm or temperate climate is favora- 
ble. Confinement and lack of exercise are frequent 
causes of unfruitful ness. Wild animals in confine- 
ment do not breed readily. Flying squirrels pro- 
duce not more than two young at a litter in captiv- 
ity, while in a wild state they produce six. Ostriches 
in captivity lay twelve or fifteen eggs annually, and 
in their native haunts thirty. Darwin describes an 
experiment with domestic fowls in which the eggs 
of those closely confined were only 40 per cent fer- 
tile, of those in partial confinement 60 per cent, 
and of those given full freedom 80 per cent strongly 
fertile. 

The kind of food seems to have in some cases a 
profound influence on the generative functions. 
Entomologists have found that the queen bee, a 
perfect female, owes her sexuality to the royal 
food which she receives while in the larval state. 
The common worker grub may be exalted to roy- 
alty by supplying it with the queen bee food. 
Sugar fed in quantity to the domestic animal is 
known to affect unfavorably the fecundity of the 
inimal. An exclusive ration of corn supplies too 
'arge a proportion of fat-forming foods and may 
injure directly the breeding powers of animals. 

Animals excessively fat often fail to breed at 
all ; or, if they do breed, they produce a small num- 
ber of young. On the other hand, partial starva- 
tion is equally harmful to the procreative powers. 
A generous supply of nutritious food, regularly 
given, is at all times the most favorable condi- 
tion for the highest fertility. Pasture grass seems 
to be of all foods the most satisfactory from the 
standpoint of the breeder. It is asserted by some 
horsemen that it is difficult to get mares in foal 
while running on clover pasture. 

The fertility of animals is greatest at full matu- 
rity. Young animals are less fecund. It is thought 
that the practice of breeding sows, ewes, cows or 
mares at too young an age, if persisted in, will 
eventually diminish materially their fecundity. 
Small animals are usually more fecund than larger 
ones. The ewe, sow, dog, cat and rabbit are much 
more fruitful than the cow or horse. 

Crossing in both plants and animals results in 
greater fecundity. On the other hand, continued 
inbreeding undoubtedly tends to diminish fecundity, 
and probably in the end to destroy fertility itself. 
Some seasons seem to furnish conditions which are 
peculiarly favorable to greater fecundity. Changed 
conditions frequently interfere temporarily with 
the fecundity of the domestic animals. This is most 
often observed in the case of imported animals. A 
stallion recently imported may, for a few months 
after landing in this country, fail to get any mares 
in foal. The stallion " Brennus," a Percheron, was 
used at the Missouri Agricultural College soon 
after his importation. He failed to get a single 
mare in foal. Afterward he became a very success- 
ful breeder. 

C3 




'Anterior 

presentation: 

Fore-limbs benf 
en breast 




Anterior 
presentation 
Fore-limbs on Hie necM. 




Heredity is, perhaps, of all factors the most 
potent in determining the inherent ability of ani- 
mals to produce young in abundance. It is pos- 
sible, by selecting the 
females from large 
litters, to increase the 
fecundity of our ani- 
mals. Twin-born fe- 
males from species nor- 
mally producing one 
young at a birth will 
tend to reproduce this 
quality in their off- 
spring. An exception 
to this is to be noted 
in the case of twins 
born to a cow in which 
one is a bull and the 
other a heifer. In such 
cases the heifer is 
usually sterile and is 
called a "free martin." 
[See page 24.] It not 
infrequently happens 
that some particular 
female fails to become 
pregnant to a certain 
male, but will readily 
conceive to another 
male. This is called 
incompatibility. 

There are numerous 
remarkable cases of 
fecundity on record 
which tend to show the 
possibilitiesof increase 
in our domestic ani- 
mals. A Clydesdale 
mare belonging to G. 
W. Henry, of Iowa, 
gave birth to 19 foals. 
"The Rural New- 
Yorker" pictures a cow 
22 years old -that has 
had 20 calves and was 
again pregnant. " The 
Country Gentleman " 
describes a Leicester 
ewe as giving birth to 
6 lambs. The same 
paper describes a sow 
of ordinary breed that 
produced 23 pigs in 1 
litter and 85 pigs in 5 
litters. 

Barrenness. — Bar- 
ren animals are not 
uncommon, but this 
failure to breed may 
be due to a variety of 
causes. The non - de- 
velopment of the ova, presenlat/on. 
tumors of the ovary, Croup and hock det/iat/bn. 
or fatty degeneration Fig _ 33 . Abnormal prese nta~ 
of the ovaries or Fal- tions f f 0a j. 



Posterior- • 
presentation 

f?it]hthind-/eqbe/ztoa itselp 




/Inferior . 
presentation 
Fore-limbs bent on abdomen. 




'■/'or and 
do/so/ ' pres- 
en tat ion. 
Leftfore-/ea bent on itself. 




34 



SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL-BREEDING 




7h/'oh and croup 

pres en tat/on 





Anterior presentation. 

Head fumed on side. 



lopian tubes may result in permanent sterility. In 
such cases the female usually fails to come in heat. 
When theanimalcomes 
regularly in heat, but 
does not become preg- 
nant after repeated 
breeding, the causes 
of barrenness may be 
local and curable. 
When this condition 
exists, the failure to 
become pregnant may 
be due to a contraction 
of the muscles of the 
cervix or neck of the 
womb. This difficulty 
may be overcome by a 
treatment called open- 
ing. Acid discharges 
from the generative 

'■^SEESS*** ^f are a ' S( ? a fre - 

quent cause of barren- 
ness. This condition 
has been treated very 
successfully by intro- 
ducing ordinary yeast, 
after preparing as for 
bread -making, and 
then diluting with 
warm water and in- 
jecting into the uterus 
just before breeding. 
A common cause of 
partial sterility in all 
domestic animals is a 
failure to provide reg- 
ular and sufficient ex- 
ercise. No medical 
treatment can correct 
this deficiency. 

[For additional notes 
on the reproductive 
functions and pro- 
cesses, see Harger's 
article on Physiology 
of Domestic Animals 
in Chapter II.] 



II. Breeding. — Vari- 
ation, Selection 
and Heredity, 
and their appli- 
CATIONS 

The improvement of 
the domestic animals 
has come about 
through the observ- 
ance of natural laws 
which have acted and 
are still potent in 
determining the limits 
of possible improve- 
ment. Variation, 
which may be defined 




Anterior presentation. . 

Head turned on bocK 




Sterno-oOdoinmal 
pres en tot/ on . 
ripod and feet enooaed 
l(ppe.r l//e.w. 

Fig. 34. Abnormal presenta- 
tions of foal. [Fii>s. 32-34 
adapted from Special Rep., 
Jjur. Animal Ind., 1890. J 



as the appearance of any characters not existing 
in the ancestors, has been a cornerstone in the 
development of the most valuable races and breeds 
of domestic animals. The next step has been the 
intelligent selection of those variations of peculiar 
value. Finally, heredity has been relied on to fix 
and perpetuate desirable variations which have 
been selected by man. 

Variation. 

The organization of all plants and animals is 
more or less elastic and permits of considerable 
variation from the established type; thus, all of 
our domestic animals are constantly tending to 
depart from the characters of their ancestors. 
This tendency to vary is retarded or accelerated 
by many causes. Among these we may mention 
changed conditions of life. Horses taken to the 
barren and cold islands of Shetland become grad- 
ually smaller and hardier, like ponies, and the hair 
becomes thicker and longer. Long continued 
exposure to such conditions ultimately results in 
the production of an animal like the Shetland pony, 
small in size, extremely hardy, able to withstand 
the most severe winter climate and to subsist on a 
minimum of food. Horses taken to the rich low- 
land pastures of middle Europe gradually become 
larger and more powerful, like the Percherons. 
Miles reports a case of an Englishman who intro- 
duced greyhounds on the high plateaus of Mexico 
for the purpose of hunting the swift hares. 
These greyhounds were unable, because of the 
rarefied air, to run down and capture the hares, 
but the offspring of these greyhounds could easily 
run down the hares without fatigue or exhaustion. 

Heredity is also a cause of variation. The union 
of two animals with diverse qualities must neces- 
sarily result in offspring unlike either parent, hence 
the variation from the parent. The constant union 
of characters brought about by heredity must pro- 
duce new combinations of characters and thus 
cause variation. Thus, in crossing the Shorthorn 
and the black Aberdeen-Angus or Galloway, there 
is usually produced an animal of blue-gray color, 
which so far as color is concerned is totally differ- 
ent from either parent. This variation is due to 
heredity and not to any changed conditions. 

Variation may also result from habit or the use 
or disuse of parts. The constant use of any organ 
of the body tends to vary it in accordance with 
the work required. The milking habit in cows may 
be increased by judicious use, or destroyed by dis- 
use. The practice of drying-up beef cows that are 
to be shown is almost certain to result in the grad- 
ual loss of the milking function. The American 
saddle horse has been selected and bred for m:my 
years because of the facility which he exhibits in 
performing certain gaits which are easy to the 
rider. These gaits have been so long required of 
this horse, that now the young colts a few days old 
frequently fall naturally into these more or less 
artificial gaits. 

The principal causes of variation are unquestion- 
ably climate and food, and of these the greatest 
single cause is excessive food supply. But there 



SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL-BREEDING 



35 



seems to be in most animals an inherent tendency 
to vary, which cannot be explained by relation to 
the influences of external causes. All the domestic 
animals, placed as they are, under more or less 
artificial and changed conditions, are much more 
variable than their wild prototypes. 

The variations which occur in the domestic ani- 
mals are some of them favorable and some unfavor- 
able. Many of the variations are such as to make 
the animal distinctly less valuable than before, 
while others, although apparently small in amount, 
may give evidence of the highest value and use- 
fulness to man. It is the highest achievement of 
the successful breeder to be able to detect those 



and powerful wing bones and muscles. The case 
of the Shetland pony described under " variation " 
is an excellent example of the results of natural 
selection. Lamarck mentions the giraffe as an 
example of the development of certain parts 
as a result of continued and excessive use. The 
giraffe originally fed off the ground, but during 
some stage of its existence, herbage on the earth 
being scarce, he began to reach for the leaves on 
the trees. As it became necessary to reach higher 
the neck necessarily became longer and longer 
until we have the long-necked giraffe of the pres- 
ent time. The common garden mole, living exclu- 
sively under the ground, has no need for eyes. As 




Fig. 35. 



A fecund Hereford cow with triplet calves, 
of characters. 



Note the close resemblance 



selected variations which give promise of great - a result of the disuse of these organs the mole now 
value to man. This is the has almost entirely lost 

art of selection. /j^*- _ ^„,..**ss«tegsi£S^&.-. the organs of sight. Fish 

in caves are usually blind. 
The many examples of 
mimicry are also instances 



Selection. 

Selection is defined as 
the favoring and fixing 
of those characters in 
plants and animals which 
are to survive. It is a 
separation of desirable 
and useful variations 
from those that are un- 
desirable. Scientists 
recognize two kinds of 
selection, natural and 
methodical. 

Natural selection. — 
Natural selection is na- 
ture's method of preserv- 
ing the species. In nature 
variations occur, some 
of which give to their possessors an advantage in 
the struggle for existence. These variations are 
preserved and strengthened. Other variations, 
in a measure, unfit the animal or plant for its 
environment, and, in the struggle for life, those 
individuals possessing such variations sooner or 
later succumb. Natural selection is the prefer- 
ence which nature shows to those individuals best 
adapted to their surroundings. Those organisms 
that possess the most favorable and the fewest un- 
favorable variations will be preserved. The less 
fortunate ones can survive and reproduce their 
kind only when food and room are abundant. As 
either food or room becomes scarce, the weaker will 
go down before their more fortunate neighbors. 
This is natural selection, or the survival of the fit- 
test. Survival of the fittest does not necessarily 
mean the survival of the best, nor even of the 
highest type, but it does mean the survival of those 
possessing the greatest ability to live and get food 
under particular conditions. 

There are many examples of the workings 
of natural selection. The domesticated duck, 
derived originally from the wild form, during its 
period of domestication has increased largely the 
size of the leg muscles, and has suffered a corre- 
sponding decrease in the size and strength of 
the wing bones and muscles. The wild duck has 
small and weak leg bones and muscles, but large 



of natural selection. The whippoorwill looks so 
much like the limbs on which he alights that he 
can scarcely be distinguished from the knots on 
the trees. The tiger is striped, and, in the jungles 
which it inhabits, can with difficulty be distin- 
guished from the grass at a few paces. 

Methodical selection. — Methodical selection is 
practiced by man and may be defined as a favoring 
and fixing of characters especially useful to man- 
kind. It is a survival of the best. This does not 
necessarily mean the survival of the strongest nor 
of those best adapted to live and thrive in the 
state of nature. Methodical selection applies only 
to plants and animals under domestication. The 
first step and most important for the breeder of 
domestic animals is to fix in his mind an ideal type 
embodying all the desirable characters which it is 
wished to perpetuate. The breeder of beef cattle 
must understand thoroughly the " beef type," and 
in all of his selections must keep in mind the char- 
acteristics which are necessarily present in the 
meat animal. The breeder of dairy cattle must 
have in his mind a clear ideal of the "dairy 
type." This type we have learned by long experi- 
ence is always found associated with those indi- 
viduals which possess the ability to produce large 
amounts of milk and butter at the least expendi- 
ture of food and energy. There are all degrees of 
methodical selection, from that employing the 



36 



SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL-BREEDING 



highest skill and intelligence down to a little more 
than natural selection. Many savages employ a 
low form of methodical selection. Some tribes kill 
the males and preserve the females. Others kill 
dangerous beasts of prey. 




Pig. 36. The *'01d Jersey Cow." An engraving supposed to be from a drawing made 
on the island of Jersey by order of the editor of "The Country Gentleman" (1853). 
(Compare Fig. 37.) 

In practice no character is too trifling to con- 
sider. The Arabs will not own a horse with four 
white feet. Practical feeders think a wide muzzle 
is always associated with the best feeders. The 
successful breeder must possess skill to select and 
combine the faintest characters. He must be quick 
to detect the slightest variation away from his 
ideal type, and, above all, he must have the cour- 
age to kill and destroy those individuals which do 
not possess the desirable variations. In fixing valu- 
able characteristics we often unconsciously fix 
others that are undesirable. Many families of 
highly developed beef animals have lost, to a cer- 
tain extent, their fecundity. The same is true of 
some of the most highly bred types of domestic 
swine. In striving for fineness of bone, extreme 
quality and early maturity, the animals themselves 
have become too small, and, in the case of some 
swine, the bone has become too small to support 
the weight of the animal. The skillful breeder is 
he who is able to maintain an equilibrium of the 
best characters. 

When the ideal animal has been secured through 
variation and selection, his good characters be- 
come perpetuated through heredity. 

Heredity. 

Heredity is defined as the influence exerted by 
parents on the offspring. It is tersely expressed in 
the aphorism " like produces like." It is the ten- 
dency of the offspring to be like the parent. Her- 
edity is directly opposed to variation and represents 
stability of character in the organic world. So 
common is the fact of heredity that we have come 
to regard it as a universal law of nature. The in- 



fluence of this phenomenon is not confined to any 
organ, or any particular part of the organism. It 
is universal in its application and determines the 
physiological, psychological and pathological con- 
ditions of all organic beings. It is a foundation 
principle of the greatest pos- 
sible use to the breeder of 
domestic animals. It was 
known and recognized by the 
ancients. The Jews recog- 
nized its existence in their 
social organization of fami- 
lies of priests, kings and 
others. 

Heredity of normal charac- 
ters. — The commonest evi- 
dences of heredity are to be 
found in the external struc- 
tures of animals. The off- 
spring resemble the parents 
in stature, form and feature. 
The peculiar markings of 
different breeds of cattle are 
strongly transmitted. The 
Herefords invariably trans- 
mit a white face. The Aber- 
deen-Angus cattle inherit the 
coal-black color and polled 
heads. The Devons are of a 
deep dark red. The heavy 
draft horses inherit from their ancestors a powerful 
blocky and massive structure. The Thoroughbred 
and the trotting horse receive by inheritance the 
slender build and nervous temperament of these 
particular breeds. The tendency to lay on fat is 
observed in certain breeds and certain families 
within a breed. Some sheep in a large flock ever 
remain fat on the same food that others in the 
flock consume and yet remain in thin condition. 

The quality of fecundity is greatly influenced by 
heredity. It is a well-known fact that the selection 
of ewe lambs from twins rather than single births 
will increase the average fecundity of the flock. 
Longevity is also transmitted. The inheritance of 
immunity from smallpox and other diseases is a 
known medical fact. It seems probable that breeds 
of swine could be established that would be per- 
fectly immune from hog cholera. 

The transmission of characters is not always 







Fig. 37. The modern dairy type. The product of definite 
and careful breeding. Jersey cow, Figgis 76106. Hood 
Farm, Lowell, Mass. (Compare Fig. 36.) 



SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL-BREEDING 



37 



exhibited directly from parent to offspring but may 
be observed in the grandchildren or even later 
generations. Ordinarily it would seem natural to 
suppose that the male persons would more often 
determine the dominant characters of the male 
offspring and the female parent the ruling qualities 
of the female offspring. It seems, however, that 
in an equal number or in a majority of cases, the 
male is most like the mother and the female most 
like the father. This is called cross-heredity. If 
this fact be true, it is of the utmost importance 
that in selecting a dairy bull more attention should 
be paid to the dam of the bull, and in selecting 
all males it is of the highest importance that sharp 
attention be given to the characters of the dam. 



moral instincts are determined to a greater or less 
extent by hereditary influences. 

Heredity of abnormal characters. — Not only are 
the normal or natural characters transmitted from 
parent to offspring, but the unnatural or abnormal 
developments seem likewise to be influenced by this 
phenomenon. We can perhaps understand how a 
constitutional disease may become hereditary, but 
when the loss of an organ or the non-development 
of the extremities of the body is transmitted, it is 
more difficult to understand. It is related, that, in 
1828, David Ely imported into this country a short- 
eared Saxon ram. This animal had a peculiarly fine 
fleece of wool. In the locality where this animal 
was used for breeding, the farmers came to associ- 




Beginning at left two sisters 
and improved 



Fig. 38. Variation in type. 



Not only the physiological characters are con- 
trolled by the dominating character of heredity, 
but the psychological characters as well. There is 
in fact no distinction to be made between physio- 
logical and psychological heredity, for, as Spencer 
said, "No thought, no feeling is ever manifested 
save as a result of physical force." If, therefore, we 
demonstrate the fact of physiological heredity, we 
are bound to accept the existence of psychological 
heredity. One of the most interesting cases of 
psychological inheritance is the transmission of 
instincts. Pigs invariably squat when frightened. 
This instinct was developed in nature as a means 
of protecting the animal from its enemies. Dogs 
turn round and round before lying down even on a 
perfectly smooth floor. This is the persistence or 
the instinct of habit possessed by wild dogs living 
where grass was abundant, where turning round 
was necessary to make a bed by tramping down 
the grass. The instinct to nurse is possessed by all 
young animals. The senses are strongly trans- 
mitted. The sense of touch of all extreme northern 
races is obtuse and imperfect. The sense of sight 
in all of its various modifications is most certainly 
transmissible. The Fuegians, says Darwin, can see 
distant objects more clearly than the English. 
Myopia is increasing rapidly among all nations 
engaged in intellectual pursuits. Dr. Colin of Bres- 
lau examined children in all grades and found that 
myopia occurred as follows: primary schools, 6.7 
per cent; middle schools, 10.3 per cent; normal 
schools, 19.7 per cent: gymnasia and universities, 
26.2 per cent. This acquired myopia is apparently 
transmitted. It seems equally certain that the 



Cow on right is daughter of one in center. Note refinement 
from left to right. 

ate the short ears with excellent wool, and selected 
the short-eared animals for foundations for breed- 
ing flocks. The result was that in a few years they 
established a breed of almost earless sheep. Ander- 
son states that a rabbit produced in a litter an 
animal with only one ear. From this one indi- 
vidual was established a breed of one-eared rabbits. 
The same authority also mentioned a female dog 
with one leg deficient that produced several puppies 
with the same deficiency. It is not so difficult to 
understand how a character or a set of characters 
developed as a direct result of a specific need on 
the part of the animal may be transmitted readily 
by heredity, especially if this character has ap- 
peared in the ancestors for many generations. On 
the other hand, it is much more difficult to conceive 
of the transmission of abnormalties or mutilations, 
yet such cases are not rare. 

Under the term "prodactylism" is considered 
the occurrence of extra fingers and toes. Super- 
numerary digits may be attached to either the inner 
or the outer side of the hand, forming an extra 
thumb or little finger. Darwin remarks that "the 
presence of a greater number than five digits is a 
great anomaly, for this number is not normally 
exceeded by any existing bird, mammal or reptile. 
Nevertheless, supernumerary digits are strongly 
inherited." They have been transmitted through 
five generations. Struthers gives the following 
interesting instance : In the first generation an 
additional digit appeared on one hand, in the second 
on both hands, in the third, three brothers had both 
hands, and one of the brothers a foot affected, and 
in the fourth generation all four limbs were affected. 



SJME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL-BREEDING 



However, these supernumerary digits are not always 
transmitted. 

The writer observed in a certain locality a trot- 
ting stallion affected with a condition known as 
parrot mouth. In this condition the upper jaw 
extends over the lower jaw, so that the ends of the 
teeth do not meet, thus preventing the ordinary 
wear and resulting in the gradual elongation of 
the upper teeth. Many of the colts from this stal- 
lion inherited this peculiar abnormality. The writer 
also observed at the Michigan Agricultural College 
a Shropshire ewe affected with an opposite con- 
dition, namely a bull-dog jaw. In this case the 
lower jaw projects beyond the upper jaw. Twin 
lambs from this ewe were each affected in the same 
way as the mother. The classic experiments of 
Brown-Sequard on guinea pigs, in which it was 
found that an incision of the spinal cord resulted 
in epilepsy, and that the offspring of these artifici- 
ally imposed epileptic animals were likewise affected 
in the same way, are well known. The transmission 
of mutilations is exceedingly rare, and these experi- 
ments have perhaps not been repeated a sufficient 
number of times to make their universal acceptance 
justifiable. 

Heredity of diseases. — It is an important fact 
that pathological conditions are subject to the same 
laws of heredity as normal and desirable characters, 
and these are often transmitted from parent to 
offspring. Some diseases are much more surely 
hereditary than others. When a disease manifests 
itself at birth it is called congenital. If a disease 
appears later in life the animal is said to have 
possessed a predisposition to the disease. This 
tendency of the diseases of parents to reappear in 
their offspring was recognized by the ancients. 
Early medical writings contain many references to 
this fact. Darwin notes that 50 per cent of the 
cases of gout recorded in hospital practice were 
hereditary. Insanity is known to run in families. 
A surgeon relates that his father, brother and four 
paternal uncles were all insane. The case of a Jew 
is on record whose father, mother, and six brothers 
were all mad. Diseases of the eye are frequently 
transmitted. A stallion in France became blind 
from the effects of disease and all of his progeny 
had the same disease before the age of three years. 
The famous Irish horse Cregan was the progenitor 
of a race of horses decidedly predisposed to malig- 
nant ophthalmia and this tendency was observed 
even to the fourth and fifth generations. 

Bone diseases are likewise supposed to be readily 
transmitted. A mare affected with ring bone, 
being unfitted for farm work, was kept as a 
breeder. Her colts were well formed and at two 
or three years of age sold readily. No indications 
of the disease were noticed at that time, but at 
the age of five or six they were all affected with 
ring bone, some so seriously as to unfit them for 
work. A stallion became affected with thick leg 
and grease heel at the age of four years. His colts 
inherited this same disease. Dr. Miles states that 
scrofulous diseases are a common occurrence among 
horses, cattle, sheep and swine. Under this desig- 
nation occur all of those diseases which tend to 



produce tubercles. All these diseases are either 
transmitted, or, which seems more probable, 
animals inherit the defective organization which 
predisposes the individual to this disease. 

Many animals transmit indirectly to their off- 
spring through a defective conformation or an 
unbalanced proportion of parts. Thus, a horse with 
a narrow hock, looked at from the side, is predis- 
posed to spavin. A short os calcis and a straight 
hock predispose an animal to curb. Veterinarians 
are singularly unanimous in their decision that 
certain diseases are inherited. Among these are 
contracted feet, ring bone, spavin, splints, curb, 
laminitis or founder, roaring or broken wind, 
melanosis, specific ophthalmia and crib-biting. 
These diseases are transmitted either directly or as 
the result of a predisposition. The breeder should 
recognize the danger from using animals affected 
with any of the diseased conditions mentioned. 

We are therefore compelled to believe that 
every organ or set of organs as well as the mental 
and even moral characters are subject to the 
universal law of heredity. Characters that have 
appeared regularly through many generations are 
transmitted with the greatest force, but at the 
same time numerous examples of the transmission 
of variations, which have occurred for the first 
time, make it possible for the breeder of live-stock 
to rely confidently on the inheritance of desirable 
variations and thus to supply the means for lasting 
improvement. 

Correlation of parts. 

The development of any character or set of 
characters is always accompanied by modifications, 
either desirable or undesirable, of other characters. 
If we develop a certain organ in a given direction 
to an extraordinary degree, we often, at the same 
time, suppress or destroy some other organ related 
to it. We may succeed in breeding out some worth- 
less character, but, at the same time, breed out a 
useful quality. The whole animal organism is 
so closely interwoven that a change in one 
organ or set of organs is almost certain to result 
in a disturbance of the balance of other qualities 
and produce a change of other organs. Thus it is 
that the scientist with a single bone can recon- 
struct the skeleton of the original animal. Blind 
persons develop, to a high degree, the sense of 
touch. Blind Dr. Saunderson was an expert medal- 
ist and could distinguish counterfeits by touch 
alone. People who are color-blind often have a 
deficient musical ear. Darwin is authority for the 
statement "that black dogs with tan-colored feet 
almost always have a tan-colored spot on the upper 
and inner corner of each eye." He also states that 
"white cats with blue eyes are almost always 
deaf. If any color exists on the fur and only one 
eye is blue the sense of hearing is not lost." 

Immense horns and coarse wool are associated. 
Hair and hides and horns and teeth vary together; 
hairless dogs are likely to be toothless. A large 
head is associated with large legs, coarse bones, 
late maturity and general coarseness of struc- 
ture. Animals showing a remarkable tendency 



SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL-BREEDING 



39 



to fatten are very often, if not always, deficient in 
milk production. A general leanness and angularity 
of structure is always associated with the highest 
yielding dairy cows. Nathusius states that "rich 
food tends to make the head of swine broader and 
longer, and that an insufficiency of poor food works 
the opposite result." It is from the knowledge of 
this intimate correlation of parts that the expert 
is able to recognize from an examination of the 
external form the presence of internal quality. 
Some practical stockmen even go so far as to say 
that if they can but see the head of a fattening 
steer they can tell whether or no he is a good 
feeder. 

Atavism. 

Atavism may be defined as heredity from ances- 
tors beyond the parent. Synonyms for atavism are 
reversion, breeding back, and crying back. The 
characteristics of remote ancestors will from time 
to time appear in their descendants. Characters 
supposed to have been bred out and eliminated may 
reappear without any apparent reason. Every ani- 
mal possesses all the characters of its parents as 
well as all those of its ancestors. Those characters 
which determine the form, habits and life of the 
individual are the dominant characters. The others 
are latent. Atavism, or reversion, is not a rare 
event resulting from peculiarly favorable condi- 
tions surrounding the individual, but it occurs fre- 
quently among crossed forms and is not rare among 
uncrossed races. Some of the causes which seem 
to favor the appearance of atavism are the change 
of environment and crossing. As an example of 
the first cause we find that when domestic animals 
are permitted to run wild they speedily revert to 
the characters of their unimproved ancestors. 

Reversion of erossed forms. 

Crossing seems to be one of the principal causes 
of the appearance of atavistic characters. Severe 
crossing, particularly, is the act of combining 
diversity of blood and has the effect of breaking up 
well-established characters. The frequent appear- 
ance of atavism in a pure-bred herd is an unfavor- 
able indication. Some examples of atavism follow : 

Many of our domestic breeds of cattle are de- 
scended from the wild white cattle of Great Britain. 
These cattle are small in size, and white, with 
brown or red ears. Not infrequently among our 
domestic breeds white calves are dropped with red 
ears. This is said to be especially frequent when 
Shorthorn and West Highland cattle are crossed. 
Polled cattle were originally horned. Very often 
calves are dropped by polled animals that have rudi- 
mentary horns. Sheep were originally black or 
brown, and black sheep are common in every flock. 
At the Michigan Agricultural College the writer at 
one time crossed an Essex sow and a Duroc Jersey 
boar. The pigs were sandy-colored, with stripes 
lengthwise of the body, like the old wild boar. 

Inheritance of acquired characters. 

An acquired character is one gained as a result 
of action or non-action or reaction from the environ- 



ment, says Jordan. It is clearly to be distinguished 
from inherited qualities. The acquired character is 
usually a modification of some existing character 
or characters. Education is an acquired character. 
The extent of the individual acquirement of an ani- 
mal measures the winning or losing in life. Lamarck 
held that use makes organs efficient. The needs of 
an animal in any given direction encourage the 
use of certain parts which develop accordingly. 
Thus, the ant-eater swallows its food whole, and 
has no need for teeth. As a result, the teeth have 
been practically lost. The deer and antelope escape 
from their enemies by their swiftness and their 
ability to run fast. The fastest running deer are 
therefore the fittest to survive. The absence of a 
need leads to the disuse, degeneration, and decay 
of organisms ; thus, fish in caves lose their eyes. 

Lamarck assumes that the individual acquire- 
ment of characters is a result of use, and also 
assumes without discussion the transmission of these 
acquired characters. This inheritance of characters 
so acquired has been widely attacked and exten- 
sively denied. Direct experiments to test this 
theory have not successfully confirmed the theory, 
but rather the reverse. Yet it must be remembered 
that Lamarck asserted that long periods of time 
were necessary for any noticeable transmission of 
characters which had been established by use or 
lost by disuse. Herbert Spencer is one of the most 
noted exponents of this theory, and he says, "change 
of function produces change of structure. It is a 
tenable hypothesis that changes of structure so pror 
duced are inherited." Perhaps the most noted 
experimental evidence along this line is the Brown- 
Sequard experiment already mentioned, in which 
the effects of certain mutilations seem to be trans- 
mitted from parent to offspring. [See page 38.] 

Theory of natural selection. 

Lamarck's theory is not sufficient to explain many 
phenomena. Thus, the shell of the tortoise is not 
the result of use. The conscious effort ascribed to 
animals in great need cannot be supposed to influ- 
ence the development of plants, although we know 
that variations caused by changes in environment 
frequently occur in plants as well as in animals. 
All these changes may be accounted for on the 
theory of natural selection. 

Plants and animals produce many times more 
young than survive. It is estimated that only one 
in one thousand survives. That one best fitted by 
reason of strength or intelligence will survive. 
This has given rise to the term "survival of the 
fittest." The individuals which survive as a result 
of this rigorous law of natural selection transmit 
their qualities to their descendents. However, they 
are never exactly transmitted. Variation is ever 
active; new combinations of characters continually 
present themselves. It must ever be remembered 
that the survival of the fittest does not necessarily 
mean the survival of the best. 

Continuity of the germ plasm. 

The distinguished investigator, Weismann, denied 
the inheritance of acquired characters. He main- 



40 



SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL-BREEDING 



tained that recent investigations of the cell and 
the process of fertilization indicate clearly that 
the reproductive cells were entirely distinct from 
the body, or soma cells. The soma cells do not influ- 
ence directly or indirectly the inherent transmissi- 
ble characters contained in the germ substance. 
The germ substance of the reproductive cells of the 
offspring are like those of the parent except that 
they contain the germ qualities of both parents 
united. If Weismann is correct in his assumption of 
the complete differentiation of the germ and the 
soma cell, then we must be forced to accept his con- 
clusion that no influence brought to bear on the 
soma can or does influence the germ. It is not always 
possible to conceive of the absolute stability of the 
germ plasm. It is admitted that any interference 
with the nutrition of the soma cell may likewise 
influence the physical character of the germ cell. 
In order to explain the inheritance of variations 
which certainly occur, it is necessary for the 
exponents of this theory to assume the occurrence 
of spontaneous variations in the germ plasm itself. 
The germ plasm is highly stable. This is differ- 
ent, however, from saying that it is absolutely 
stable and unchanged by external surroundings. 
Among the domestic animals there are numerous 
examples of the apparent transmission of acquired 
characters. The discriminating sense of the fox- 
hound as he distinguishes on the moist earth the 
fresh track of the fox, or of the bird-dog that is 
insensible to the fox tracks, but becomes imme- 
diately excited in the proximity of birds, is an 
interesting phenomenon. The Scotch collie seems, 
as a result of long continued breeding and training, 
instinctively to know how to assist in the handling 
of domestic animals, but is utterly foolish in its 
attempts to catch rats. Most terriers, on the other 
hand, are tremendously in earnest in their frantic 
efforts to tear up wooden floors or undermine 
buildings for the sake of securing a rat, but as 
stock -dogs are utterly useless. The wonderful 
productive capacity of the modern dairy cow, 
producing ten thousand, or even twenty thousand 
pounds of milk in one year, and the transmitting 
of these qualities to her offspring, are recognized 
facts among dairymen. Families of horses have 
acquired speed at the trot and transmitted this 
quality with considerable certainty. 

Redfield's theory of dynamic development. 

Recently, Casper L. Redfield is said to have dis- 
covered evidence of acquired characters in trotting 
horses. As a result of his investigations he has 
suggested the following principles : The develop- 
ment of any animal results from exercise. The 
amount of the development depends on the amount 
of exercise and the absolute amount of time 
devoted to the exercise. Thus, the age of the ani- 
mal as well as his training becomes important. 
The transmission of the development depends on 
the amount of development acquired before the 
animal is bred and still possessed by the animal at 
the time of breeding. It is interesting to note that, 
according to this theory, development may be lost. 
Great age, with moderate and continuous develop- 



ment, may be as efficient as greater development 
exercised for a shorter time. Hence, very old ani- 
mals having been moderately developed throughout 
their lifetime may be more efficient producers than 
younger animals intensively developed for a shorter 
time. However, Redfield holds that animals are male 
and female and each life is divided into a young, 
sexually immature stage and an old, sexually ma- 
ture stage. During the sexually immature stage 
the sexes are biologically alike. During the sexu- 
ally mature stage they are biologically different. 
This difference increases with maturity. Puberty 
represents the beginning of sexual maturity, but 
during intermediate maturity the sexes are partly 
alike and partly unlike. The development acquired 
before sexual maturity is transmitted equally to 
both sexes. The development acquired after sexual 
maturity is transmitted only to the offspring of 
the same sex. Thus stallions developed young, 
before sexual maturity, make good sires of mares. 
Stallions that are developed after the sexually 
mature stage make good sires of stallions, but not 
of mares. The same principle applies to mares. 
This theory is founded on the study of a very large 
number of individual breeding horses, stallions 
and mares, recorded in the register book of the 
breed. The conclusions may not be justified by the 
facts presented, but the investigation is a distinct 
contribution to our knowledge of breeding, and 
should be continued. 

Whether there is a direct transmission of ac- 
quired characters or not, it is certainly true that 
the characteristics which dominate some of the 
highly improved breeds of live-stock are trans- 
mitted, and the final results are the same to the 
practical breeder. 

Controlling the sex of offspring. 

From the time of Aristotle to the present day, 
breeders and scientists have held that the sex of 
offspring could be controlled by observing certain 
conditions. In the very earliest writings are found 
full directions for producing animals of the desired 
sex. Even at the present time there are many 
practical breeders who believe that they can con- 
trol at least a majority of the sex of offspring. A 
brief statement of some of the theories regarding 
the control of sex follows : 

(1) It was maintained earlier that the right 
ovary and testicle produce males, while the left 
ovary and testicle produce females. This has since 
been found by accurate experiment to have no 
foundation in fact. 

(2) The sex of the offspring depends on the 
development or maturity of the ovum at the time 
of fertilization. If fertilization takes place early 
in the heat the offspring will be a female ; if in the 
last part of the heat, a male. This theory is widely 
held by practical men and frequently practiced. 
It is very questionable whether this method is of 
any value.' 

(3) It is asserted that each alternate ovum will 
be of the same sex. This is called the Stuyvesant 
theory. In practice, if an animal has male offspring 
and it is desired to produce a female offspring, she 



SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL-BREEDING 



41 



is bred the first time she comes in heat. This 
theory, as the others mentioned, is not founded on 
carefully recorded scientific investigations. 

(4) It is said that careful and continuous selec- 
tion of breeding animals known to produce one sex 
mainly, will have some in- 
fluence in determining the 
sex of offspring. 

(5) A theory that has 
considerable merit and some 
statistical evidence support- 
ing it is that the sex of the 
offspring will correspond to 
the personal preponderance 
in strength, vigor and age 
of one parent over the other. 

(6) The kind of nutrition 
influences the development 
of sex, especially in the 
lower forms of organic life. 

In the present state of our 
knowledge, it is safe to conclude 
that it is not practicable to at- 
tempt to control the sex among the 
mammalian animals. 

Pre-natal influences. 

It is a popular belief that the 
mind of the pregnant female is 
capable of receiving impressions in 
such a way as to mark the off- 
spring. The opinion rests on a 
large number of recorded instances 
of apparent relation between men- 
tal impressions of the female and 
malformations of the offspring. 
Most of the examples brought for- 
ward to illustrate the power of 
mental impressions are negative in 
character. That mental impressions 
or the result of extreme nervous 
shocks may influence unborn young 
is generally admitted, but that the 
specific influence causing the shock 
is registered in the characteristics of the offspring 
is exceedingly doubtful. Extreme nervous shock or 
fright may cause arrested development, and the 
effects of arrested development are seen in hairlip, 
cleft palate, fissures of the body, loss of fingers and 
toes and even of the legs and arms. But these 
are also the most frequent examples submitted to 
illustrate the workings of pre-natal influences. 

It is possible that habits of the mind long con- 
tinued may affect the offspring. The subject is of 
little interest to the breeder of domestic animals. 
In general, it should be the constant effort of the 
breeder to surround the pregnant animals with 
normal conditions of quiet and to remove from 
them all causes which might produce an extreme 
nervous shock. 



males. It sometimes happens that the offspring of 
the female resembles not its own sire, but some 
male bred to the mother at a previous time. This 
tendency is noted particularly among quadrupeds. 
An example is the Earl of Morton mare, a seven- 
eighths Arabian, that in the year 1815 produced 
a hybrid colt from the quagga ; afterwards she 
produced in succession three colts from a pure- 
bred black Arabian stallion, and each time gave 
birth to a foal marked with stripes on the neck, 




Telegony. 

It is thought by some that the influence of the 
male is not limited to his immediate offspring but 
may extend to other later offspring, from other 



Fig. 39. The mother of this two-year fUly had ten mule colts in succession before 
the birth of this flUy. She exhibits not the slightest evidences of telegony. 
(Owned by Thomas Dinkle, Woodlandville, Mo.) 

body, and limbs, and having a dun color and short, 
bristly mane like the quagga. This case is perhaps 
the more remarkable, because the Arabian is never 
known to show striped markings of the body, and 
the mane is invariably soft and silky and lies flat 
on the neck. A similar case is recorded by Harvey, 
in which a female was coupled with a zebra, and 
afterwards bred to pure-bred stallions. The first two 
foals to stallions possessed many of the characters 
of the zebra. Alexander Morrison, in 1843, bred a 
Clydesdale mare to a jack, the result being a mule. 
The next foal was by a stallion, but resembled a 
mule, having ears nine and one-half inches long, 
girth less than six feet, and height sixteen hands. 
The hoofs were long and narrow, and the tail thin 
and scanty. Dr. Miles bred a Chester White sow to 
an Essex boar, producing black and white pigs. 
She was next bred to a pure white Suffolk boar, but 
produced some pigs more than one-half black. Many 
of the examples supposed to be cases of telegony 
can be easily explained by the occurrence of rever- 



42 



SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL-BREEDING 



sion, or atavism. Bulman says, although in most 
cases the effect is due to reversion, yet there are 
a few cases in which the effect is telegonic. 
The experiments of Ewart at Edinburgh have 
not given definite evidence of the existence of 
telegony. 

If telegony occurs at all it is a rare event. It is 
somewhat difficult to determine by direct investi- 
gation the truth or falsity of the theory of telegony. 
If such influence does exist, it must undoubtedly 
result from the action of the spermatozoa on the 
immature eggs not yet ripened and expelled from 
the ovary. Assuming that telegony is a possibility, 
the authorities agree that it is of such rare occur- 
rence as to be of little interest to the breeder of 
domestic animals. It occurs so rarely that the 
practical breeder may with safety assume its non- 
existence. 

Cross-breeding. 

Strictly speaking, the term crossing signifies the 
union of distinct species. More recently the term 
has come to be applied much more generally. As 
now used, it may refer to a union of different 
breeds or races, or even the breeding together of 
different strains or families within the same breed. 
The generally recognized results of crossing are 
increased fertility, increased size, and the general 
restoration of the constitution, vigor and thrift of 
animals. That crossing does increase the fertility 
of domestic animals cannot be denied. Many indi- 
viduals are infertile with others of their own 
species, but will be readily bred with individuals 
from another species. A mare infertile with a stal- 
lion will often conceive readily when bred to a jack. 
It has been known to botanists that some plants 
are wholly infertile unless pollenized by other indi- 
viduals. The experience of a large number of prac- 
tical breeders demonstrates clearly that animals 
carefully selected and closely bred through many 
generations may become weak in constitution. 
These animals may be restored to their original 
vigor and thrift by crossing. Crossing for general 
improvement is often attended with disappointment. 
The inexperienced breeder is attracted with the idea 
that by uniting the best individuals of widely vary- 
ing types we may secure all the good qualities of 
both types in one individual. Such a desirable result 
is seldom realized. The effect of crossing seems to 
be to break up the established type and to destroy 
the prepotency of the breed. The cross-bred ani- 
mal is the seat of conflicting and often antagonistic 
characters. He is unstable. The result of the cross 
will always possess a tendency to revert to one of 
the original parent forms. Crossing for improve- 
ment is uncertain. Recent investigations in con- 
nection with Mendel's law of heredity indicate that 
under certain circumstances crossing may be util- 
ized for improving some of the characteristics of 
the animal without sacrificing the dominant and 
desirable qualities. 

The result of moderate crossing is often to in- 
crease considerably the vigor, thrift and fertility of 
the offspring. Thus, in practice, breeders fre- 
quently cross a pure-bred or a high grade female of 



one breed to a male of another breed of similar type. 
Thus, the Poland-China and the Berkshire, or the 
Poland-China and Duroc-Jersey, are often crossed 
for the production of market hogs. So, the Short- 
horn, Angus, and Hereford breeds of cattle are 
intercrossed, the result being a very desirable 
class of feeding cattle. The first cross in all of 
these cases is generally highly satisfactory. If, 
however, these cross-bred animals are retained for 
breeding, the later results are often if not always 
disappointing. 

Grading. 

Crossing must not be confused with the practice 
of grading. Grading is the breeding of unimproved 
females to the males of well-established improved 
breeds. The offspring are again bred to males of 
the same breed, and this is continued through many 
generations. This practice is to be highly recom- 
mended and invariably results in success. 

Inbreeding. 

Inbreeding may be defined as the breeding 
together of close relations. Terms that are used 
synonomously with inbreeding are close-breeding, 
inter-breeding, consanguineous breeding, and inces- 
tuous breeding. It is the extreme limit of pure 
breeding. Some authors have attempted to limit 
the designation of this term to all relationship 
closer than second cousins. The general use of the 
term now, however, is not limited, and it is perhaps 
impossible for us to define the term more accurately 
than is done above. Inbreeding is common among 
wild animals and has been widely practiced by the 
breeders of domestic animals. It has been recog- 
nized from the earliest times as one of the quickest 
methods of fixing desirable qualities. Thus, in 
practice, when a marked variation occurs that is 
unique and found only in one individual it is 
natural and logical for the breeder to mate this 
animal with its nearest relative possessing the 
same characters. Thus, the sire is often mated with 
his own offspring. 

While there is universal agreement regarding 
the great value of inbreeding in quickly fixing 
desirable variation, there is some difference of 
opinion as to other results which sometimes occur. 
There are some evils which follow inbreeding. The 
most common undesirable results are diminished 
size, weakened constitution and impaired fecundity. 
Of these bad results the most frequent and earliest 
to be observed is the loss of fecundity. Darwin 
mentions Lord Western as having imported a 
Neapolitan boar and sow. He bred in-and-in for 
many generations "until the breed was in danger 
of becoming extinct, a sure result of in-and- 
inbreeding." He cites also the case of J. Wright 
who bred "a boar with daughter, grand-daughter, 
and great-grand-daughter for several generations, 
and the result was that in many instances the off- 
spring failed to breed, in others they produced few 
young that lived. The last two sows produced by 
this long course of inbreeding, conceived when sent 
to other boars and bore several litters of healthy 
pigs." The last litter consisted of but one pig. 



SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL-BREEDING 



43 



The practice of inbreeding was common with 
the famous Bakewell in improving Longhorn cattle. 
Thomas Bates, the great breeder of Shorthorns, 
also practiced inbreeding freely. The procreative 
powers of both these breeds finally became greatly 
impaired by continuing this practice. 

At the same time some other breeders have suc- 
ceeded in practicing this method for many genera- 
tions without serious harm to the reproductive 
functions. N. H. Gentry, of Sedalia, Missouri, one 
of the greatest modern breeders of Berkshires, 
has not gone outside of his own herd since 1875, 
for breeding stock. After his long experience he 
says, " I have never been able to detect any evil 
effects of inbreeding in my herd." 

From these conflicting results it is not easy for 
us to harmonize the facts presented. In general, 
there are two beliefs regarding inbreeding. Cer- 
tain breeders hold that evil from inbreeding is an 
accidental result and may be prevented by skillful 
selection. Those who hold to this belief maintain 
that no evil comes from inbreeding which cannot 
be easily explained by the laws of heredity and 
which may not be prevented by intelligent selec- 
tion. Bad qualities are as readily transmitted as 
good qualities, and if animals possessing undesir- 
able characters are closely bred these defects will be 
intensified. It is admitted that close-breeding is a 
quick method of securing desirable qualities, but it 
is equally certain to develop and encourage unde- 
sirable tendencies to evil which may be present in 
the blood. Inbreeding presupposes the most careful 
and intelligent selection to prevent and weed out 
the undesirable qualities. In the hands of a skill- 
ful, intelligent breeder, inbreeding is a powerful 
means to an end. For the ignorant and careless 
stockman it is almost sure to result in failure. 

There are others who hold that evil is a neces- 
sary result of inbreeding. These persons think 
with Darwin that "nature abhors self-fertiliza- 
tion." It is necessary, in all forms of life, that 
there be some sort of union between distinct indi- 
viduals before reproduction can take place. As in- 
and-inbreeding tends to identity of blood and 
characters, it is opposed to reproduction of the 
highest form. 

Line-breeding. 

Closely related to inbreeding is the practice 
known among breeders as line- breeding. This 
method of breeding relates to the union of animals 
more or less closely related. The advocates of line- 
breeding insist that crossing, even in the slightest 
degree, tends to break up or scatter the more or 
less artificial qualities of our highly improved 
breeds. The result of this practice will interfere, 
therefore, in a measure, with the prepotency of the 
animal. By mating only animals belonging to the 
same breed and even members of the same family, 
this tendency is prevented. The facts mentioned in 
connection with the discussions of crossing and 
inbreeding apply to this method of improvement. 
In general, line-breeding favors the fixing of char- 
acters, but may result in too great refinement and 
weakness of constitution. 



Pedigree versus individual excellence. 

The term pedigree is used to designate the ances- 
tral history of an animal. In the popular mind it is 
often conceived as a written record of the names 
appearing in the ancestry of an individual. The 
term "pedigreed animals" is sometimes used to 
mean animals registered in some recognized book 
of record. The pedigree is a record of the ances- 
tors of the animal, and should also be a guarantee 
of heredity. Pedigree is not a guarantee of quality 
and is not necessarily of value. Every animal has 
a pedigree. A good pedigree is one in which the 
ancestors of the individual have all been notable 
for possessing in a high degree the desirable quali- 
ties of the breed. A good pedigree of a Jersey 
cow, for example, is one in which every cow recorded 
among her ancestors has been a high-producing 
animal, and in which every bull mentioned has been 
the sire of a notable number of high -producing 
females. The trotting horse has a good pedigree 
when the sires and dams in his ancestry have all 
been fast individuals. The question is often asked, 
which is better, to select an animal with a good 
pedigree, but himself, not a good individual, or to 
select an animal without a pedigree, but a good 
individual? There is but one answer to this ques- 
tion. Neither animal should be selected. The infe- 
rior animal with a pedigree does not have a good 
pedigree. Otherwise he would have possessed indi- 
vidual excellence. The animal without a pedigree, 
but of good individual character, offers no assur- 
ance that his characters will be transmitted, and 
as a breeding animal should therefore be shunned. 
The whole law of heredity compels attention to 
pedigree, and the great principle of selection 
demands the closest attention to individual excel- 
lence. It must not be forgotten in this connec- 
tion that the value of a pedigree depends largely 
on the honesty of the breeders who have owned the 
ancestors. 

Literature. 

Much information on reproduution and breeding 
is to be found scattered through literature. Some 
of the more specific references are here given : 
Miles, Stock Breeding ; Plumb, Types and Breeds 
of Farm Animals ; Keller, Verebungslehre und 
Tierzucht ; Wilchens, Form und Leben Landwirth- 
schaftlichen Hausthiere ; Cornevin, Traite de Zoo- 
technie ; Miiller, Landwirtschaftliche Tierproduk- 
tionslehre ;• Darwin, Animals and Plants Under 
Domestication ; Smith, Physiology of the Domestic 
Animals ; Mills, Animal Physiology ; Weismann, 
The Germ Plasm ; Ribot, Heredity ; Vernon, Vari- 
ation in Animals and Plants ; Hugo de Vries, 
Species and Varieties : Their Origin by Mutation ; 
United States Department of Agriculture, Diseases 
of the Horse ; Low, The Domesticated Animals ; 
Morgan, Evolution and Adaptation; Ewart, The 
Penycuik Experiments ; Redfield, Breeding the 
Trotter ; Craig, Judging Live - Stock ; Shaw, Ani- 
mal Breeding and the Study of Breeds (two books); 
Wilson, The Cell and Development and Inheritance; 
Hertwig, The Cell ; Huth, The Marriage of Near 
Kin ; Davenport, The Principles of Breeding (1907). 



44 



ANIMAL TYPES AND SCORE-CARDS 



ANIMAL TYPES AND SCORE-CARDS price of draft horses on the Chicago market during 

By Frederick B. Mumford the year 1903 : 

, . Average weight Average price 

The long-continued selection of the domestic am- 1 400 pounds $155 87 

mals by man has resulted in the development of 1450 pounds 159 15 

certain distinct types, each of which is peculiarly 1500 pounds 169 15 

adapted to supply some human need. Thus, among 1550 pounds 176 56 

horses are the draft, coach, roadster and saddle 1600 pounds 176 62 

types ; among cattle, beef, dual-purpose and dairy 1650 pounds 208 64 

types ; among sheep, the wool and mutton types ; i^i P oun <f f£- = * 

x. il 1. j £ ' j. i_ rm. 1<50 pounds 236 14 

hogs, the bacon and fat hog types. 1 here are many 1800 pounds 258 33 

modifications of the types here mentioned, but these 

are distinctive and sufficiently general to include The quality of the draft horse is indicated by 

the bone and hair. The 
f bone should be large, 

-^S<"" 6 strong, dense and firm, 

/ J £|t\§V* an< ^ tendons sharply 

7fi&&\. , defined and prominent. 

The fineness and silki- 
SiVj^ ness of the hair, espec- 

/3_=— ^1 ji %^^^ 6'f f&s ~^5$S!i?--/ * a "y °^ tne " f eatner " or 

--^rfS^ffl^^^as Q—^sS^rp^/* La I vjS' hair on the fetlocks, is 

"g^mB Wgmm., \ W {XWjS / indicative of a good bone. 

yfck. V^^ / Below the knee and hock 

I BsN / *he cannon Done should 

• Ul- l v \T\ Wlih. ''(it* '* $!llr^\ be flat - lt is not t0 be 

il\ XvV'i/'"/-'' ; '*■' H| \v~-ll expected that the draft 

^ so ■' '^lw//x [30 horse will develop speed, 

but he should exhibit a 
wa e -' / »\ vj (—29 bold, free and regular 
" /9 I A \I I / gait at the walk or trot. 
IA-7S / //A I P/ //A SI/ paddling or waddling ^ 
If j I lj\ 1 11 gait is undesirable. 
njf(— o ftJMI IjJr 28 The detailed examina- 
E '"lf// Wj tion of a draft horse is 
sa-Jf// if"*? greatly aided by the use 
^Jft-p* °^ a score-card. The fol- 
e3 "^ll WV lowing score-card 1 used 
«j~( c3> lYV* 5 " a ^ ^ ne University of Mis- 
2s'' ~~"^ souri indicates the de- 
Fig. 40. Parts of the horse. 1. Muzzle; 2, nostrils: 3. face: 4. eye; 5, forehead; 6. ear: 7, sirable characters to be 
neck: 8. crest: 9. withers: 10, back; 11. loin: 12. hip; 13, croup; 14. tail; 15, thigh: 16, ar m<rhf fnr in tha rlra-fr 
quarter; 17, gaskin or lower thigh: 18. hock; 19. stifle; 20. flank; 21, ribs; 22, tendons; suugui, iui lu one uio,i\, 
23. fetlocks: 24, pastern; 25, foot: 26, heel of foot; 27, canon: 28, knee: 29. forearm; 30, hoi'Se. 

chest: 31. arm: 32. shoulder; 33. throatlatch; A. tboroughpin: B, curb: C. bog and -ft- „-,„„+ >,„ „u, P l„ ro 

blood spavin; D, bone spavin; E, splint; F. windgall: G, cappel elbow; H, poll evil. ll ,' , , l . ," e " 

membered that it is not 

the important breeds of the domestic animals. The possible to arrange the valuable qualities of an 

conformation of the different classes of animals animal according to any mathematical formula, 

and of the individual breeds is considered under the The score-card, however, does attempt to designate 

discussion of the animals in Part III; but the the relative values to be placed on the development 

general subject of score-cards may well be con- of the individual qualities of the animal. The 

sidered together for purposes of comparison, and numbers placed opposite each part or quality may 

the subject naturally relates itself to breeding, be considered as percentage values and represent, 

which we have just considered. therefore, the relative importance ascribed by 

expert judges and breeders of live-stock to the 

I. Horse types (Fi<rs. 40-44). valuable qualities possessed by the various types 

of domestic animals. The expert judge never uses 
Draft horse. — This is the heaviest and largest a score-card in show-yard judging, but it has been 
representative of the horse tribe. The demand for found to be an exceedingly valuable method of 
this class of horses is principally from the great teaching and of learning elements of live-stock- 
cities, where the ability to pull heavy loads is a judging. When one has scored a number of ani- 
first requirement. The general form is massive, mals carefully according to a given score-card, he 
powerful, low-down, blocky and compact. The value should have good judgment as to the values of the 
of this type, other things being equal, is directly different "points." 

proportional to its weight. This is illustrated by ' The author is indebted to his associate, E. B. Forbes, 

Craig in the following comparison of the average for suggestions for score-cards accompanying this article. 




ANIMAL TYPES AND SCORE-CARDS 



45 



Draft Horse Score-Card 
Class, Gelding 

GENERAL CHARACTERS 

Form. — Broad, massive, blocky, low-down, compact 
and symmetrical. Scale large for the age. 

Quality. — General refinement of clean-cut and sym- 
metrical features ; bone clean, large and strong ; skin and 
hair fine ; tendons clean, sharply defined, and prominent. 

Constitution. — Generous and symmetrical development; 
lively carriage: ample heart-girth, capacity of barrel and 
depth of flanks ; eyes, full, bright and clear: nostrils large 
and flexible ; absence of grossness or of undue refinement. 

Scale of Points ^"ore* 

1. Height, estimated hands; corrected 

hands. 

2. Weight, estimated lbs.; corrected lbs.; 

score according to age and condition ... 10 

3. Action, walk : rapid, springy, regular, straight ; 

trot : free, balanced, straight 15 

4. Temperament, energetic, tractable 3 

5. Head, proper proportionate size ; well carried; 

profile straight 1 

6. Muzzle, neat; nostrils large, flexible; lips thin, 

even, firm 1 




ParfWt 

Scale of Points, continued score 

7. Eyes, bright, clear, full, both same color ... 1 

8. Forehead, broad, full 1 

9. Ears, medium size, well carried 1 

10. Lower jaw, angles wide, well muscled .... 1 

11. Neck, well muscled, arched; throat-latch fine; 

wind-pipe large 2 

12. Shoulder, moderately sloping, smooth, snug, ex- 

tending into back 3 

13. Ann, short, strongly muscled, thrown back . . 1 

14. Forearm, long, wide, clean, heavily muscled . . 2 

15. Knees, straight, wide, deep, strong, clean ... 2 

16. Fore cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons clean, 

well defined, prominent 2 

17. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean .... 1 

18. Pasterns, moderately sloping; strong, clean . . 3 

19. Fore-feet, large, even size; sound; horn dense, 

waxy; soles concave; bars strong, full; frogs 
large, elastic; heels wide, one-half length of 

toe, vertical to ground 8 

20. Chest, deep, wide; breast bone low; girth large . 2 

21. Ribs, deep, well sprung; closely ribbed to hip . 2 

22. Back, broad, short, strong, muscular 2 

23. Loins, short, wide, thickly muscled ...... 2 

24. Barrel, deep, flanks full 2 

25. Hips, broad, smooth, level, well musclec .... 2 

26. Croup, wide, heavily muscled, not too drooping . 2 

27. Thighs, deep, broad, muscular 3 

28. Quarters, plump with muscle, deep ....... 2 



Pig. 41. The English shire. 
A good draft type. 




Fig. 42. A draft horse type. "Pink," twice champion at Chicago. 



46 



ANIMAL TYPES AND SCORE-CARDS 



Scale of Points, continued 



Perfect 
score 

29. Stifles, large, strong, muscular, clean .... 2 

30. Gaskins, long, wide, clean heavily muscled . . 2 

31. Hocks, large, strong, wide, deep, clean, well set 8 

32. Hind cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons clean, 

well defined 2 

33. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean .... 1 

34. Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, clean . . 2 

35. Hind feet, large, even size; sound; horn dense, 

waxy; soles concave; bars strong, full; frogs 
large, elastic; heels wide, one-half length of 

toe, vertical to ground 6 



Total 



100 




the mane and tail is fine and of a silky texture. 
Action and speed are of prime importance and are 
given great prominence in judging this class of 
horses. The action should be prompt, spirited, 
straight and regular. The legs and feet are of first 
importance in determining the durability of these 
horses, and hence it goes without saying that 
these parts should be free from any unsoundness. 
The legs should possess strong, dense and flat bone. 
The tendons and veins stand out prominently and 
fleshiness or inclination to puffiness should be 
severely criticized. The special type of light 
horses which are valued for special purposes are 
the coach or carriage horse, the American trotter 
or roadster, the Thoroughbred or running horse, 
and the American saddle horse. 

The coach horse is the largest representative of 
the light horse type. He was originally developed 
for pulling heavy coaches at a good speed. He is 
still well adapted for work on the heavy carriages 
of Europe and of the large cities of this country. 
The characteristics of most importance are 




Fig. 43. A coach type. Charlemaene 3910. 



Light horse types. — The various breeds of 
carriage, trotting, running and saddle horses have 
many characters in common, and the essential 
qualities of all these may perhaps be combined in 
one description. The general appearance of this 
type is lean, lithe, symmetrical and muscular. The 
whole aspect is one of extreme nervous energy and 
power. The back is short and strong, and the legs 
relatively long as compared with the draft type. 
The quality is indicated by extreme refinement, 
clean-cut features, straight and lean. The hair of 



symmetry and good action, about sixteen hands 
high, smooth and symmetrical in conformation and 
graceful carriage. 

The American trotter or roadster is a distinct- 
ively American breed. The chief requirements of 
this class are stamina and speed. The best repre- 
sentatives are 15J to 15J hands high and weigh 
1,000 to 1,100 pounds. The general form is one of 
leanness and angularity. The action is less showy, 
but straight, true and long-reaching. The long 
stride of this class is characteristic and accounts 



ANIMAL TYPES AND SCORE-CARDS 



47 



for much of the ability of this type to cover the 
ground rapidly. 

The Thoroughbred or running horse was devel- 
oped by the English largely for the sport of 
racing. The characteristics described above as 
belonging to the whole class of light horses are 
intensified in every respect in the Thoroughbred. 




Fig. 44. 



Trotting horse. Directum. Owned by 
II. W. Savage. 



He exhibits the highest possible development of 
nervous energy, sinewy and muscular proportions 
and densest bone. His evolution has been in the 
direction of the greatest possible speed and 
endurance at the running gait. He is small in size 
and represents the extreme of quality. He has 
been used largely in the improvement of other 
light horse breeds. 

The American saddle horse has been justly called 
the most beautiful modern breed. His graceful 
form and smooth frictionless action are remarkable 
examples of the results of skillful breeding. As 
compared with the light horses the saddle horse 
approaches the Thoroughbred in form, but has a 
much longer neck and an easier, more graceful 
movement. The peculiarity of this breed is the 
facility with which it may be trained to go several 
distinct gaits. These gaits are the rack, or single 
foot, the running walk, the straight walk, trot and 
canter. 

The score-card which is here given is an attempt 
:o describe the essential characteristics of the 
light horse type in one score-card. 

Light Horse Score-Card 
Class, Gelding 

GENERAL CHARACTERS 

Form. — Light, lean, lithe and muscular; long-legged, 
short in back ; having general appearance indicative of 
extreme activity. 

Quality. — Extreme refinement of symmetrical and 
clean-cut features, showing every requirement of strength, 
endurance, style and grace ; skin thin and pliable, show- 
ing veins plainly ; hair fine ; mane and tail fine and long ; 
bone possessing plenty of substance but great refinement ; 
tendons clean, strong and sharply defined. 



Constitution. — Generous and symmetrical develop- 
ment ; an expression of great nervous energy ; action 
spirited; heart -girth large; floor of chest full; barrel 
well rounded and moderately deep ; hind flanks properly 
developed ; eyes full, bright and clear ; nostrils large ; 
bone possessing abundant substance as well as refinement. 

Scale of Points Pefect 

score 

1. Weight, lbs.; corrected lbs. 

2. Height, hands; corrected hands . . 2 

3. Action, walk : long, fast, elastic, straight and 

regular; trot: rapid, regular, straight ... 15 

4. Temperament, spirited, energetic and tractable. 5 

5. Skin, thin, pliable, showing veins plainly ; coat 

fine, soft, bright 3 

6. Head, correct proportionate size, well carried ; 

features clean cut ; profile straight .... 2 

7. Muzzle, neat, nostrils large, flexible ; lips, thin, 

firm and even 1 

8. Eyes, full, bright, clear, same color 2 

9. Forehead, broad and full 2 

10. Ears, medium size, pointed, well carried, alert . 1 

11. Lower jaw, angles wide, space clean, well muscled 1 

12. Neck, well muscled, arched, throatlatch fine ; 

windpipe large 2 

13. Shoulder, long, sloping, smooth, extending into 

back 3 

14. Arm, short, strong, well muscled, thrown back . 1 

15. Forearm, long, wide, clean, well muscled ... 2 

16. Knees, straight.wide, deep, strong, clean, strongly 

supported 4 

17. Cannons, short, clean, wide; tendons large, clean 

and prominent 2 

18. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean .... 1 

19. Pasterns, long, sloping, strong, clean 3 

20. Fore feet, medium size, even and sound; horn 

dense and waxy ; soles concave ; bars strong 
and full ; frogs large and elastic ; heels wide, 

one-half length of toe ; vertical to ground . 6 

21. Withers, high, extending well into back ... 1 

22. Chest, deep, low, girth large 3 

23. Ribs, deep, well sprung, closely coupled .... 2 

24. Back, short, broad, strong, muscular 2 

25. Loins, short, broad, thickly muscled 2 

26. Barrel, long in under line ; flanks well let down . 1 

27. Hips, smooth, wide and level 2 

28. Croup, long, wide, muscular, not drooping ... 2 

29. Tail, attached high, well haired, well carried . . 1 

30. Thighs, deep, broad, strong, muscular .... 3 

31. Quarters, deep, plump with muscle 1 

32. Stifles, strong, clean, muscular 2 

33. Gaskins, long, wide, muscular 3 

34. Hocks, large, strong, wide, deep, clean, well set. 7 

35. Cannons, short, clean, wide ; tendons large, 

clean and prominent 2 

36. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong and clean . . 1 

37. Pasterns, strong, sloping, springy, clean ... 3 

38. Hind feet, medium size, even, sound ; horn dense, 

waxy ; soles concave ; bars strong, full ; frogs 

large, elastic; heels wide 4 

Total 100 



n. Cattle types (Figs. 45-49). 

The domestic cattle of the world are bred and 
improved principally for three purposes: for beef, 
milk and labor. Incidentally they furnish useful 
materials for clothing and for many of the arts. 
The types most common to America are the beef 
and dairy types. The extremes of these classes 



48 



ANIMAL TYPES AND SCORE-CARDS 



are very distinct, but merge into one another and 
are then sometimes called dual-purpose cattle. 
Beef type. — The cattle belonging to this type are 




Fig. 45. Parts of the cow. 1, muzzle; 2, face; 3, forehead; 4. throat; 5. neck: 6, dewlap; 
7, shoulder: 8, wethers; 9, back; 9i, crops; 10, chine; 11, ribs; 12, fore ribs; 12i, fore 
flank; 12, 12i, chest; 13, belly; 14, Hank; 15. loin; 16, hips; 17, rump: 18. setting of tail; 
19, thurl or pin bone; 20. quarter; 21, thigh; 22, hock; 23, switch; 24, leg; 25, stifle; 
26, udder; 27, teat; 28. forearm; 29, knee; 30, shank; 31, hoof. 



deep and full in every part. A well-sprung rib 
giving a broad back with large heart-girth gives 
increased room for the valuable meat cuts. The 
back is broad, straight and 
of medium length. The 
loin, carrying, as it does, 
the highest quality of 
flesh, is justly regarded 
by consumer, butcher and 
feeder alike as the one 
most important part of 
the entire animal. The 
hips are smooth and wide 
apart. The rump of the 
beef animal is long, level 
and wide. A full, thick 
and well - fleshed thigh 
will not be overlooked, 
and with such a thigh the 
twist will extend well 
down, giving the general 
appearance of very short 
legs when the animal is 
viewed from behind. A 
detailed description of 
the beef animal is given 
in the score -card fol- 
lowing. 



distinguished by their ability to produce a fine 
quality of beef. Consumers pay a high premium 
for the choicest cuts of beef, and those animals 
which supply the largest proportion of these 
choice cuts are the most in demand and bring 
the highest prices in the cattle market. The gen- 
eral form of the beef animal is broad, straight, 
deep and compact. The top and bottom lines should 
be straight, the legs short, the back broad and 
thickly covered with flesh. The qualities most 
desired in the finished animal are supplied by a 
carcass that possesses the 
smallest percentage of offal 
or waste parts and a high 
percentage of edible meat. 
The indications of prime 
quality in the fat animal are 
firmness, yet springy con- 
sistency of the flesh, and all 
exposed parts of the bony 
skeleton well covered. Unde- 
sirable quality is indicated 
by a large head, coarse bone, 
unevenly distributed and 
patchy flesh. The head should 
be moderately fine with a 
broad, full and high fore- 
head, which will suggest a 
well-developed nervous sys- 
tem and strong vitality. A 
clear full eye shows good 
health and gentle tempera- 
ment. The shoulder of a 
good beef animal is compact 
and well covered with flesh, 
with no coarseness or angu- 
larity. The chest is broad, 



Beep Cattle Score-Card 
Class, Breeding Females 

GENERAL CHARACTERS 

Form. — Compact, thick-set and short-legged in appear- 
ance; body deep, thick and of medium length; top line 
straight, under line low in flanks; scale medium to large, 
not greatly above average for the breed. 

Quality. — General refinement of symmetrical and 
clean-cut features; breed characters pronounced; bone fine 




Fig. 46. The beef type. 



"Choice goods," a famous Shorthorn bull. 



ANIMAL TYPES AND SCORE-CARDS 



49 



and clean; hair fine and soft; skin of not more than medium 
thickness; head, neck and legs short and fine, but strong. 

Condition. — Great wealth of natural flesh, as from 
abundant supply of best grass or other roughage, but not 
excessively fat; flesh firm, mellow and springy, without 
ties, lumps, patches or rolls, especially in the back and 
loin ; skin loose and soft ; depth and evenness of flesh 
consistent with degree of fatness. 

Constitution. — Generous and symmetrical develop- 
ment ; lively carriage ; ample heart-girth, capacity of 
barrel and depth of flanks ; eyes full, bright 
and clear; nostrils wide apart, large and open ; 
absence of refinement to point of delicacy ; 
skin of at least medium thickness and free JSs|P 

from scurf ; coat soft and bright. 

Early maturity. — General refinement and 
compactness ; body large, extremities small ; , 
shortness of head, neck and legs ; amplitude 
of girth in chest, belly and flanks. 

Sexuality. — Strongly marked; a general appearance 
of sensibility and feminine refinement of features; moder- 
ate length and great capacity in coupling; width in loin, 
hip-bones and pin-bones; well-developed udder and promi- 
nent milk veins; horn and coat fine; eyes expressive of 
mild and gentle sensitiveness. 

Scale of Points *£££ 

1. Age, estimated ; corrected 

2. Weight, estimated lbs.; corrected lbs.; 

score according to age and condition .... 5 

3. Skin, of medium thickness, loose, soft, elastic, 

free from scurf 3 

4. Hair, fine, soft, thick; color and markings accord- 

ing to breed 3 

5. Temperament, quiet, mild and contented ... 3 

6. Muzzle, mouth large, lips thin, nostrils large, 

open and wide apart 2 

7. Face, fine, moderately short and broad .... 2 

8. Forehead, full, broad and square 2 

9. Eyes, full, bright, clear and placid 1 

10. Jaws, wide, deep and strong 1 

11. Horns, medium to small, fine texture, shape and 

color according to breed 1 

12. Ears, medium size, fine texture 1 

13. Neck, thick, short, curving smoothly into shoul- 

ders and brisket; throat clean; dewlap slight . 3 

14. Shoulders, compact, snug, smooth, well fleshed . 5 

15. Fore-legs, short, straight, strong; arm full; bone 

fine and clean; feet small, strong, even; hoofs 
dense 3 

16. Brisket, moderately projecting, neat and broad . 1 

17. Chest, full, deep, wide ; heart-girth large ; fore 

flanks deep and full 10 

18. Barrel, capacious, medium length 5 

19. Crops, moderately full, flesh thick and even . . 5 

20. Ribs, long, closely set, well sprung, extending 

fairly well back ; back broad and straight ; 
flesh thick and even 10 

21. Loin, broad, straight ; flesh thick and even . . 6 

22. Hips, wide but not prominent, capable of being 

smoothly covered 3 

23. Rump, long, level, wide; tail-head smooth; flesh 

thick and even 5 

24. Pin-bones, far apart, not prominent 2 

25. Tail, tapering, bone fine 1 

26. Thighs and twist, full, muscled well down to 

hocks 6 

27. Hind-legs, short, straight, strong ; bone fine and 

clean, feet small, strong, even ; hoofs dense . 3 

28. Hind flank, low, full, thick 3 

29. Udder, large, shapely, evenly quartered, not 

fleshy ; teats uniform, medium sized, squarely 
placed, milk veins prominent 5 

Total 100 

C4 



Beef Cattle Score-Card 
Class, Breeding Bulls 

GENERAL CHARACTERS 

Form. — Compact, thick-set, and short- legged in appear- 
ance ; body deep, thick and of medium length ; top line 
straight, under line low in flanks ; fore quarters heavier 
than in a cow ; scale medium to large, not greatly above 
average for the breed. 




Fig. 47. A poor beef type. Light quarters and narrow frame 
give a light yield of carcass and a proportionately large 
amount of the cheap cuts. 

Quality. — Features clean cut and symmetrical, show- 
ing great strength without grossness ; breed characters 
pronounced ; bone strong and clean ; hair moderately fine 
and soft ; skin of medium thickness ; head, neck and legs 
short, strong and massive. 

Condition. — Great wealth of natural flesh as from 
abundant supply of best grass or other roughage, but not 
excessively fat ; flesh firm, mellow and springy, without 
ties, lumps, patches or rolls, especially in the back and 
loin ; depth and evenness of flesh consistent with degree 
of fatness. 

Constitution. — Generous and symmetrical develop- 
ment ; lively carriage ; ample heart-girth, capacity of bar- 
rel and depth of flanks; eye full, bright and clear; nostrils 
wide apart, large and open ; absence of grossness or of 
undue refinement. 

Early maturity. — Compactness and strength with as 
much refinement as is consistent with masculinity ; body 
large, extremities small ; shortness of head, neck and 
legs ; amplitude of girth in chest, belly and flanks. 

Sexuality. — Strongly marked; a majestic carriage 
and general appearance of masculine power and aggres- 
siveness ; great strength without grossness in head, neck 
and legs ; chest well developed ; shoulders very strong ; 
well-developed sexual organs. 

Scale of Points *%%g 

1. Age, estimated ; corrected 

2. Weight, estimated lbs.; corrected lbs.; 

according to age and condition 5 

3. Skin, moderately thick, loose, soft, elastic, free 

from scurf 3 

4. Hair, thick ; moderately fine and soft, color and 

markings according to breed 3 

5. Temperament, alert but quiet and good natured 3 

6. Muzzle, mouth large, lips round and- firm; nos- 

trils large, open and wide apart 2 

7. Face, short, straight, strong, full 2 

8. Forehead, full, very broad, heavy between eyes . 2 

9. Eyes, full, bright, clear, mild 1 



50 



ANIMAL TYPES AND SCORE-CARDS 




Scale of Points, continued Perfect angularity. There is nowhere surplus fat tissue, 

10. Jaws, wide, deep and strong '""l and no matter how great the quantity of food 

11. Horns, fine texture, strong; shape and color ac- eaten > the resulting product is finally, through the 

cording to breed 1 assimilating energies of the cow, manufactured 

12. Ears, medium size, well haired, not coarse . . 1 into milk and butter. The ideal dairy form is 

13. Heck, short, massive, curving 

strongly into shoulders and 
brisket ; crest strong ; throat 
clean ; dewlap slight 3 .^^f^'41 

14. Shoulders, strongly developed, ffW*'/ - ' <™ 

compact, snug, well fleshed . . 5 

15. Fore-legs, short, straight, arm full, 

bone strong and clean; hoofs HTOH 

large, strong, even and dense . 3 

16. Brisket, deep, broad, rounded, 

neat, moderately projecting . . 1 £ lT&^ r iS : sy"" = "55i- 

17. Chest, full, deep, wide; heart-girth fl V 

large; fore flanks deep .... 10 /ffl 

18. Barrel, deep, broad, medium length 4 

19. Crops, full and thick, straight in 

t0 P line 5 ^ 

20. Ribs, long, closely set, well sprung, ,11111 ('•'>■ ■ nBfcJ) Vl „l> 'pf -Iv^i/SaLSA Al'lf't *H L "i 

extending well back; back broad -s. ,, / ,tMyj!W unviiMfc^ jkllS&MtiltfMtmi EsB&ii ? '.[ ' (' "'■O-'Q*- 1 '- 

and straight; flesh thick and ' -Q f.Vi(mW^^^^Vf^^^i^^^ l >^^WM ^ M* ' 
even . 10 'M 

21. Loin, broad, straight ; flesh thick 

and even 6 

22. Hips, wide, but not prominent, capable of being wedge-shaped, viewed from the front, side and 

oo d,™! i y covered . . • • • • ■ • ■ • • ■ o above. The wedge-shape should be due primarily 

23. Rump, long, level, wide; tail-head smooth; flesh ,, , j j j j i • • ™' 

thick and even 5 to tne enlarged and expanded pelvic region. The 

24. Pin-bones, far apart', not prominent '. '. '. . . 2 head of the dairy animal should be rather long, 

25. Tail, tapering, bone moderately fine 1 broad at the forehead, the face somewhat dished 

26. Thighs, full, wide and deep; muscled well down and the nostrils large and open. A dense horn 

to hocks 4 structure is desirable. The neck is long, thin and 

27. Twist, deep and full 4 muscular, but it should be neatly attached to the 

28. Hind -legs, short, straight, bone strong and clean; shoulders. The shoulders themselves should lie 

9Q Rinrf°fl S Jt rge / ,f r r g eVeD ? reasonably close together, forming at the withers 

29. Hind flank, full, low 4 , ' , ™, 5 , ' i.-i n. 

30. Testicles, well developed, both present and nor- a sharp angle. The chest while narrower than m 

mally placed .... 3 the beef animal, should be deep and capacious. 

— — The legs, both front and behind, should be straight 

iotal 1<J0 and be attached to the corners of the body. The 

Dairy type. — The typical dairy animal is widely back should be strong, reasonably long, and show- 
different from the beef animal. The general con- ing large backbone. The loin is broad and level, 
formation of this type is one of leanness and giving a good width of back. The ribs should be 

^^ so arched as to extend well 

j§^c-'^s|T-^£|^ downward and give the ani- 

•j^^ ^ * L te ^ J; ^^a^_— -^-x.-i ■ ^^a^'i&.S"^ - -1/*^ ma ' l ar g e abdominal capa- 

/C r7 ~ - •. \^^^'^^'^ v ^^y^f,JV^-i r '' '" 'W''W^'-^'' '; . v c '*y- The hips are wide apart 

f.jL"' ■['''' - ' /' ' • . . 'iv|\m?S- A and prominent. The long, 

If '■• ., X'/'r., ,, '' v. i 1 '*',', ^'fc'.'t' 'HiTiitoL^'i^V. broad and level rump is indic- 

II''' li! ' ^'.^^■'^''/■^''■'■'' r ^'::^' : f\^' ". '"','■' \'^\\V\\SM&! ^\ i ative of reproductive power. 

'''■^r^r^^'^^^^Kv-'^.U " J', '''/ ' ^W^Mp^b-^ The thighs are thin and mus- 

W*'- ''"'i '*' p**/"*' '^^£S*£^^(%£' ff-i''^ P0) ■ '\-\j cular. The udder represents 

' '* '' V '•*' '•■■(& •*a'£uJ'^ J '%r "'"ffi&'!!+ i *,i H^'!'t'\\fy t 'Xi/- ^ ne °rgan of special dairy 

^■'H'^t^MW 1 ^' ^f^^^"tiiC k '*f*^\^/^m^ development, and should be 

w. ■'> WfliK't. ^&iimiir*W>f!W of good size ' extendin S wel1 

//M}' ^/^*~"?^^$t$&~~' '^ %*"4*">'§M < ^$ MtiJir forward in front and up be- 

'■>/r-' '"- 7 '''^^M& > ^^''^'^2^ : ^^ > i^f l ''r^^ hind. It should be provided 

\~'j , -Jjf ^%^0*£»^*'^^ wMir'i"^ w ^ n t '" ur teats placed well 

,( ,i ?J\. \ S f\ mil^'i apart and of medium size. 

tJfr » r \ s Iffi'fe/ When the milk is drawn, the 

If V»4 /Mw'^H udder should be left soft and 

J V \ , c^m> : >'\.-, a ' „ ., pliable. A thin covering of 

m KwK**. •*.. -"'■''''WlV'ftitf''^''*' fine silky hair over the entire 

il'^, ,'^*^- - ~ '" w '*^aV>-4W-,'> udder is desirable. The milk 

fJ$$?«W •*#-<■•* _ '",.;-p?m?!IJ4,}-X veins, so called, extend from 

Fig. 49. A dual-purpose type. Red-polled cow. the udder forward and under 






ANIMAL TYPES AND SCORE-CARDS 



51 



the thorax. These should be large, tortuous and 
branching. The milk wells, through which these 
veins enter the thorax, should be large. A yellow 
color of the skin is considered desirable by many 
authorities. The score-card following gives a more 
detailed description of the dairy type. 

Dairy Cattle Score-Card 
Class, Breeding Females 

GENERAL CHARACTERS 

Form. — Spare, angular, moderately short - legged; 
barrel, capacious; hind quarters, wide and deep; scale, 
medium to large, notgreatly above average for the breed. 

Quality. — General refinement of symmetrical and 
clean-cut features; bone fine and clean; hair fine and soft; 
skin of not more than medium thickness; head, neck and 
legs fine and of moderate length. 

Condition. — Spare, no fat apparent; skin loose and 
mellow. 

Constitution. — Generous and symmetrical develop- 
ment; lively carriage; ample heart-girth, capacity of bar- 
rel and depth of flanks; eyes full, bright and clear; nos- 
trils, wide apart, large, and open; absence of refinement 
and spareness to point of delicacy or emaciation; skin of 
medium thickness, free from scurf; coat soft and bright. 

Nervous energy. — Spinal column prominent, vertebra? 
wide apart; forehead, high and wide; ears active; tempera- 
ment alert; also the indications of constitution and quality. 

Sexuality. — A general appearance of sensibility and 
feminine refinement of features ; moderate length — 
and great capacity in barrel, width in loin, hip- 
bones and pin-bones ; well developed udder ; horn 
and coat fine ; eyes expressive of mild and gentle t. 
sensitiveness. 

Milk-giving capacity.— Udder large, shapely, 
evenly quartered, free from fleshiness, extending 
well up behind and far forward, strongly attached; 
milk veins large and tortuous; milk wells large ; secre- 
tions of skin abundant and yellow ; also the above indica- 
tions of all the other general characters. 

Scale of Points P „ e „™ 4 

score 

1. Age, estimated 

2. Weight, estimated lbs.; corrected 

lbs.; score according to age and condition . . 2 

3. Skin, medium fine, loose, mellow, elastic, free 

from scurf ; secretions yellow and abundant . 5 

4. Hair, fine, soft, thick; color and markings accord- 

ing to breed 2 

5. Temperament, alert, but mild and tractable . . 5 

6. Muzzle, clean cut, mouth large, lips thin, nos- 

trils large 1 

7. Face, lean, fine, slightly dished 1 

8. Forehead, broad, high, slightly dished .... 1 

9. Eyes, full, bright, clear, mild 3 

10. Horns, medium to small, fine texture, shape and 

color according to breed 1 

11. Ears, medium size, fine texture 1 

12. Neck, fine, spare, medium length, throat clean; 

dewlap light ; neatly attached to head and 
shoulders 2 

13. Shoulders, lean, sloping; narrow at withers, 

moderately wide at points 2 

14. Fore-legs, straight, short, bone clean and fine; 

feet strong, hoofs dense and even 2 

15. Brisket, light, thin 1 

16. Chest, deep, capacious 8 

17. Barrel, capacious, medium length 10 

18. Back, lean, straight, medium length; vertebras 

wide spaced and prominent; ribs long, broad, 
wide spaced, moderately well sprung .... 8 



Scale of Points, continued Perfect 

. score 

19. Loin, broad, lean, coupling roomy 3 

20. Hips, far apart, level with back 2 

21. Rump, lean, long, broad; pelvic arch prominent; 

pin-bones high, far apart 4 

22. Tail, tapering, bone fine, length according to breed 1 

23. Thighs, thin, incurving, twist roomy 3 

24. Hind- legs, straight, short, bone clean and fine; 

feet strong; hoofs dense and even 2 

25. Udder, large, shapely, evenly quartered, mellow, 

free from fleshiness, extending well up behind 
and far forward, strongly attached; teats uni- 
form, well placed, of size and shape convenient 
for milking 20 

26. Milk veins, large, tortuous; milk wells large. 10 

Total 100 



III. Sheep types (Figs. 50-54). 

Sheep may be broadly classified as wool and 
mutton breeds. All sheep produce wool and all 
sheep are valuable for mutton, but with sheep, as 
with other classes of the domestic animals, the 
mutton qualities of certain breeds are highly 
developed, the wool being secondary. Other breeds 
are selected chiefly for their wool. This selection 
consistently for one or the other purpose has 
resulted in the two breeds named. 




Fig. 50. Parts of the sheep. 1, head; 2, neck; 3, shoulder 
vein: 4. shoulder; 5, brisket; 6. foreleg; 7, chest; 8, ribs; 
9, top of shoulder; 10, back; 11, loin; 12, hip; 13, rump; 
14, tail; 15, gigfiot or leg of mutton; 16, hind leg; 17, flank; 
18, belly; 19, fore flank; 20, twist. 

Mutton type. — The mutton type corresponds in 
general form to the so-called meat type of all the 
domestic animals. This form is compact, thick-set 
low down and blocky. The body is deep, broad and 
of medium length. The top and bottom lines are 
straight. The evidences of quality are general 
refinement and symmetry, fine smooth bone, with 
short head, neck and legs. In the fat animal the 
carcass should be covered with deep, firm, mellow 
and springy flesh evenly distributed, without 
lumpiness or rolls. The wool should be uniformly 
long, dense and with some crimp. The yolk should 
be evenly distributed and moderately abundant. 
The other detailed characters for the fat mutton 
sheep are indicated in the following score-card, 
which applies to unsexed fat animals only. 



52 



ANIMAL TYPES AND SCORE-CARDS 




Fig. 51. The mutton type. Shropshire wether in 
field condition. 



Mutton Sheep Score-Card 
Class, Fat Wethers 

GENERAL CHARACTERS' 

Form. — Compact, thick-set and short-legged; body 
deep, thick, and of medium length ; top line straight ; 
under line low in flanks ; scale large for age. 

Quality. — General refinement and symmetry of clean- 
cut features ; mutton breed character pronounced ; head, 
neck and legs short ; bone fine and smooth ; fleece pure 
and fine. 

Condition. — Prime; a deep, even covering of firm, 
mellow and springy flesh, without lumps, patches, rolls, or 
undue accumulations of fat, especially in back, loin, rump, 
or fore flanks ; neck thick ; shoulder-vein full ; top and 
points of shoulder, back-bone and loin smoothly covered, 
and leg of mutton deep and full. 

Constitution. — Should be thoroughly healthy. 

Early maturity. — General refinement and compact- 
ness ; body large ; extremities small ; shortness of head, 
neck and legs ; amplitude of girth in chest, belly and 
flanks. 

Scale of Points ^core' 

1. Age, 

2. Scale, estimated weight lbs.; corrected 

lbs.; score according to age ... 12 

3. Skin, bright, clean, and free from scurf ; color 

according to breed 1 

4. Fleece, pure, uniformly long and dense ; crimp, 

even and fine ; quality fine; condition bright, 
clean and lustrous ; yolk evenly distributed 
and moderately abundant ; general character 
according to breed 12 

5. Muzzle, fine, nostrils open 1 

6. Face, short ; color and covering according to 

breed 2 

7. Eyes, bright and clear 2 

8. Forehead, broad ; wooled according to breed . 2 

9. Ears, fine ; length, color, covering and carriage 

according to breed 2 

10. Neck, short and thick, blending smoothly with 

shoulder 3 

11. Shoulder, broad, compact and snug ; thickly and 

evenly fleshed 5 

12. Fore-lej;s, straight, short, arm full ; bone fine 

and smooth ; feet strong ; color and covering 
according to breed 3 

13. Chest, deep, broad and full ; brisket wide, heart- 

girth large ; fore flanks deep and full ... 5 

14. Back, broad, straight and of medium length ; 

ribs well sprung ; thickly and evenly fleshed . 10 



Perfect 
Scale of Points, continued score 

15. Loin, broad and straight ; thickly and evenly 

fleshed 10 

16. Rump, long, level and wide ; hips smooth ; 

thickly and evenly fleshed 10 

17. Thighs, full, fleshed low down, twist deep and 

full .' 15 

18. Belly, not unduly large 2 

19. Hind-legs, straight and short ; bone fine and 

smooth ; feet strong ; color and covering ac- 
cording to breed 3 

Total 100 

Wool type. — The wool types of sheep are selected 
primarily for the quantity and quality of the wool 
produced. The extreme type of wool sheep has 
perhaps been best developed in America. This 
animal was selected through many years for the 
production of a fine quality and large relative 
production of wool. The type was characterized 
by a relatively small body perfectly covered 
with wool from the extremities to the belly 
and even to the tip of the nose. Many of 
the earlier specimens of this type were pro- 
duced with immense folds or wrinkles which 
increased the surface on which wool might be 
grown. In more recent years, the most highly 
prized type of wool sheep is devoid of wrinkles, of 
much larger size and of stronger constitution. 
This type is valuable for both wool and mutton 
and is exceedingly popular on western ranges. 
The prime consideration is a long, even, and dense 
fleece, evenly covering the entire body. This should 
be supplied with an even fluid yolk; the fiber 
should be strong, slightly crimped and without 




Fig. 52. American Delaine Merino in field condition. 



break. A bright clean skin is indicative of a good 
constitution and general health. 

The score-card given below indicates the essen- 
tial details of both the mutton and the wool types 
of sheep, and indicates clearly the distinguishing 
differences of these two valuable types. 

There is ample justification for combining on the 
same score-card the essential characteristics of 
both mutton and wool sheep. The development of 
the two characters of mutton production and wool 
growth is not incompatible, and both may be 
present in the same individual. It is true, however, 
that in improving the domestic animals it is easier 
to perfect one quality rather than to attempt to 
combine two in the development of a breed or type. 



ANIMAL TYPES AND SCORE-CARDS 



53 



Breeding Sheep Score-Card 



GENERAL CHARACTERS 



Form. — Compact, thick -set and short- 
Tegged ; body deep, thick and of medium length ; 
top liii«! straight ; under line low in flanks; scale 
liu^e iVr age. 

Quality. — General refinement and symmetry 
of clean- cut features; breed character pro- 
nounced ; head, neck and legs short ; bone 
smooth, moderately fine in ewe, somewhat 
stronger in ram; fleece pure, fine in ewe, some- 
what coarser in ram. 

Condition. — Great wealth of natural flesh 
but not excessively fat ; flesh firm, mellow and 
springy, without lumps, patches, rolls or undue 
accumulations of fat, especially in back, loin, 
rump and fore flanks ; depth and evenness of flesh con- 
sistent with degree of fatness. 

Constitution. — Generous and symmetrical develop- 
ment ; ample heart-girth, capacity of barrel and depth of 
flanks ; eyes full, bright and clear ; nostrils 'large and 
open ; throat free from lumps ; absence of refinement to 
point of delicacy ; skin bright ; fleece bright, soft and 
long, crimp ever, yolk moderately abundant. 

Early maturity. — General refinement and compact- 
ness ; body large, extremities small ; shortness of head, 
neck and legs ; amplitude of girth in chest, belly and 
flanks. 

Sexuality. — In males : A bold, active and aggressive 
carriage ; great strength without grossness in head, neck, 
legs and shoulders ; well-developed sexual organs. 

In females : General refinement ; good development 
of barrel ; head, neck and legs lighter and finer than in 
ram. 

Mutton Fine-wooled 



Scale of Points 

! 1. Age, . . 

2. Scale, estimated weight. 




Scale of Points, cont'd 



sheep 


sheep 


Perfect 


Perfect 


score , 


score 



.lbs.; 



corrected lbs.; score accord- 
ing to age 10 

Skin, bright, clean and free from 
scurf; color according to breed . 3 




Fig. 53. A modern Merino sheep type. 



Mutton Fine-wooled 
sheep sheep 

Perfect Perfect 

score score . 

4. Fleece, pure, uniformly long and 

dense; crimp even and fine; qual- 
ity fine ; condition bright, clean 
and lustrous; yolk evenly distrib- 
uted and moderately abundant ; 
general character according to -, 
breed 15 30 

5. Muzzle, fine in ewe, broad in ram ; 

nostrils open 1 1 

6. Face, short ; fine in ewe, strong in 

ram ; color and covering accord- 
ing to breed 5 5 

7. Eyes, large, bright and clear ... 3 3 

8. Forehead, broad in ewe, still broader 

in ram ; wooled according to 

breed 3 3 

9. Ears, fine ; length, color, covering 

and carriage according to breed . 3 3 

10. Neck, short, blending smoothly with 

shoulders ; especially thick in 

ram 3 2 

11. Shoulder, broad, compact, snug and 

well fleshed 4 3 

12. Fore-legs, straight, short, arm full, 

feet strong; bone 

smooth, fine in 

ewe, stronger in 

ram ; color and 

covering accord- 
ing to breed . . 4 3 

13. Chest, deep, broad 

and full ; brisket 

wide; heart-girth 

large; fore flanks 

deep and full . . 10 10 

Back, well fleshed, broad, 
straight and of me- 
dium length ; ribs well 

sprung 6 4 

fleshed, broad and straight 6 4 

16. Rump, long, level, wide and well 
jfl eshed 6 4 

17. Thighs, full; fleshed low down; 
twist deep and full 10 6 

18. Body, deep and capacious in belly 
and hind flanks 4 3 

19. Hind-legs, straight and short ; feet 
strong ; bone smooth, moderately 
fine in ewe, strong in ram ; color 
and covering according to breed. 4 3 

Total 100 .... 100 



54 



ANIMAL TYPES AND SCORE-CARDS 



IV. Swine types (Figs. 55-57). 

Swine are produced exclusively for their flesh. 
The quality of the flesh demanded by various 
markets varies, and this variation in market 
demands has resulted in the development of certain 
special types of hogs. For convenience, we 
may divide hogs into the fat hog and bacon 
classes. 

Fat hog type. — The fat hog type is uni- 
versal throughout the corn-belt. It is the 
extreme development of meat form. It is 
distinguished by extreme compactness of 
form and unusually small development of 
bone and other waste parts. The highest- 
priced parts are the hams and sides, conse- 
quently in all breeds the size of the ham and 
of the sides is carefully considered. The 
excessive development of fat in the corn- 
fed hog is a remarkable evidence of the 
influence of food and selection on the do- 
mestic animals. This tendency to lay on fat 
has been carried to such an extreme that 
some individuals of these highly improved breeds 
are objectionable because of the extreme amount 
of fat which they carry when fully prepared for 
market. This has led to the demand for a leaner 
hog. Such is the so-called " bacon " hog. 

The score-card here given indicates clearly 
the essential details in the conformation of the 
fat hog. 

Fat Hog Score-Card 
Class, Breeding Hogs 

GENERAL CHARACTERS 

Form. — Low-set, broad and deep ; standing squarely 
on short and strong legs and feet ; back slightly arched ; 
body compact in male, of good length in female ; under 
line approximately straight ; scale medium to large, not 
greatly above average for the breed. 

Quality. — General refinement of symmetrical and 
clean-cut features ; bone clean and strong, moderately 
coarse in male, moderately fine in female ; skin smooth ; 



barrel and depth of flanks ; eyes full, bright and clear ; 
coat thick, smooth and bright ; absence of refinement tc 
point of delicacy. 

Sexuality. — Strongly marked. In males : Active car- 
riage, aggressive disposition ; strength without grossness 
in head and legs ; neck arched and heavy ; snout broad ; 





Fig. 55. Parts of the hog. a. snout; 6, ear; c, neck; d, jowl; 
e, shoulder; f. back; g, loin; h, rump; j, ham; k. side or 
ribs; I, flank; m, belly; n, fore flank; o, fore leg; p, hind leg. 

hair fine ; head, neck and legs short ; shields in male not 
unduly coarse ; breed characters pronounced. 

Condition. — Strongly muscled and thickly fleshed, but 
not excessively fat ; flesh firm, mellow, even and smooth. 

Constitution. — Generous and symmetrical develop- 
ment; lively carriage; ample heart -girth, capacity of 



Fig. 56. A lard hog type. 

shoulders strong ; shields present in mature animals ; 
well-developed sexual organs. In female : General refine- 
ment of features ; good length and depth in barrel ; full 
number of well-placed and well-developed teats present ; 
head lighter than in boar, neck narrower behind ears ; 
good breadth in loin, hips and rump. 

Early maturity. — General refinement and compact- 
ness ; body large, extremities small ; shortness of head, 
neck and legs ; amplitude of girth in chest, belly and 
flanks. 

Scale of Points *£% 

1. Age, estimated ; corrected 

2. Scale, estimated weight lbs; corrected 

lbs.; score according to age .... 6 

3. Skin, smooth, mellow and free from scurf ... 2 

4. Hair, thick, bright, smooth, fine and uniformly 

distributed ; color and markings according to 
breed 2 

5. Temperament, aggressive in male ; gentle and 

quiet in female 2 

6. Snout, short and smooth, tapering from face to 

tip of nose ; broad in male, finer in female . 1 

7. Face, short, smooth, broad between eyes, dished 
according to breed ; cheeks full; forehead high 
and wide 2 

Eyes, full, bright, clear and not obscured by 

wrinkles 1 

9. Ears, medium or small, fine in texture, neatly 

attached, carriage according to breed ... 1 

10. Jowl, full, smooth, firm and neat 2 

11. Neck, wide, deep, short and nicely arched, blend- 
ing smoothly with shoulder ; in male, heavy ; 
in female, finer behind the ears 3 

12. Shoulder, broad, deep, full and compact ; heavier 
in male than in female, but shields not unduly 
coarse 8 

13. Fore-legs, short, straight, strong, squarely set, 
wide apart ; pasterns short ; feet strong ; bone 

moderately coarse in male, moderately fine in 
female 6 

14. Chest, deep, wide and full ; breast bone ad- 

vanced 8 

15. Back and loin, broad, strong and slightly 

arched ; moderately short in male, moderately 
long in female ; thickly and evenly fleshed ; 
ribs well sprung 12 

16. Sides, deep, full and smooth 8 



ANIMAL TYPES AND SCORE-CARDS 



55 



Scale of Points, continued ^score' 
17. Belly, wide ; under line approximately straight . 3 
IS. Udder (female), full number of well -developed 
and well-placed teats. 
Testicles tmale), well -developed, both present 
and normally placed 8 

19. Hind flank, low 2 

20. Rump, long, broad, gradually rounding from loin 

to root of tail ; thickly and evenly fleshed ; 
hips wide and smooth 6 

21. Hams, full, deep and broad ; fleshed well down 

to hocks 10 

22. Hind-legs, short, straight, strong, squarely set, 

wide apart ; pasterns short ; feet strong; 
bone moderately coarse in male, moderately 
fine in female 6 

23. Tail, tapering, medium-sized or small 1 

Total 100 

Bacon type. — The general form of the bacon 
hog is long, deep and of medium size. In every 
way this hog is thinner, 
leaner and rangier than 
the fat hog type. He is late 
in maturing but may be fed 
to a great weight. The bone 
is strong, the skin and hair 
fine and smooth and the 
whole body heavily muscled. 
We look especially for the 
development of the sides and 
belly in this class of hogs, 
as it is from this part that 
the bacon is secured. In 
other respects the character- 
istics of the bacon hog are 
not widely different from 
the characters especially 
desired in all types of 
domestic swine. The score- 
card for the bacon type 
follows. 



Bacon Hog Score-Card 
general characters 

Form. — Long, deep, smooth and of medium width; 
sides straight; legs short for the breed; head light; back 
slightly arched, under line straight; scale large for age; 
standard weight 170-200 pounds. 

Quality. — General refinement of symmetrical and 
clean-cut features; bone smooth, fine and strong; skin and 
hair fine and smooth; head, neck and legs short for the 
breed; bacon hog breed character pronounced. 

Condition. — Heavily muscled, moderately fat; cover- 
ing firm, smooth and of uniform thickness, especially in 
sides and belly. 

Constitution. — Should be thoroughly healthy. 

Early maturity. — General refinement, especially of 
head, neck and legs; body large; extremities small; ampli- 
tude of girth in chest, belly and flanks. 

Perfect 
score 

1. Scale, large for age .6 

2. Skin, smooth and fine; color according to breed 2 

3. Hair, abundant, fine, bright, smooth; color accor- 

ding to breed " 1 



Scale of Points, continued Perfect 

score 

4. Snout, shaped according to breed 1 

5. Face, smooth and slightly dished 1 

6. Eyes, full and bright; not obscured by wrinkles 1 

7. Ears, fine in texture; shape and position accord- 

ing to breed 1 

8. Jowl, light, smooth and neat 3 

9. Neck, light, medium length 3 

10. Shoulders, smooth, compact, free from any 

coarseness; moderately fat 8 

11. Fore-legs, straight, short for the breed; bone 

fine, strong and smooth; pasterns upright, feet 

strong 3 

12. Chest, deep; full in heart-girth 5 

13. Back and loin, long, smooth, strong, medium 

and uniform in width; moderately fat ... . 15 

14. Rump, long, smooth, medium in width; rounding 

from loin to tail; moderately fat 5 

15. Hams, firm, smoothly covered, fleshed deep and 

low toward hocks 10 

16. Sides, long, smooth, deep, straight, moderately fat 20 

17. Belly, long, smooth, straight and firm .... 12 




Pig. 57. A bacon hog type. 

IS. Hind-legs, straight, short for the breed; bone 
fine, strong and smooth, pasterns upright; feet 
strong 3 



Total 



100 



Scale of Points 



Literature. 

Craig, Judging Livestock, published by the 
author (1902); Mayo, The Care of Animals, The Mac- 
millan Company (1903); Goubaux and Barrier, The 
Exterior of the Horse, translated and edited by 
S. J. J. Harger, J. B. Lippincott & Co. (1892); 
Plumb, Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, Ginn & 
Co. (1906); Brooks, Agriculture, Vol. Ill, The Home 
Correspondence School, Springfield, Mass. (1901); 
Shaw, The Study of Breeds, and Animal Breeding 
(2 books), Orange Judd Company; Roberts, The 
Horse, Macmillan Company (1905); Spencer, Pigs: 
Breeds and Management, Vinton & Co., London 
(1897) ; Housman, Cattle : Breeds and Management, 
Vinton & Co., London (1897); Woll, Handbook for 
Farmers and Dairymen, Wiley & Sons (1907); 
Bailey, The Principles of Agriculture, Macmillan 
Co. (1901). 



CHAPTER IV 




THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 

By W. H. JORDAN 

IEEDING OF ANIMALS CANNOT BE GOVERNED BY MERE 
RULES and formulas. The subject of animal nutrition is broad and 
exceedingly complex. It involves a profound knowledge of certain 
phases of physics, chemistry and physiology, as well as a practical 
acquaintance with the characteristics of animals as sentient organ- 
isms. Moreover, it is a subject in the understanding of which slow 
progress has been made because of the great difficulties that are 
met in studying its problems. In the science of nutrition, with 
both plants and animals, many conclusions must be reached by infer- 
ence rather than by direct observation. Life-processes are hidden 
and the deductions of the investigator must be drawn largely from 
a measurement of end results, such as the solid and liquid excre- 
tions, the heat radiated by the animal as an expression of the 
energy utilized under given conditions, or the amount and character of the milk or body substance pro- 
duced under a particular system of feeding. The course that a certain compound travels after it is 
taken into the animal's digestive tract and the influence it exerts on life processes can generally be 
ascertained only by reasoning from well-known principles or on the basis of exterior phenomena. 

Before the days of scientific investigation in this field, long-continued experience in feeding animals 
had resulted in many precepts relating to this art, some of which were undoubtedly a sound basis for 
practice. But this traditional code of knowledge consisted of unexplained rules. While we owe much to 
the observations of the practical man, and while science has devoted much time to explaining facts with 
which he was already familiar, out of such unsystematic and superficial observations as are generally 
made in the stable can grow only an empirical practice, which has in it few of the elements of progress 
and safety. In order to reason from facts and principles of general application, it is necessary to know 
the compounds of cattle foods and their properties, the composition, structure and life-processes of the 
animal body, and the relations the food compounds sustain to its growth, maintenance and physiological 
status. Briefly, then, what has so far been accomplished in building up a body of knowledge that 
not only may properly be called a science of nutrition, but may be made of real assistance to those 
producing meat and milk ? 

(1) We have acquired a somewhat extended knowledge of the compounds found in cattle foods and 
of the actual and relative composition of many feeds. This knowledge, when used in connection with 
related facts, permits a classification of any individual feeding-stuff as to the place it may be expected 
to fill in a ration. It permits the safe substitution of one feed for another when price or availability 
makes this desirable, without materially modifying the amount or character of the nutrition. 

(2) Extensive determinations have been made of the digestibility, or availability, of feeding- 
stuffs, and of the influence on digestibility of various conditions, such as stage of growth of the plant, 
the amount of ingested food and the way foods are combined. 

(3) Fruitful results have come from long-continued investigations as to the functions of food com- 
pounds in building and maintaining the animal body. Notwithstanding the great difficulties in this field of 
inquiry, certain facts are well established, such as the formation of muscular tissue exclusively from food 
proteids, the production of animal fats from carbohydrates, and the maintenance of the internal and 
external work of the animal organism, chiefly by oxidation of the non-nitrogenous food compounds. 

(4) By the use of the respiration calorimeter, with which it is possible to measure the income and 
outgo of the animal body and the heat-production as well, it has been learned that the principle of the 
correlation and conservation of energy holds good in the maintenance and operation of the living mechan- 
ism. By the same means, the relative energy-value of the different food compounds has been ascertained 

(56) 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 57 

by physiological measurements, and the minimum quantities of the different nutrients required to main- 
tain an animal of a given kind and weight have been determined. Among the most recent and most 
enlightening results with this apparatus has been the measurement of the net productive value of feeds 
of different classes. This value for a unit of digested dry substance has been found to differ greatly, 
according to the source of the nutritive material. More specifically stated, the net productive energy, 
that is, the energy balance, after deducting from the total food-energy that is lost in the excreta and 
unoxidized gases and that which is used in the work of digestion and assimilation, is greater for a unit 
of digestible dry matter from the more easily masticated and digested grains than it is with the coarse 
materials, as the hays, straws and other fodders. This well-grounded conclusion sets at naught esti- 
mates of the relative values of feeds that were previously held, and provides a new and more accurate 
standard of measurements in animal nutrition. 

(5) Feeding experiments have demonstrated the usefulness of a great variety of new by-product 
feeds and their adaptability to various classes of animals. Rations unlike in amount and in their com- 
binations of nutrients have been compared as to their effect on the quantity and quality of the product. 

(6) It is fair to ask, What has come out of this great mass of data that may serve as a definite 
guide to practice? As far back as the days of Thaer, an attempt was made to use hay equivalents, 
that is, the relative values of cattle foods in terms of hay, as- a basis for feeding. It is now easy 
to see how irrational this scheme was. The first ambitious effort at the formulation of a systematic 
method of feeding based on modern data from chemical and physiological research, fortified by a limited 
number of practical demonstrations, was the German feeding standards. These standards consisted 
of a recommendation of definite quantities of digestible nutrients to be fed in accordance with weight, 
age and purpose, whether for a growing, fattening, working, or milk-producing animal. They assumed 
a uniform value for a unit of digestible matter without reference to its source. Later, certain modifica- 
tions have been introduced, allowing for the source of the nutrients and the rate of production of milch 
cows. Notwithstanding that these feeding formulas were derived from insufficient data and are imper- 
fect, they have had a marked, and in general a beneficial, effect on feeding practices. They have induced 
a study of feeding-stuffs and of the equivalence of rations, and in general have promoted uniformity of 
feeding. An attendant evil has been their acceptance as rules rather than as suggestions. It seems to 
have been assumed that the profits from a ration would hinge on its physiological efficiency, and dairy- 
men have often felt that they must purchase protein feeds at any price and under any conditions in 
order to comply with an orthodox creed. Such an application of feeding formulas is not rational, and 
practical men are coming to understand this. It now seems probable that the day of a blind adherence 
to fixed feeding formulas is past. Apart from the uncertainty caused by conflicting data as to what is 
the really necessary minimum proportion of protein in a ration, we have reached the broader conception 
that the production of milk or meat is a business, and the methods adopted should be regulated by market 
prices and other conditions. The situation is often such with a given farmer that a ration varying 
widely from the standard may be wise from a business point of view. 

(7) The knowledge gained in the study of animal nutrition has exerted considerable influence on 
methods of farm management and commercial standards. Magnifying the nutritive importance of pro- 
tein as many authorities have done, and as the feeding standards tend to do, has caused leguminous crops, 
such as alfalfa and the clovers, to take on an added importance in the scheme of crop-production, and 
has had the effect of causing many buyers to purchase feeds with almost exclusive reference to their 
protein content. The same point of view has found expression in legislation for controlling the sale of 
commercial feeding- stuffs, in obliging manufacturers to guarantee the percentages of protein and fat. 

Nothing is more rational than to encourage the production of leguminous crops, for this practice 
certainly tends to minimize the over-dependence on the markets which, in these days, when so large a 
proportion of the commercial feeds are of inferior quality, is proving to be a serious financial handicap 
to cattle-owners, especially dairymen. But on the other hand, the prominence given to protein in stand- 
ardizing feeds, both in terms of law and in commercial estimates, is irrational. There is no good reason 
why the protein content of a feed should be considered to the exclusion of such an important factor as 
the nature of the accompanying non-nitrogeneous compounds. These facts are mentioned as evidence 
that there should occur something of a readjustment of at least the popular point of view, as to values 
in feeding-stuffs. It does not appear that the aid the art of feeding animals will receive from science in 
the future will be in the nature of rules, but rather through the application of general principles to the 
special circumstances under which the feeding is practiced. This means, then, the placing of greater 
emphasis on the intelligence and judgment of the feeder. 



58 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 

By Henry Prentiss Armsby 

For the present purpose the discussion of stock- 
feeding may be considered under three general 
heads: (1) The principles of nutrition ; (2) feeding- 
stuffs; (3) feeding. These captions are taken up in 
order in the following pages. 

I. The Principles of Nutrition 

The chemical basis of plants and animals. 

The business of the stock-feeder is the conver- 
sion of vegetable into animal products. To do this 
intelligently, he must know, first of all, of what 
these products are composed. Fortunately, the 
almost innumerable substances contained in plants 
and animals may be grouped, for this purpose, 
under five heads, viz., water, ash, protein, carbo- 
hydrates and fats. 

Protein is a general term for all those ingredi- 
ents of the plant or animal which contain the 
element nitrogen. Protein is subdivided into (1) 
proteids and (2) non-proteids. 

(1) The proteids are intimately associated with 
the life of the plant or animal, being the charac- 
teristic ingredients of the protoplasm through 
which all life manifests itself. In the animal they 
may be said to be the basis of the working ma- 
chinery of the body. The organic part of the bones, 
the ligaments which bind the bones together, the 
muscles (lean meat) and tendons which move them, 
the skin, hair, hoofs and horns, the brain and 
nerves, the internal organs, are all composed, aside 
from the water which they contain, very largely of 
proteids, while the fat of the body, though often 
exceeding the proteids in amount, is essentially 
reserve material and may vary greatly without 
affecting the working of the body. In the plant the 
proteids are less obvious, but no less essential. In 
the young and growing parts they are present in 
abundance, and they are freely supplied to the 
seeds, some of which, as those of cotton and flax, 
contain very large amounts of them. In the plant 
as a whole, however, they are present in small 
proportion as compared with the carbohydrates. 

(2) The non-proteids include a large number of 
substances which contain nitrogen but are not pro- 
teids. They are, in general, comparatively simple, 
crystalline bodies, soluble in water, many of them 
belonging to the group of "amides." In the animal, 
they are represented by the nitrogenous extractives 
of lean meat. Their exact nutritive value is still in 
doubt, but it is probably less than that of the 
proteids. 

The carbohydrates comprise some very familiar 
substances, such as the sugars, dextrin, the gums, 
starch and cellulose, as well as many others known 
only to the chemist. They contain no nitrogen, and 
contain hydrogen and oxygen in the exact propor- 
tions to form water. They may be said to be essen- 
tially vegetable products, although one of them 
(glycogen) is peculiar to the animal. Cellulose, with 
more or less encrusting material, constitutes the 
framework of plants, while starch and the sugars 



are found abundantly in nearly all parts of them, 
and form an important ingredient of the food of 
herbivorous animals. 

The fats are familiar bodies and need no special 
description. The true fats of the plant are very 
similar to those of the animal. Like the carbohy- 
drates, the fats contain no nitrogen, but they con- 
tain relatively less hydrogen and oxygen and more 
carbon than the latter and are a more concentrated 
food. 

The ash is essentially material derived from the 
soil through the roots of the plant. The various 
ingredients of the ash doubtless have important 
functions in nutrition, but the subject has been 
little studied and it is generally assumed that a 
ration composed of normal feeds will supply suffi- 
cient ash ingredients. 

Water makes up, in round numbers, 40 to 60 per 
cent of the weight of the animal. In feeding-stuffs 
it may range from 10 or 12 per cent in very dry 
material to over 90 per cent in very succulent 
feeds, such as roots. 

Composition of the animal body. 

Of the substances mentioned in the foregoing 
section, water, ash, fat and proteids make up the 
great mass of the animal body. While carbohy- 
drates are also contained in it, their amount is so 
small that for our present purpose it may be 
neglected. 

Water. — All parts of the body contain a rather 
large proportion of water, which is as essentially 
an ingredient of the tissues as any other sub- 
stance. 

Water serves a physical purpose by imparting 
the proper degree of elasticity and flexibility to the 
various tissues. It is likewise the great solvent of 
the body. The food is taken up into the tissues 
dissolved in water, and water is the vehicle in 
which it is carried to all parts of the organism and 
in which the waste products are finally excreted 
from the body. 

Ash. — The ash, or mineral matter, is most obvious 
in the bones of the animal, but it is also contained 
in smaller proportion in every part of the body, 
and its presence in proper kind and amount is 
essential to the vital activities of the cells. 

Proteids. — As already stated, the great bulk of 
what we may call the working machinery of the 
body is composed of proteids, accompanied by ash 
ingredients and a considerable amount of water. 
It is obvious then that a due supply of the proteids 
in the food is an exceedingly important matter. 

Fat. — The fat of the body is its reserve material. 
It is formed when more food is given than the 
immediate needs of the animal require, and is 
stored up in certain special tissues, called adipose 
tissues, to be drawn on later if the food supply is 
insufficient. 

The following table shows the average composi- 
tion of bodies of cattle, sheep and swine in various 
stages of fatness. As appears from this table, the 
fat is the variable ingredient in the body, its 
amount depending on the feeding, while the relative 
amounts of water, ash and proteids vary much less. 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



59 



Percentage Composition op Live Animals 





Ox 








Sheep 






Swine 




-a 


ts 






r3 


S3 






■a 








«i-( 








tM 














I 


H 


1 


fa 


a 

03 


s 


a 


£ 


it 

> 


1 


"5 




Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 




eeut 


cent 


cent 


cent 


cent 


cent 


cent 


cent 


cent 


cent 


cent 


Water 


54.3 


50.2 


43.6 


60.1 


56.6 


53.7 


50.7 


44.8 


39.0 


53.9 


42.0 


Ash 


4.8 


4.4 


3.9 


4.5 


3.4 


3.3 


3.2 


2.9 


2.8 


2.7 


1.8 


Fat 


7.1 


14.9 


26.8 


13.1 


8.6 


13.2 


18.3 


28.1 


37.2 


22.5 


40.2 




15.8 


15.5 


13.7 


15.3 


15.4 


14.8 


13.8 


12.2 


11.0 


13.9 


11.0 


Contents of stomach and intes- 






18.0 


15.0 


12.0 


7.0 


16.0 


15.0 


14.0 


12.0 


10.0 


7.0 


5.0 


Total 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 



Ox 



'Well fed 
Half fat 
Fat 
Fat Calf-* 
Lean 



minim 



ILL 



1 ' 



Tru^i ; ! in i ), . "~r 



Sheep 



Swine 



Weii fed ^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiimims 

Half fat m 



Fat Mlllllllllllllllllt 



Venjfat m\\\\\\\\\\\\mmmm®m : %mmm 



pen fed m\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\mmmmmmm 



Fcrt\ 



\Ash MM, Protein. W^, Fat I W ater W^ Contents of Stomach, and Intestines 
Fig. 58. Percentage composition of live animals. 



The composition and digestibility of feeding-stuffs. 

The value of a feeding-stuff evidently depends, 
in large part at least, on the amounts of proteids, 
carbohydrates, fats and ash present in an available 
form. The total amounts present may be deter- 
mined with more or less accuracy by chemical 
analysis. The results of such analyses are usually 
stated as in the following examples: 



Clover hay 

Water 15.00 

Ash 5.47 

Proteids 10.13 

Non-proteids 1.45 

Crude fiber 28.71 

Nitrogen-free extract . . . 36.86 

Crude fat 2.38 



Corn meal 
15.00 
1.23 
8.67 
0.25 
1.86 
69.40 
3.59 



100.00 



100.00 



The crude fat is the material extracted by dry 
ether. It contains the true fat of the feeding-stuff 
and also more or less other material, such as wax, 
the green coloring matter of the plant, and the 
like. Crude fiber is the residue left after treating 
the feeding -stuff successively with dilute acid, 
dilute potash, alcohol and ether. Its chief ingre- 
dient is cellulose, a substance (or substances) 
belonging to the group of carbohydrates. Clean 
cotton or linen fiber are familiar forms of cellulose. 
The crude fiber of young plants or parts of plants 



and of seeds is chiefly cellulose, but that of more 
mature plants contains considerable amounts of 
encrusting substances, making it woody and tough. 
The nitrogen-free extract includes all the more 
soluble carbohydrates, such as starch, dextrin, 
gums, sugars, and the like, and also, especially in 
the coarse fodders, a great variety of other sub- 
stances, some of them little known. In brief, the 
carbohydrates of feeding-stuffs are divided into two 
classes: The less soluble, contained in the crude 
fiber, and the more soluble, contained in the nitro- 
gen-free extract. The amount of crude fiber serves 
to some extent to indicate the bulk and coarseness 
of the material. 

It is not the total amounts of these ingredients, 
however, but the amounts which the animal can 
digest out of them which is the important factor 
in determining, the value of a feeding-stuff. By the 
various processes to which it is subjected in the 
alimentary canal, a part, and usually only a part, of 
each ingredient is so far modified as to render it 
capable of being taken up into the circulation and 
of contributing to the maintenance and growth of 
the body. The digested portions of the proteids and 
of the crude fat are regarded as consisting essen- 
tially of proteids and true fat respectively. The 
digested portions of the crude fiber and of the nitro- 
gen-free extract have been shown to have the same 
chemical composition and energy value (see below) 



60 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



as cellulose or starch, and they have accordingly 
been regarded as consisting of carbohydrates. It 
should be noted, however, that in herbivorous 
animals a not inconsiderable proportion of the car- 
bohydrates undergoes fermentation in the paunch 




nrn 




Fig. 59. StaU used in digestion experiments. 

and csecum, yielding carbon dioxid, marsh gas, and 
soluble products of inferior nutritive value, chiefly 
organic acids. The materials thus dissolved in the 
digestive tract are often spoken of as digestible 
nutrients. The undigested part of the feeding- 
stuffs is rejected in the dung, or solid excrement, 
which, in herbivorous animals, may be regarded as 
consisting essentially of the indigestible part of 
the food, mixed with small amounts of residues 
of the digestive juices, intestinal mucus, and other 
waste products of the activity of the digestive 
organs. If, then, we weigh and analyze the feed 
and the dung of an animal and compute the number 
of pounds of ash, proteids, crude fiber, and the like, 
contained in each, we shall find the amounts smaller 
in the dung than in the feed. The difference between 
the two amounts shows in each case how much of 
that particular substance has been dissolved 
out of the food and taken up into the body; 
that is, it shows how' much of that ingredi- 
ent was digestible. The results are com- 
monly expressed as percentages of the total 
amounts fed. Thus in an actual experiment, 
the feed contained 5.74 pounds of crude 
fiber and the dung 2.86 pounds ; evidently, 
therefore, 2.88 pounds were digested. Ac- 
cordingly, dividing 2.88 by 5.74 we find that 
50.17 per cent of the crude fiber was diges- 
tible. The latter figure is called the per- 
centage digestibility, or sometimes the 
digestion coefficient, of the crude fiber, and 
by the same method similar coefficients may 
be obtained for all the other ingredients 
of the feed. 

Conditions affecting digestion. 

The digestibility of the several ingredi- 
ents of feeding-stuffs is found to vary con- 
siderably under different conditions. Some 
of these conditions affect digestibility by 
modifying the character of the material 
fed, and will be considered later. Others 



modify, or may be supposed to modify, the char- 
acter of the digestive processes, and may be taken 
up here. 

The quantity of feed consumed seems, under some 
conditions, to affect its digestion. Differences 
in the amounts of coarse fodder consumed have 
usually had no effect on the percentage digesti- 
bility. On the other hand, increasing the amount 
of a mixed ration fed has resulted in some decrease 
in the percentage digestibility, although the dif- 
ference has generally been small. As the bulk of 
the ration is increased, it must naturally pass 
through the digestive tract more rapidly and thus 
be exposed for a shorter time to the action of the 
digestive fluids and of the resorbent organs. More- 
over, with large grain rations, it is possible that 
the limit of the activity of the resorbent organs 
may be reached, and that material may be dissolved 
more rapidly than it can be taken up into the 
circulation. 

The proportions of the nutrients in a ration may 
also affect its digestion. In particular, it has 
been found that an excess of easily digestible car- 
bohydrates reduces the digestibility of both the 
protein, the crude fiber and the nitrogen-free 
extract. This is most plainly shown when a pure car- 
bohydrate, as starch or sugar, is added to a ration, 
but the same effect may be produced by any feed- 
ing-stuff rich in carbohydrates, as roots, potatoes 
or corn, when used freely. On the other hand, the 
addition of protein to a ration over-rich in carbo- 
hydrates has the contrary effect of increasing its 
digestibility. It is stated that to insure full 
digestibility in case of cattle, the ration should 
contain not less than one part of digestible crude 
protein for each eight parts of digestible carbohy- 
drates and fat, while 'for swine the ratio may be 
as large as one to twelve. The effect on the 
digestibility of the protein is more apparent than 
real. It seems to arise chiefly from the fact that 




Fig. 60. Steer in the digestion stall with harness in place. 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



61 



in the digestion of food of any kind a certain 
amount of nitrogenous waste products is produced 
by the digestive organs and excreted in the feces, 
where, by the ordinary methods of digestion ex- 
periments, it is regarded as undigested protein of 
the food. When such allowance as is possible is 
made for these waste products, the real digesti- 
bility of the protein is found to be little affected. 
On the other hand, the decrease in the digestibil- 
ity of the nitrogen-free extract and crude fiber is 
not susceptible of any such explanation, but is a 
real effect. Its cause has not been fully elucidated, 
but seems to be connected with modifications in the 
fermentations taking place in the digestive organs, 
due to the difference in the character of the food 



completely, the difference naturally being greater 
with the less easily digestible ones. Straw is 
digested only to about half the extent by the 
horse that it is by sheep. For hay and similar 
materials the digestibility by the horse is 20 to 25 
per cent lower than that by sheep. With clover or 
alfalfa hay the difference falls to about 10 per 
cent, while concentrates are digested practically 
to the same extent by both species. The crude pro- 
tein of all these materials is about equally well 
digested by both animals, the differences falling 
chiefly on the carbohydrates. As in the comparison 
of sheep and cattle, this probably means a less 
extensive fermentation in the digestive tract, and 
may not necessarily imply any lower nutritive 




Fig. 61. 



The McECkern respiration apparatus. (Adapted from Die Landw. Versuchs- 
Stationen, Vol. xliv, Plate I.) 



supply to the bacteria and other organisms inhabit- 
ing the alimentary canal. This is indicated by the 
fact, among others, that addition of substances 
like asparagin or ammonium acetate to the ration 
has been found as effective in overcoming this 
depression in digestibility as has addition of true 
proteids. 

Species of animal. — A number of conditions per- 
taining to the animal are also to be considered in 
regard to their effect on digestion. Of these, 
the most important is the species. The different 
species of ruminants (specifically, cattle and sheep) 
show no material differences in their digestive 
power for most feeding-stuffs, and especially for 
concentrated feeds. In case of the more difficultly 
digestible coarse fodders, such as straw or corn 
stover, however, cattle show a distinctly higher 
digestive power, which has been regarded as due 
to more extensive fermentations in the more 
watery contents of the lower intestines. The 
digestive organs of the horse have a less capacity 
than those of ruminants, and the mastication of 
the food is less complete. Accordingly, as might 
be expected, the horse digests coarse fodders less 



value for the feeding-stuff 
in one case than in the other. 
The crude fat is apparently 
less completely digested by 
the horse than by ruminants, 
but this seems to be due to 
the presence in the dung of 
the horse of relatively larger 
amounts of ether - soluble 
waste products, and thus to 
be apparent rather than real. 

Breed. Age. Work. — No significant differences 
have as yet been observed in the digestive powers 
of different breeds of the same species. Small 
differences, seldom exceeding 2 to 4 per cent, have 
been observed between individual animals, although 
they have been by no means constant and may have 
arisen in some cases from defective experimental 
methods. With normal animals they are of little 
practical significance. Neither has the digestive 
capacity been found to vary with age, within the 
limits of full development of the digestive appa- 
ratus. The undoubted differences in the productive 
capacity of different animals, or of the same 
animal at different times, are due to other causes 
than differences in digestibility. 

Work,^even when very considerable in amount, 
has not been found to affect the digestion of the 
ration provided it is performed at a moderate rate 
(ordinary walk). Work at a more rapid pace (trot) 
has been found by some experimenters to diminish 
the digestibility to some extent, while others have 
found indications of a stimulating effect of work 
on the digestive processes. 



32 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



Considerable stress has been laid by some writers 
on the order in which coarse fodders, concentrated 
feed and water are given, particularly in case of 
the horse ; but such exact investigations as have 
been made have failed to confirm these opinions. 
Neither does it appear that the frequency of feed- 
ing, within reasonable limits, materially affects the 
digestion. 

Fate of the digestible nutrients. 

An animal — a working horse, for example — may 
digest large amounts of material from its food and 
yet neither gain weight nor excrete any large part 
of the digested matter, aside from water, in a visi- 
ble form. The digested nutrients are oxidized, or 
burned, in the body, and the products of their com- 
bustion leave the body largely in the gaseous form. 
This is entirely true of the carbohydrates, fats and 
other non-nitrogenous materials. The products of 
their combustion are carbon dioxid, excreted 
through the lungs and to a much less degree through 
the skin, and water, excreted through lungs, skin, 
and in liquid form in the urine. The same thing is 
largely true of the proteids and non-proteids, but 
their nitrogen, together with a part of their car- 
bon, hydrogen and and oxygen, is converted into a 
substance called urea which is excreted in solution 
in the urine. Small portions of the nitrogen are 
also found in the urine in the form of more com- 
plex compounds, but all the nitrogen of the pro- 
tein is ultimately found in the urine in one form or 
another. This process of breaking down and oxida- 
tion of the digested nutrients is given the techni- 
cal name of metabolism. 

Functions of nutrients. 

As was pointed out in a previous paragraph, the 
body of the animal may be regarded as made up 
substantially of water, ash, fat and proteids. When 
an animal is deprived of food, it subsists on its 
own tissues, burning up the proteids and especially 
the fats contained in its body. The object of the 
food is to make good the losses thus occasioned. 

The protein of the food is the only source from 
which the animal can make good the loss of proteids 
from its tissues, or from which it can secure material 
for new growth, since it has no power of manufac- 
turing proteids from non-nitrogenous ingredients 
of the food. Accordingly, the growing animal or 
one producing milk, which contains much proteids, 
requires a liberal supply of these ingredients, while 
a relatively smaller amount will suffice for mature, 
fattening or work animals. The proteids of the food 
or of the tissues, when oxidized, finally yield, as 
already stated, carbon dioxid, water, urea and some 
other nitrogenous products. 

The fats and carbohydrates of the food serve to 
make good the losses of fat in the body or to pro- 
duce new fat, and also to supply the necessary 
energy and heat for the vital activities of the organ- 
ism. This is likewise true of the proteids, if present 
in excess of the needs of the animal, and also of the 
tissue proteids broken down, at least so far as sup- 
plying energy is concerned. Whether the proteids 
can serve as a source of fat to the body is still a 



moot point, although the probabilities are in favor 
of it. 

The ash of the food serves to make good the con- 
stant loss of mineral matter which is taking place 
from the body and to supply material for new 
growth. A due supply of it is particularly impor- 
tant, then, to the growing or the milk-producing 
animal. The laws regulating the use of mineral 
matter in the body, however, have as yet been 
rather imperfectly investigated. 

The work of the body. 

While it is neither humane nor economical to 
treat domestic animals simply as machines, never- 
theless, from some points of view, the animal body 
is a very wonderful machine. Its mechanical con- 
struction, which forms the subject matter of the 
science of anatomy, is a fascinating study, but 
what is of especial interest in this connection is 
another analogy with a machine. 

All are familiar with the operation of the steam 
engine and know, at least in a general way, that 
the heat energy set free by the burning of the 
fuel under the boiler is made, through the medium 
of the steam, to produce power in the engine. In 
the gas, gasoline or alcohol engine the matter is 
still simpler, the fuel being burned and performing 
its work in the cylinder of the engine. 

Something similar takes place in the animal 
body. It consumes food out of which it digests 
certain substances. These substances are then, in 
the processes of metabolism which we have just 
considered, broken down and oxidized (i. e., in a 
sense, burned) and yield much the same products 
that they would if burned under the boiler of a 
steam engine. In this breaking down and oxida- 
tion — i. e., in their metabolism — the protein, 
carbohydrates and fats develop the power which 
actuates the body machinery and enables it to do 
work. The process, however, is very different from 
that in the steam engine. In the animal body we 
have combustion at a low temperature, ranging 
from 99° to 104° Fahr. In the steam engine the 
combustion produces heat and the heat produces 
motion ; in the body, the combustion seems to pro- 
duce motion directly, although heat is also pro- 
duced at the same time. The body is not a heat 
engine. 

The animal body then resembles the steam or 
gasoline engine in being a converter of energy. It 
changes the stored-up energy of its food, derived 
ultimately from the sun's rays, into the form of 
work. This is very clear in the case of the work- 
ing animal, but it is equally true, although not at 
first thought so obvious, in the case of the animal 
kept for the production of meat or milk. The prime 
object of the food, in every case, is to keep the 
bodily machinery running, while the storage of 
protein or fat in the tissues or the milk, is, in a 
sense, incidental. The fattening animal stores up 
fat to be used as fuel later in case of a shortage 
of food ; the growing animal enlarges the machine 
that it may be able to perform more work ; the 
milking animal contributes indirectly a part of its 
food to the support of its young — i. e., to the run 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



ning of another machine. In all cases, the chief 
physiological end is the conversion of the energy 
of the food into work of one sort or another. 

Regarding the animal body from this point of 
view, — that is, as a machine for the conversion of 
potential energy into work, — the question at once 
arises as to its requirements in the way of food to 
keep the machine running, and as to the part 
played in its operation by the several ingredients 
of the food. 

The steam engine requires occasional repairs as 
one or another part becomes worn. The essential 
parts of that living machine called the body are, 
as has been seen, composed chiefly of proteids. 
Accordingly, we should expect that a supply of 
proteids would be necessary to keep this machine 
in repair, just as steel, brass, and the like, would 
be needed for repairs in the engine ; and such, in 
fact, is the case. The body has this advantage over 
the engine, however, that it is self-repairing, pro- 
vided the necessary materials are supplied to it. 

In addition to repair material, the animal, like 
the engine, requires a supply of fuel, and if this is 
not furnished in the food it consumes the materials 
of its own body for this purpose. This is true even 
when the animal is doing no visible work. Its 
heart, respiratory organs and other parts of the 
body are still doing work. The case is like that of 
an engine run with no load, which still requires 
a certain amount of fuel to keep it moving. 
In both cases all the energy of the fuel burned 
finally appears as heat, which in the animal serves 
to maintain the normal temperature of the body. 
All three of the principal ingredients of the digested 
food, proteids, carbohydrates and fats, may serve 
as fuel, since they are all more or less completely 



proportion of them in the food, is to be avoided 
because they are usually the most expensive part 
of a ration to produce or buy. 

II. Feeding-Stuffs 
Relative values of feeding-stuffs. 

An exceedingly'important question for the stock- 
feeder is what relative amounts of animal prod- 
uct of any given kind he can produce from his 
various raw materials — the feeding-stuffs. In the 
light of the foregoing discussion, it is plain that 
this must depend on the quantities of proteids 
which they can furnish for repair and constructive 
purposes, and on the supply of energy afforded by 
their digestible matter. 

Digestible nutrients. — The method of comparing 
feeding -stuffs now in vogue is based on their 
Chemical composition and the digestibility of the 
several ingredients as determined by experiments 
on animals. For example, actual trials with the 
samples of clover hay and corn meal whose compo- 
sition has already been given showed that cattle 
digested the following percentages of the several 
ingredients: 

Percentage Digestibility 

Clover hay Corn meal 

Proteids 53.19 66.43 

Non-proteids (100.00) (100.00) 

Crude fiber 50.27 32.40 

Nitrogen-free extract . . 68.94 97.75 

Crude fat 65.02 95.74 

To compute the percentages of digestible nutri- 
ents in each material, we proceed as follows, water 
and ash being omitted from the computation: 





Clover hay 


Com meal 




10.13 x 0.5319 = 5.39 per cent 

1.45 x 1.0 = 1.45 per cent 

28.7 Lx 0.5027 = 14.43 per cent 

36.86 x 0.6894 = 25.41 per cent 

2.38 x 0.6502 = 1.55 per cent 


8.67 x 0.6643 = 5.76 per cent 
0.25 x 1.0 = 0.25 per cent 
1.86 x 0.3240 = 0.60 per cent 
69.40 x 0.9775 = 67.84 per cent 
3.59 x 0.9574 = 3.44 per cent 









burned in the body, but they are not equally valu- 
able. Fat is the most concentrated form of fuel, 
one pound of it producing about about two and one- 
fourth times as much heat in the body as the same 
weight of proteids or carbohydrates. Most feeding- 
stuffs are rather poor in fat, however, and this 
substance does not usually play any large part in 
supplying energy to the body in herbivorous ani- 
mals. The carbohydrates are the chief source of 
energy to domestic animals, being abundantly 
supplied, in easily digestible forms, in ordinary 
feeding-stuffs. The proteids, so far as they are not 
stored up in the products, such as meat or milk, 
and likewise the body proteids metabolized, also 
serve as fuel to the body, being about equally 
valuable with the carbohydrates for this purpose. 
Some burning of proteids in this way is unavoid- 
able, but an unnecessary use of proteids as fuel, 
such as would result from the presence of an undue 



Since the digestible crude fiber and the digestible 
nitrogen-free extract have been shown to have the 
same chemical composition, they are commonly 
added together and called digestible carbohydrates, 
while the digestible crude fat is regarded as con- 
sisting of fat. The digestible ash ingredients have 
not usually been taken account of, it being assumed 
that the average ration which is sufficient in other 
respects will contain all the ash required. Omitting 
these, the digestible ingredients are : 





Clover hay 


Corn meal 


Digestible non-proteids .... 
Digestible carbohydrates .... 


Per cent 

5.39 

1.45 

39.84 

1.55 


Per cent 

5.76 

0.25 

68.44 

3.44 



64 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



This comparison may be still further simplified. 
A pound of fat produces when burned about two and 
one-fourth times as much heat as the same weight 
of carbohydrates. The non-proteids have somewhere 
near the same heat value as the carbohydrates, 
and since it is doubtful whether the}' help build 
up proteid tissue we may class them with the car- 
bohydrates. The digestible nutrfents can thus be 
grouped into two classes, viz., the proteids, which 
serve primarily to keep the working tissues in 
repair or to build up new tissues, and the other 
materials, which serve as the chief sources of 
energy to run the animal machine. 





Clover hay 


Corn meal 


Digestible proteids . 
Digestible carbohy- 
drate equivalent . 


Per cent Per cent 

5.39 5.76 
44.78 | 76.43 


Total digestible nutri- 


50.17 


82.19 




Fig. 62. Section of Bomb calorimeter. Used to determine total energy of feed- 
ing-6tuffs. (Adapted from Bulletin No. 21, Office of Experiment Stations.) 

As sources of total nutrients, therefore, in round 
numbers, fifty pounds of the corn meal would be 
equivalent to eighty-two pounds of the clover hay, 
while as sources of digestible proteids there is a 



slight superiority on the part of the corn meai, 
due to its greater digestibility. 

A vast amount of labor has been expended during 
the past half century in determining the composi- 
tion and digestibility of feeding-stutl's substantially 
in the manner outlined in this and the preceding 
sections. At the present time, we have in general 
a fair knowledge of the amounts and proportions of 
the digestible matters supplied by most of the ordi- 
nary feeding-stuffs, and of the variations due to 
soil, season, maturity and other factors. Extensive 
tables of averages have been published by various 
authors, including many of the agricultural experi- 
ment stations, and it is an easy matter today for 
the feeder to know approximately what amounts 
and kinds of digestible nutrients any given food or 
ration will probably supply. 

.A table in a following- section (page 67) shows 
the average amounts of total dry matter and diges- 
tible nutrients in a number of common feeding- 
stuffs. Individual samples may, of course, vary mure 
or less from the average, especially in case of the 
coarse fodders. Such tables inform us as to the 
amounts of repair materials (proteids) and of fuel 
materials (carbohydrates and fats) supplied to the 
body by the various feeding-stuffs. It has been 
natural to assume, therefore, that they afford a 
measure of the relative values of the feeding-stuffs, 
and this assumption has been the basis of the cur- 
rent methods of computing rations. Analyses and 
digestion experiments as ordinarily 
conducted, however, afford no di- 
rect information whatever as to 
the effect of the digested matters 
in supporting the animal or produ- 
cing gain. It is not even necessary to 
weigh the animal in a digestion ex- 
periment. The conclusion as to the 
nutritive value of the feeding-stuff is 
simply an inference, based on general 
physiological facts, and its correct- 
ness is more than questionable in 
the light of recent investigation. In 
other words, the comparison is of 
what the material contains and not of 
what it accomplishes. 

This is true of the feed as a source 
of proteids and especially as a source 
of energy. So far as the proteids are 
concerned, however, it is practically 
the only basis of comparison now 
available. Few studies of the relative 
nutritive values of different proteids 
have been made, and few of these re- 
late to the proteids of ordinary farm 
feeding-stuffs. For the present, there- 
fore, we must continue to treat the 
digestible proteids of different feed- 
ing-stuffs as of equal value as repair 
material, pending further investiga- 
tion. On the other hand, recent in- 
vestigations on the food as a source of energy, in 
which the amounts of energy concerned have been 
determined directly, have thrown much new light 
on this branch of the subject. 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



65 



Energy values. — (1) Total energy. — The total 
store of energy in the food of an animal may be 
measured, like that in the fuel of an engine, by the 
amount of heat which it produces when completely 
burned. The unit commonly used for measuring 
heat is the Calorie, which is the amount of heat 
required to raise the temperature of one kilogram 
of water through 1° C. (or 3.962 pounds through 
1° Fahr.). Thus, one gram (15.45 grains) of the 
clover hay and of the corn meal already used as 
illustrations gave off when completely burned the 
following amounts of heat : 

Clover hay 3.788 Calories 

Corn meal 3.766 Calories 

Expressed per one hundred pounds, for greater 
convenience, this would be 

Total Energy Per One Hundred Pounds 

Clover hay 172,100 Calories 

Corn meal ' . . . 170,900 Calories 

(2) Fuel values. — Not all of this energy, however, 
is available to the animal which consumes the feed, 
because the later is not completely burned in the 
body. More or less of it fails to be digested, and is 
rejected in the dung, carrying part of the energy 
with it. Another part of the energy is carried off 
unused in the urea and other organic substances 
excreted in the urine. Finally, the marsh gas pro- 
duced in the digestive tract by the fermentation 
of the carbohydrates also carries off considerable 
unused energy. Thus, it was found that, for each 
hundred pounds of the clover hay or the corn meal 
fed to a steer, the following amounts of energy 
were contained in the waste products : 

Per Hundred Pounds 



do not measure their nutritive values. Like the 
amount of digestible nutrients, they show what the 
various feeding-stuffs can supply to the body but 
not what use the body can make of it. To determine 
the latter it is necessary to measure the effect of 
the food on the body. 

Not very many determinations of the fuel values 
of feeding-stuffs have yet been made. In many 
cases, however, they have been computed from the 
amounts of digestible nutrients by the use of the 
factors proposed by Rubner and by Atwater for 
human dietaries, viz.: 



For 1 pound digestible proteids . . 
For 1 pound digestible carbohydrates 
For 1 pound digestible fats .... 



> 1860 Cals. 
4220 Cals. 



Total energy .... 
Losses in dung . . . 
Losses in urine . . . 
Losses in marsh gas . 



Total loss . 
Remainder . 



Clover hay 



172,100 Cals. 



97,400 Cals. 



74,700 Cals. 



The remainder obtained by subtracting the losses 
from the total energy shows how much of the latter 
can be liberated in the body, and the example 
serves to illustrate the fact that this remainder is 
larger in the case of concentrated feeding-stuffs 
than in that of coarse feeds, chiefly because of the 
large proportion of indigestible substance in the 
latter. This remainder is often called the "fuel 
value "of the material, because it shows how much 
heat it can produce in the body in case none of it 
is utilized to produce gain. But while it measures 
the value of the food as a heat producer, this is far 
from being the only, or even the most important 
function of the food. In fact, the production of 
heat is in most cases rather incidental to other pro- 
cesses, and hence the fuel values of feeding-stuffs 

C5 



It has been shown, however, that these computed 
fuel values are considerably too high for ruminants 
and probably somewhat so for the horse. 

(3) Maintenance values. — When the animal is 
deprived of food, or given an insufficient supply, it 
consumes more or less of the proteids and especi- 
ally the fat of its own body to supply the energy 
required for its functions. If food be given to the 
animal, it will virtually use the energy of the food, 
so far as it is available, in place of oxidizing its 
own tissues, and the extent to which the loss of 
proteids and fat by the body is diminished is a meas- 
ure of the real nutritive effect of the food. For 
example, a steer on a certain ration was shown to 
be losing from his body daily 41.4 grams ' of pro- 
teids and 254.4 grams ' of fat. The energy value 
of this loss is 2,578 Cals., that is, the steer was 
getting this part of the energy required to run his 
bodily machinery by burning the body itself. Then 
1.34 kilograms 2 of timo- 

thy hay were added to 

the ration. On this new 
Corn meal ration, the steer gained 

■ daily 0.6 gram of proteids 

170,900 Cals. and lost 76.0 grams of 

,700 Cals. fat, equivalent to 758 

,500 Cals. Cals. The addition of 1.34 

,900 Cals. kilograms of timothy hay, 

then, enabled the steer to 
burn up less of his own 

132,800 Cals. }> oi 7 "" a '™ ls t° ^ex- 
tent of 2,578 Cals.— 758 
Cals. = 1,820 Cals. The 
latter number, therefore, expresses the mainten- 
ance value of the 1.34 kilograms of this particular 
timothy hay in this experiment, equal to 1,359 
Cals. per kilogram, or 617 Cals. per pound. It 
should be observed that this value is of an entirely 
different character from those secured by means 
of digestion experiments or from determinations 
of fuel values. It shows what one pound or one 
kilogram of the hay actually effected in the way 
of maintaining the steer, while the former results 
showed simply what amounts of digestible nutrients 
or of energy were supplied to the animal in a unit 
weight of the hay. 

1 1 gram equals about 1-28 oz. 

2 2.95 pounds, computed to 15 per cent water. 



38,100 Cals. 



66 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



A second important point is that the mainte- 
nance values of feeding-stuffs as determined in this 
way are less than their fuel values, as illustrated 
in the following table : 





Value Per 100 Pounds For Cattle 






Fuel value 


Maintenance 
value 


Per cent of fuel 
value available 


Timothy hay .... 


777 Cals. 

802 Cals. 

1,308 Cals. 


489 Cals.* 
585 Cals. 
1,016 Cals. 


62.92 
72.90 
77.76 



* Average of two experiments 

It thus appears that a part of the fuel values of 
feeding-stuffs, ranging in these instances from 22 
to 37 per cent, either is not available as a source 
of energy to the animal machine or is put to some 
other use than maintenance. Both are doubtless 
true. The chemical changes which the food under- 
goes in digestion, and particularly the extensive 
fermentations taking place in the digestive tract, 
produce a considerable amount of heat which, while 
it may help to keep the body warm, is of no use to 
it as a source of energy. Furthermore, the chew- 
ing and digestion of the food involve a consider- 
able amount of work in addition to what the body 
was doing before, and part of the energy of the 
food is expended in this way. It is only what is 
left after these two losses have been met that is 
available for maintenance, i. e., for running the 
bodily machinery in general. This has been called 
the "net available energy." The figures given 
above are the only results on the maintenance values 
of feeding-stuffs for cattle which have yet been 
reported. They serve to indicate, however, that the 
percentage of the fuel value available is greater in 
the concentrated feeds than in the coarse fodders, 
presumably because of the relatively smaller expen- 
diture in digestion. For the horse, the following 
results have been computed by a method which 
involves a number of assumptions, the validity of 
some of which has been seriously questioned. The 
negative value for straw shows that, as thus com- 
puted, the energy which must be expended in its 
digestion exceeds its fuel value. 

Available Energy Per Pound for the Horse 

Average meadow hay 327 Cals. 

Alfalfa hay 421 Cals. 

Red clover hay 303 Cals. 

Straw of winter grain — 209 Cals. 

Oats 882 Cals. 

Corn 1,263 Cals. 

Beans 1,094 Cals. 

Peas 1,052 Cals. 

Linseed cake 1,016 Cals. 

Potatoes 357 Cals. 

Carrots 166 Cals. 

(4) Production values. — If the food of an animal 
supplies more net available energy than is needed for 
maintenance, common experience shows that a pro- 
duction of some sort results. The animal grows or 
fattens, or it gives milk or does work. Such inves- 
tigations as have yet been made, however, seem to 



show that we do not get back in the form of work 
or meat or milk all the surplus of net available 
energy which we supply to the animal. It is like 
the case of a man whose wages are just sufficient 
to pay his expenses. When his 
pay is increased he puts part of 
the increase in the bank, but he 
also spends more. This is most 
clearly seen in the case of the 
working animal. If a horse re- 
ceives a ration whose mainten- 
ance value — i. e. its net avail- 
able energy — is, say 3,000 Cals. 
in excess of that needed to 
maintain the horse when doing no work, it has 
been found that he will be able to do continuously 
only about 1,000 Cals. of work per day. In other 
words, the horse can utilize about one-third of the 
maintenance value of his excess food — that is, feed 
in excess of that required for maintenance — in the 
form of work. Substantially the same thing appears 
to be true in fattening. Thus, the daily ration of a 
steer, consisting of a light feed of clover hay and 
of corn meal, was found to contain 13,616 Cals. of 
net available energy (maintenance value), while the 
amount actually required to maintain this animal 
was 8,467 Cals., so that a surplus of 5,149 Cals. was 
supplied in the corn meal. As was to be expected, 
the steer fattened. The amount of energy stored 
up in his gain, however, was not the entire 5,149 
Cals., but only 3,525 Cals., or 68.5 per cent of 
the surplus. That is, while the surplus food sup- 
plied had the capacity to prevent loss of tissue to 
the extent of 5,149 Cals. it could produce an actual 
gain of only 3,525 Cals. In other words, the main- 
tenance value of the corn meal was greater than 
its production value. But very few actual tests of 
this sort have been made, and it is not yet possible 
to state with certainty whether this is generally 
the case. It seems to be what might be reasonably 
expected, however. To convert the food of an ani- 
mal into the complex compounds of actual flesh and 
fat requires a greater chemical change than to 
convert it into the simpler materials suitable to 
be metabolized. To produce these more complex 
substances, a greater expenditure of energy is 
necessary, and consequently less is left to be 
stored up. 

Very extensive and careful determinations of 
the production values of feeding-stuffs for fatten- 
ing cattle have been made within the last ten or 
twelve years by Kellner at the Mockern Experi- 
ment Station in Germany. The following table con- 
tains his production values calculated per 100 
pounds for some common feeds. The table shows 
also the digestible nutrients computed in the ordi- 
nary way as well as the total crude fiber, and the 
amount of total dry matter. The table shows for 
example, that 100 pounds of average timothy hay 
will supply to cattle a little over two pounds of 
digestible proteids ; while if fed in excess of main- 
tenance it may be expected to produce a gain by 
the cattle equivalent to 33,562 Cals. In comparison 
with the hay, 100 pounds of corn would supply 6.79 
pounds of digestible proteids, and when added to a 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



67 



maintenance ration would cause a gain equivalent 
to S8,S47 Cals. Corn meal is worth, according to 
these figures, 2.65 times as much for fattening as 
an equal amount of timothy hay. 



values. For fattening sheep, it seems likely that 
Kellner's figures for cattle can be safely used. 
Recent investigations indicate that they also show 
the relative values for milk production, but the 



Production Values Per One Hundred Pounds. — Computed according to Kellner. 



Feeding-stuff 



Total dry 
matter 



Total crude 
fiber 



Carbo- 
hydrates 



Production 
value 



Green fodder and silage: 

Alfalfa 

Clover, red 

Corn fodder 

Corn silage 

Hungarian-grass . . . . 

Rye-grass 

Timothy 

Hays and dry coarsefodders 

Alfalfa hay 

Clover hay, red 

Corn fodder, field-cured . 

Corn stover 

Cowpea hay 

Hungarian hay 

Oat-grass hay 

Soybean hay 

Timothy hay 

Straws: 

Oat 

Rye 

Wheat 

Roots, etc. : 

Carrots 

Mangels 

Potatoes 

Turnips 



Grains : 

Barley 

Corn ...... 

Corn-and-cob meal 
Oats 



Wheat 



By-products : 

■ Brewers' grains, wet 

Cottonseed meal . . 

Gluten feed, dry . . 

Gluten meal (Buffalo) 

Linseed meal — 
Old process 
New process 

Malt-sprouts . 

Rye bran . . 

Wheat bran . 



Pounds 
28.20 
29.20 
20.70 
25.60 
28.90 
23.40 
38.40 

91.60 

84.70 

57.8 

59.5 

89.3 

92.30 

84.00 

88.70 

86.80 

90.8 
92.9 
90.4 

11.40 
9.10 

21.10 
9.50 

89.1 

89.1 
84.9 
89.0 
88.4 
89.5 

24.3 

. 91.8 
91.9 
91.8 

90.8 
90.1 
89.8 
88.2 
88.5 



Pounds 

7.40 
8.10 
5.00 
5.80 
9.20 
11.60 
11.80 

25.00 

24.80 

14.3 

19.7 

20.1 

27.70 

27.20 

22.30 

29.60 

37.0 
38.9 
38.1 

1.30 

0.80 
0.60 
1.20 

2.7 
2.1 
6.6 
9.5 
1.7 
1.8 

3.8 
5.6 
6.4 
6.1 

8.9 
8.8 
10.7 
3.3 
9.0 



Pounds 

2.50 
2.21 
0.41 
1.21 
1.33 
1.44 
1.04 

6.93 

5.41 
2.13 
1.80 
8.57 
3.00 
2.59 
7.68 
2.05 

1.09 
0.63 
0.37 

0.37 
0.14 
0.45 
0.22 

8.37 
6.79 
4.53 
8.36 
8.12 
8.90 

3.81 
35.15 
19.95 
21.56 

27.54 
29.26 
12.36 
11.35 
10.21 



Pounds 
11.20 
14.82 
12.08 
14.56 
15.63 
14.11 
21.22 

37.33 
38.15 
32.34 
33.16 
38.40 
51.67 
33.35 
38.72 
43.72 

38.64 
40.58 
36.30 

7.83 

5.65 

16.43 

6.46 

64.83 
66.12 
60.06 
48.34 
69.73 
69.21 

9.37 

16.52 
54.22 
43.02 

32.81 
38.72 
43.50 
52.40 
41.23 



Pounds 
0.41 
0.69 
0.37 
0.88 
0.36 
0.44 
0.64 

1.38 
1.81 
1.15 
0.57 
1.51 
1.34 
1.67 
1.54 
1.43 

0.76 

0.38 
0.40 

0.22 
0.11 

0.1 i 

1.60 

4.97 
2.94 
4.18 
1.36 
1.68 

1.38 

12.58 

5.35 

11.87 

7.06 
2.90 
1.16 
1.79 
2.87 



Calories 

10,806 
14,528 
11,024 
14,260 
13,149 
10,316 
17,809 

34,413 
34,748 
30,538 
26,536 
42,769 
44,031 
36,975 
38,656 
33,562 

21,213 
20,876 
16,562 

7,829 

4,621 

18,054 

5,746 

80,758 
88,847 
72,051 
66,279 
81,721 
82,636 

14,827 
84,206 
79,422 
85,464 

78,929 
74,677 
46,337 
56,659 
48,233 



A large amount of investigation has also been 
expended in determining the production values of 
feeds for the horse. These, however, are more con- 
veniently considered in studying the feeding of 
that animal, and for the present we may content 
ourselves with the general statement already made 
that about one-third of the maintenance value is 
recovered in the form of work. For other species 
of animals, and for other productive purposes we 
have as yet no actual determinations of production 



investigations are far from being sufficient to 
establish this. For swine we have almost no data, 
but the production values for this animal are prob- 
ably higher than those for ruminants. 

The figures of the foregoing tables are averages 
of more or less numerous determinations of the 
maintenance or production values of feeding-stuffs. 
It is a familiar fact, however, that feeding-stuffs 
of the same name, especially coarse fodders, may 
have quite unequal values. The value of any par- 



68 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



ticular sample will depend, first, on the total 
amount of proteids and energy which it contains, 
and second and more important on the proportions 
of these which escape utilization. Of the sources 
of loss, the largest is usually that represented by 
the undigested matter of the feces. For this rea- 
son, and also because this aspect of the matter has 
been the one most studied, particular attention will 
be devoted in the succeeding sections to a consider- 
ation of the more important conditions affecting 
composition and digestibility, particularly of coarse 
fodders. 



The preservation and preparation of feeding-stuffs. 

In most regions in which stock-feeding is prac- 
ticed extensively, feeding crops have to be preserved 
in one way or another for use during part of the 
year. Whatever the method adopted for this pur- 
pose, there is usually more or less loss of material, 
and a greater or less effect on the digestibility. In 
general, two methods are available, drying or some 
form of ensiling. 

Drying. — Numerous experiments have shown 
that the simple removal of water by drying does 
not materially affect the digestibility of forage. 
The actual preservation of forage by 
this method, however, involves much 
more than simple drying. First, the 
necessary handling of the material 
causes mechanical losses of the leaves 
and other tender parts, which tend to 
become dry and brittle before the 
stems are sufficiently cured. Second, 
there is more or less loss of material 
through the oxidations and fermenta- 
tions which practically always make a 
part of the curing process. Finally, when exposed 
to rain there is more or less loss of soluble material 
by leaching. In all these cases, it is the more val- 
uable and easily digestible parts of the material 
which are more readily lost, and naturally, there- 
fore, the cured material is inferior to the green 
crop, both in composition and digestibility. For 
example, the loss of dry matter in curing alfalfa 
hay was found to be in one instance 7.13 per cent, 
and the composition and digestibility of the hay as 
compared with that of the same alfalfa, dried with- 
out loss, were : 



mechanical losses than the grasses. Corn cured in 
the field may suffer largely from leaching and to 
some degree from fermentation, as well as from 
mechanical losses in handling when hauled in. In 
general, it is desirable to limit the drying of any 
crop to the minimum compatible with proper pre- 
servation. 

Ensiling. — In the process of ensiling in its various 
forms, the mechanical losses are largely reduced, 
since the material is handled in the green state. 
On the other hand, the losses by fermentation are 
relatively magnified and may easily become very 
considerable. While losses as low as 2 per cent of 
the dry matter have been reported for corn, it is 
doubtful whether in ordinary practice they will be 
much less than 15 per cent, while losses of 40 per 
cent have been observed under extreme conditions. 
Since this loss falls on the more soluble and digest- 
ible ingredients of the feeding-stuff, the digestibility 
of the residue is naturally depressed. For example, 
the percentage digestibility of the organic matter 
of alfalfa and of esparsette in the green state and 
cured in different ways was as shown in the 
following table. The silage in this experiment had 
undergone extensive fermentation. 





Alfalfa 


Esparsette 




57.8 
57.2 
55.4 
54.5 


67.4 
66.7 


Partially dried and cured in the cock . . 


62.1 

59.3 

44.9 







Crude protein 

Crude fiber 

Nitrogen- free extract and fat. 
Ash 

Total dry matter 



Composition of dry matter 



Percentage digestibility 



Dried without 
loss 



17.00 

31.81 

43.80 

7.39 



100.00 



Hay 



14.94 

33.90 

44.22 

&94 



100.00 



The extent of the losses will depend, of course, 
on the kind of material, the method of handling, 
degree of exposure, and other considerations. The 
legumes, with rather coarse stalks and delicate 
leaves, are usually subject to relatively larger 



The relative effect of field-curing and of ensiling 
on the loss of substance and consequently on the 
digestibility obviously will vary within wide lim- 
its, and one method or the other may give the 
better result according to the skill with which it 
is carried out. As regards corn, the plant most 
commonly used for silage in the United States, the 
general result of investigation appears, on the 
whole, to be in favor of ensiling under average 
conditions, so far, at least, as the extent of losses 
and the effect on the digestibility are concerned. It 
seems not unlikely, also, that the succulent silage 
== ^^ ===== ^ = ^ = may require relatively 
less labor in its mastica- 
tion than the dry material, 
and so have a correspond- 
ingly higher value. 

Preparation. — Allied to 
the question of the meth- 
ods of preserving feed- 
ing-stuffs is that of their 
preparation for feeding. 
This may be mechanical 
(cutting, grinding), or in 
a loose sense chemical (cooking, steaming, ferment- 
ing and the like). 

(1) Cutting. — The cutting of coarse fodders, 
aside from convenience in handling, serves chiefly 
to secure more complete consumption. There is no 



Dried without 
loss 



71 
48 
66 
29 



59 



Hay 



67 
45 
62 
23 



54 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



69 



evidence that the digestibility is increased by this 
manipulation or that the work of mastication is 
materially lessened. Even very fine grinding of 
straw has been shown not to affect its digestibility. 
That it did diminish the work of mastication, while 
interesting in its theoretical bearings, is hardly 
of much practical significance. 

(2) Grinding. — The grinding of grain, on the 
other hand, seems, at least under some conditions, 
to effect a material increase in its digestibility. 
This appears to be especially true, so far as the 
recorded data go, with horses and swine, while 
ruminants, in some trials, have digested unground 
and ground grains equally well. Extensive experi- 
ments with swine have also shown a distinct 
advantage on the side of ground feed as measured 
by the gain in live weight. The explanation of 
these facts is not far to seek. The seed-coats are 
intended by nature for the protection of the seed 
and consist of relatively insoluble, resistant sub- 
stances. When grain is fed whole, a varying pro- 
portion, according to the size and hardness of the 
seeds, the amount fed, the species of animal, the 
condition of its teeth, and other factors, is likely to 
escape mastication and be swallowed whole. Such 
seeds, protected by their outer coats, are more or 
less imperfectly acted on by the digestive fluids, 
although we have no satisfactory data as to the 
exact extent to which they are thus protected. 
The loss is likely to be a variable one, although less 
with ruminants than with horses and swine, while 
the question of the profitableness of grinding in- 
volves, also, the question of cost. In the recorded 
experiments, the gain from grinding has varied 
from 3 to 14 per cent. If the cost of grinding 
amounts to 10 per cent of the value of the grain, its 
economy for healthy animals may well be doubted. 

(3) Cooking. — As regards the "chemical" methods 
of preparing feeding-stuffs, it may be said that they 
do not increase the digestibility, but, on the other 
hand, in most cases diminish it, particularly that of 
the proteids. Inferior feeding-stuffs may sometimes 
be rendered more palatable by such treatment, 
while a high temperature will destroy objectiona- 
ble germs ; but normal feeding-stuffs are rarely 
benefited and generally injured by such treat- 
ment, except as it may, 

perhaps, to some extent 
reduce the work of mas- 
tication. Potatoes, and 

possibly other starchy 

tubers, constitute an ex- , , 

ception to this rule, and p„,j" " „V„:' ' ' 

, r , . .. ., , Crude protein 

should ordinarily be Crude fiber 

cooked before feeding. Nitrogen-free extract . 

mL , „ . , . Ether extract ..... 

The elasses oj jeeding- 

stuffs. 

Feeding-stuffs may be grouped conveniently into 
three fairly distinct classes: First, the coarse 
fodders, or "roughage," consisting of the stalks 
and leaves of various crops, with or without the 
accompanying fruit; second, root crops, including 
the tubers and some fleshy fruits; third, the con- 
centrated feeding-stuffs, often called for brevity 



concentrates, including the various grains and a 
great variety of by-products from manufacturing 
operations. 

Coarse fodders. — The coarse fodders are char- 
acterized chemically by a relatively large percent- 
age of crude fiber, which forms the framework of 
the plant. They usually do not contain very much 
protein, although in some this ingredient shows a 
fairly high percentage. The proportion of crude 
fat is small and includes much besides true fat. 
The nitrogen-free extract, along with more or less 
starch and sugar, includes a great variety of less 
familiar carbohydrates and of other substances 
whose nutritive value is problematical. By far the 
larger proportion of the coarse fodders in common 
use is supplied by two classes of plants, — the 
grasses (Graminese), including corn, and the 
legumes (LeguminosaB). Furthermore, crops belong- 
ing to both these classes may be used for- fodder 
when but partially mature (hay, corn, forage), or 
they may be allowed to ripen, the grain may be 
removed, and the residue (straw, stover) used for 
feeding. 

(1) The grasses. — The larger share of the hay 
crop and of the pasturage of the United States is 
supplied by plants known in a restricted and popu- 
lar sense as grasses, such as timothy, blue-grass, 
red-top. To these must be added, as a most impor- 
tant source of forage in the United States, corn, 
which botanically is a grass, although not com- 
monly so called. The forage supplied by these 
plants has a very wide range of nutritive value, 
depending on a variety of conditions. Chief among 
these is the stage of maturity at which the crop 
is utilized. In young, growing vegetation the cell 
walls are thin and consist of nearly pure cellulose, 
while the cells are filled with active protoplasm 
whose chief ingredients are proteids. Hence, forage 
cut at this stage shows a relatively low percentage 
of crude fiber and a high percentage of proteids. 
Young and tender pasture grass, relatively rich in 
proteids and low in crude fiber, may even approach 
the concentrated feeds in value, as illustrated by 
the following comparison of the dry matter of 
a sample of young pasture grass with that of 
average oats: 



Pasture grass 



Percentage 
composition 



9.23 
21.89 
18.25 | 
44.39 J" 

6.24 



Digestible 
matter 



13.42 

46.06 

3.59 



Percentage 
composition 



3.37 

13.26 

f 10.67 | 

\ 67.08 l 

5.62 



Digestible 
matter 



10.39 

54.32 

4.70 



As the plant matures, the cell walls grow 
thicker and become more and more impregnated 
with tough, woody material. At the same time, 
more soluble carbohydrates, as starch and sugar, 
are being produced while the protoplasm comes to 
occupy but a small part of the cell. The fully 
mature forage, therefore, is rich in crude fiber of 



70 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



a tough, resistant sort, contains much carbohydrate 
material in general and tends to be poor in pro- 
teids. For example, three samples of meadow-grass, 
cut at different dates, had the following composi- 
tion, reduced to a uniform percentage of water: 





May 14 


June 9 


June 26 
(over-ripe) 


Ash 

Crude protein .... 

Nitrogen-free extract . 
Ether extract .... 


15.0 
7.7 
16.1 
21.0 
37.3 
2.9 


15.0 

6.8 

9.5 

29.6 

36.8 

2.3 


15.0 

6.2 

7.2 

32.4 

36.9 

2.3 




100.0 


100.0 


100.0 



Accompanying this change in composition goes 
a decrease in digestibility. In the first place, the 
crude fiber becomes more resistant to the action of 
the digestive organs. In these three samples, out 
of each 100 parts of crude fiber present there were 
digested 79.5 parts, 65.7 parts and 61.1 parts 
respectively. Furthermore, the less soluble crude 
fiber seems to have a tendency to protect the 
contents of the cells from digestion. At any rate, 
the percentage digestibility of the proteids, and, to 
a less degree, that of the other ingredients also 
suffers. The percentage digestibility of the several 
ingredients of the above samples of grass, omitting 
the ash, was found to be as follows: 





May 14 


June 9 


June 26 


Crude protein .... 

Nitrogen-free extract . 
Ether extract .... 


73.3 

79.5 
75.7 
65.4 


72.1 

65.7 
61.9 
51.6 


55.5 

61.1 
55.7 
43.3 


The percentages of total nutrients, ex 
the ordinary way, were therefore : 


pressed in 




May 14 


June 9 


June"26 


Digestible protein . . 
Digestible c a r b o h y- 

Digestible ether extract 


11.8 

44.9 
1.9 


6.8 

42.3 
1.2 


4.0 

40.3 
1.0 



No determinations of the energy values of these 
samples were made, but it may be fairly assumed 



that the increasing woodiness not only diminished 
the total amounts of digestible nutrients contained 
but also increased the relative expenditure of 
energy in digestion and assimilation, so that the 
lesser amount of digestible matter in the more 
mature samples was probably less valuable per 
unit than that of the younger samples. 

When the seeds of grasses begin to form, there 
is a rather rapid transfer of nutritive materials to 
them from the stalks and leaves. The seeds of the 
ordinary hay grasses, however, are so small and so 
wed protected by their seed-coats that they either 
shell out and are lost or largely escape mastication 
and digestion. Grass harvested after the seeds have 
formed practically furnishes straw rather than hay. 

The bearing of the foregoing facts on the 
much discussed question of the best time to cut 
grass for hay is obvious. The highest quality is 
secured by very early cutting, but at a great sac- 
rifice as to quantity. The greatest total dry weight 
of crop is usually secured by allowing it to stand 
until mature, but the result of the low digestibility, 
as well as the lack of palatability of the product, 
is that the amount of real available food material 
secured is less than if the crop had been harvested 
earlier. As a general rule, and subject to many 
modifications, it may be said that the greatest 
yield of digestible food will usually be secured by 
cutting grass not later than when in full bloom. 
The hay thus secured will be less rich in digestible 
protein than that cut earlier, but richer in non- 
nitrogenous materials. When conditions are such 
as to make more than one cutting in a season eco- 
nomically possible or desirable, an earlier date for 
the first cutting may be preferable, yielding a 
higher quality of hay and leaving more time for 
the growth of the second crop. 

A somewhat important exception to the general 
rule regarding the influence of maturity is observed 
in the case of corn. While advancing maturity 
produces its normal effects on the stalks and 
leaves, such large amounts of easily digestible 
material are stored up during ripening in the 
grain, and the latter makes up so large a percent- 
age of the total weight of the crop that it out- 
balances the effect of increasing maturity, and the 
ripe or nearly ripe crop, taken as a whole — i. e., as 
used for silage or as field-cured forage — is more 
digestible than at earlier stages of growth. For 
example, the dry matter of corn forage at three 
different stages had the following composition and 
digestibility : 



Ash 

Proteids 

Non-proteids .... 
Crude fiber .... 
Nitrogen-free extract 
Ether extract . . . 

Total dry matter . . 



Percentage composition 



Silking 



7.33 
8.99 
4.77 
27.04 
48.28 
3.59 



100.00 



Kernels 
glazing 



3.57 
7.08 

1.30 
16.88 
67.15 

4.02 



100.00 



Nearly 
mature 



3.45 
7.65 
0.47 
16.03 
68.69 
3.71 



100.00 



Percentage digestibility 



Silking 



58.8 
88.0 

67.7 
71.2 
74.3 



64.2 



Kernels 
glazing 



4.9 
46.4 

79.6 
40.0 
76.8 
84.8 



66.3 



Nearly 
mature 



34.8 
63.1 
35.7 
47.2 
81.2 
82.2 



72.6 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



71 



On the other hand, of course, the digestibility of 
the stalks and leaves alone (stover) diminishes as in 
the case of other grasses as the plant grows older. 
The composition and digestibility of the grasses 
is also materially affected by the proportions of 
the various vegetative organs. The influence of the 
large proportion of seed in the corn plant has 
already been mentioned. In general, the leaves of 
the grasses, and of other forage plants as well, are 
more tender and contain less crude fiber and more 
proteids than the stalks. Leafy species and varieties 
therefore tend to have a higher feeding value than 
those which consist more largely of stalks, and any 
influences, such as thickness of planting, manuring, 
season, and the like, affecting the relative propor- 
tion of leaves, tend also to affect the value of the 
crop. The combined result of all these factors is to 
make the composition of grass, or of the hay or 
silage made from it, extremely variable. American 
analyses of timothy hay, for example, show total 
protein ranging from 3.8 per cent to 9.8 per cent 
and fiber varying from 22.2 per cent to 38.5 per 
cent. The corresponding variations in hay from a 
few other grasses are as follows : 





Total protein 


Crude fiber 


Eed-top 

Kentucky blue-grass . . . 

Meadow fescue 

Orchard-grass 

Corn forage * 

Oats 


Per cent 
5.9-10.4 
5.3-12.9 
4.5-11.8 
6.6-10.4 
2.7- 6.9 
5.2- 9.5 


Per cent 
24.0-31.8 
17.7-26.8 
20.8-31.9 
28.9-38.3 

7.5-24.7 
23.1-30.9 



* Entire plant, usually containing considerably more water 
than hay. 

That these variations in composition are accom- 
panied by corresponding differences in digestibility 
has already been pointed out. Moreover, the per- 
centage of crude fiber in coarse fodders has been 
found to be a fairly accurate index of the relative 
expenditure of energy in digestion. Not only does 
coarse, woody forage contain less digestible matter, 
but what it does contain is less valuable to the 
animal, pound for pound, than that derived from 
forage of a better quality. 

(2) The legumes — the clovers, alfalfa, peas, 
beans, vetches, and the like — constitute a source of 
forage second only to the grasses in importance, 
while their value as renovating crops gives them a 
peculiar position in agriculture. Broadly speaking, 
leguminous forage may be said to differ from that 
of the grasses in two main points. First, under like 
conditions it is notably richer in proteids than the 
latter. Second, there is a more marked difference 
between the physical properties of the stems and 
the leaves in the legumes, the rather coarse stems 
increasing relatively to the leaves with advancing 
maturity. Hay from somewhat mature legumes is 
therefore likely to be bulky, to have a higher per- 
centage of crude fiber than grass hay, and rela- 
tively to be less digestible. For the same reason 
it is more subject to mechanical losses in curing, 
which likewise lower its quality. For all these 



reasons, the composition and digestibility of legu- 
minous forage show an even greater range than those 
of the grasses, and the importance of timely cut- 
ting is still more marked. In brief, the influences 
which affect the composition and digestibility of 
the grasses affect those of the legumes in sub- 
stantially the same way but to an even greater 
extent. 

(3) Straw consists of the vegetative organs of 
the plant after the removal of the ripe or nearly 
ripe seeds. Since the ripening of the seed consists 
largely in the transfer to it of soluble materials 
from the leaves and stems, it follows that the 
straw will be poor in digestible materials in pro- 
portion to the extent of seed formation and the 
degree to which the seeds ripen. Furthermore, 
those parts of the plant most distant from the 
seed are found to be most completely exhausted of 
food material. The straw of the common small 
grains is relatively very poor in proteids and fat, 
while still containing not inconsiderable amounts 
of digestible carbohydrates and related substances. 
Its tough, woody character, however, as indicated 
by its high percentage of crude fiber, makes neces- 
sary a relatively large expenditure of energy in its 
digestion, and its real nutritive value is therefore 
low. Wheat- and rye-straw stand at the foot of 
the list, while oat- and barley-straw are more val- 
uable. Sheep are especially adapted to utilize straw, | 
consuming the upper and more valuable parts and 
rejecting the coarser parts. The straw of corn 
(stover) constitutes a valuable feeding-stuff. It is 
relatively less woody than that of the small grains, 
has a relatively high degree of digestibility, and is 
more palatable than ordinary straw. To secure its 
complete consumption, however, it is necessary to 
cut or shred it, and it has been questioned whether 
the additional material eaten in the cut fodder is 
worth the labor of cutting. That it contains much 
digestible matter is undoubted, but no determina- 
tions of the work of digestion have yet been made. 
The straw of the legumes is richer in protein than 
that of the cereals and lower in fiber, with corres- 
pondingly higher digestibility. On the other hand, 
it is usually coarse and unpalatable, and liable to 
contain molds and other fungi. 

Roots and tubers constitute a distinct class of 
feeding-stuffs, differing markedly in their proper- 
ties from the coarse fodders on the one hand and 
the concentrated feeding-stuffs on the other. With 
them may be included for convenience certain 
fruits, notably pumpkins and other cucurbita. 
They are characterized especially by their large 
proportion of water. In the root crops proper 
(beets, turnips, carrots, mangels and the like) the 
percentage of water may vary from 80 to 95. The 
tubers (of which potatoes are the chief representa- 
tive) contain less water, the range being approxi- 
mately 66 to 82 per cent. A second equally marked 
characteristic of these feeding-stuffs is the low 
percentage of crude fiber in their dry matter. Their 
percentage of crude protein is also low, and a large 
share of it consists of non-proteids (so-called 
amides) of inferior nutritive value. The dry matter 
of these crops consists largely of the more readily 



72 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



soluble carbohydrates. In the tubers starch is the 
predominant carbohydrate, while in beets, especi- 
ally sugar-beets, cane-sugar occupies this position, 
and this substance has been shown to have a dis- 
tinctly lower nutritive value, for ruminants at 
least, than starch. In other root crops, the carbo- 
hydrates consist largely of gums, pectin substances, 
and other compounds, including the so-called pen- 
tose carbohydrates, whose exact nutritive value is 
still uncertain. There are also present in roots, 
and particularly in fruits, more or less organic 
acids whose nutritive value is low. In consequence 
of their succulent and tender nature, tubers, and 
especially roots, have a high degree of digestibility 
and require little energy for their digestion. They 
are therefore a valuable source of carbohydrate 
material, even though some of their ingredients are 
of somewhat inferior value. In general, the dry 
matter of tubers is more valuable than that of 
roots. On the other hand, the dietetic effects of 
roots are especially prized, but the considerable 
amount of labor required for their cultivation tends 
to restrict their use. 

The concentrated feeding-stuffs, or "concentrates," 
as their name implies, are those which contain a 
large amount of nutriment in a small weight and 
bulk. They stand in contrast, on the one hand, 
with the coarse fodders, in which the real nutri- 
ment is accompanied by a large proportion of 
woody fiber and other indigestible matter which 
adds to the weight and bulk and to the work of 
digestion without materially increasing the nutri- 
tive value. On the other hand, they excel the roots 
and tubers because, while the dry matter of the 
latter is very valuable, it is largely diluted, so to 
speak, with water. The concentrates are therefore 
the main reliance for the rapid, intensive produc- 
tion of meat, milk or work. The concentrated feed- 
ing-stuffs may be subdivided into (1) the grains 
and (2) the by-product feeding-stuffs. 

(1) The grains were, until comparatively recent 
times, the main reliance of users of concentrated 
feed, and indeed are still in many sections of the 
United States. Corn, oats, barley, rye, peas, beans, 
rice and at times even wheat, are feeding-stuffs 
whose value needs no advocate. These seeds con- 
tain, stored away for the use of the young plantlet, 
proteids, fat and carbohydrates of the most valua- 
ble character and "representing the highest type 
of vegetable food." Their protein is chiefly in the 
form of true proteids of recognized nutritive value, 
their carbohydrates are largely starch, and their 
ether extract chiefly true fat. Being closely rela- 
ted to the nutrition of the young plant, the compo- 
sition of the properly matured seed shows much 
smaller variations than that of the coarse fodders. 
The degree of maturity of the seed, however, mate- 
rially affects its composition and in much the same 
way as it does that of the coarse fodders. In the 
early stages of seed formation, the proteids and 
ash flow abundantly from the vegetative organs to 
the seed, while later the ripening of the seed is 
largely an accumulation of carbohydrates. Any 
influences, therefore, which check the normal devel- 
opment of the seed, such as drought and lodging of 



the grain, tend to produce a seed richer in protein 
and poorer in carbohydrates. Light, shriveled 
grain, therefore, tends to be high in proteids. More- 
over, the ingredients of unripe seeds differ to a 
considerable extent from those of ripe seeds. The 
crude protein, for example, is to a larger extent 
in the form of " amides " rather than true proteids, 
and the carbohydrates are in the form of sugars of 
one sort or another rather than starch, as in the 
ripe grain. 

The cereal grains are characterized by a medium 
percentage of protein (8 to 14 per cent) chiefly 
composed of true proteids, a rather low percentage 
of fat (1.5 to 6 per cent) and a high percentage 
of carbohyd rates, largely starch. Their ash is small 
in amount and in it potash and phosphoric acid are 
prominent, while but little lime is found. Corn 
contains rather less proteids than the other cereal 
grains, with correspondingly high percentages of 
starch and of fat. While it has been shown that 
the proteid content of corn can be notably increased 
by selection and breeding, the effects of the latter 
have not yet sensibly affected the character of the 
commercial crop. The naked grains (corn, rye, 
wheat) show a comparatively high percentage 
digestibility, and both in this respect and as 
regards their composition exhibit less variation 
than the hulled grains (oats, barley). In the latter, 
the variable proportion of the relatively valueless 
hulls to the kernel causes both composition and 
digestibility to vary greatly. Oats, for example, 
have shown the extremes of 6 and 17 per cent pro- 
tein and 3 to 7 per cent of fat. The hulls resemble 
straw in composition and value. They therefore 
increase the proportion of crude fiber in the grain, 
and correspondingly diminish its digestibility and 
nutritive value. The place of the cereal grains in 
feeding practice is clearly indicated by the fore- 
going statements. They enable the feeder to intro- 
duce into his rations, without unduly increasing 
their bulk or weight, large amounts of easily 
digestible and highly nutritious ingredients. Of 
themselves, they contain a fair proportion of pro- 
teids for many purposes, especially for mature 
animals ; but they are not capable of offsetting a 
deficiency of proteids in the other ingredients of 
the ration, nor do they supply enough of this in- 
gredient to meet fully the demands of the rapidly 
growing animal or the highly productive dairy 
cow. 

The leguminous grains share the general physi- 
cal properties of the naked cereal grains, and like 
them contain food materials (proteids, carbohy- 
drates, fats) of the highest grade. They are 
especially characterized, in contrast with the 
cereal grains, by their relatively high percentage 
of proteids, ranging according to American analy- 
ses from 20 to 42 per cent. Some of them, as the 
soybean and the lupine, also carry notable amounts 
of fat, but the more common ones are not richer 
in this substance than the cereals. They are richer 
in ash than the cereals, notably as regards phos- 
phoric acid and lime. Their digestibility is gener- 
ally high. Like the cereals, they are valuable as 
sources of total digestible food in a concentrated 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



73 



form, but unlike these they serve also to enrich 
rations in proteids. Aside from certain technical 
by-products, they are the most available materials 
for this purpose, and the culture of leguminous 
feeding crops, both for this purpose and for their 
effects on the soil, deserves careful consideration. 

The oil seeds, such as flax, cotton and rape, are 
not commonly used directly as feeding-stuffs 
because of their commercial value. These seeds 
contain a high percentage of proteids, while in 
place of much of the carbohydrates of the cereals 
and legumes a large percentage of oil is found. 
Flax seed contains a considerable quantity of so- 
called "mucilage," which swells up with water to 
a slimy mass and has a very soothing effect on the 
digestive organs. Cotton seed is fed to cattle to 
some extent, usually either boiled or roasted, but 
is regarded as dangerous for growing swine. 

(2) The by-product feeding-stuffs are the resi- 
dues of technical processes by which the products 
of the soil are prepared for man's use, either as 
food or for other purposes. The more important of 
these technical processes are : (a) The milling of 
grains ; (b) the manufacture of cereal foods ; (c) 
the manufacture of alcoholic liquors ; (d) the manu- 
facture of starch and glucose ; (e) the manufac- 
ture of sugar ; (/) the extraction of oils. 

(a) Milling residues, particularly of wheat, are 
among the most familiar of the by-product feeding- 
stuffs. They include the screenings secured in clean- 
ing the grain for milling and the bran and mid- 
dlings secured in the grinding proper. The screen- 
ings are an exceedingly variable mixture according 
to the quality of the grain, containing, besides 
light and broken grains, a great variety of weed 
seeds, fragments of straw, sand and earth, as well 
as spores of numerous fungi, and dirt of all sorts. 
While some of these have undoubted feeding value, 
the possible danger to the health of the animals, 
and of the infestation of the fields with weed 
seed through the manure, demand great caution 
in the use of screenings as food. Its addition to 
bran or middlings is to be regarded as an adul- 
teration. 

The bran of wheat or rye consists essentially of 
the seed-coats of the grain, the layer of so-called 
gluten cells immediately beneath them, and a pro- 
portion of the inner, floury part of the grain vary- 




Fig. 63. Partial section of wheat kernel (enlarged 155 diam- 
eters). 1, Seed pod; 2, outer seed coat; 3, inner seed 
coat; 4, gluten cells; 5, starch cells. (Jordan.) 



ing with the perfection of the milling. The seed- 
coats of the grain contain most of its crude fiber, 
while the gluten cells are richer in proteids than 
the inner part of the kernel. In proportion, there- 
fore, as the bran is more perfectly separated from 
the flour, does it become at once richer in proteids 
and in crude fiber and poorer in easily digestible 
carbohydates. Such bran is more valuable as a 
source of proteids than the more floury bran, but, 
at the same time, contains less total digestible 
matter, and probably has an inferior value as a 
source of energy. 

Middlings, as the name indicates, are intermediate 
products between bran and flour. In modern meth- 
ods of milling, various grades are produced, in the 
names of which there is a considerable lack of 
uniformity. The "brown" middlings contain more 
of the seed-coats (bran) than the "white" mid- 
dlings, which approach the low-grade flour (" red 
dog" flour) in character. Shorts seem to be sub- 
stantially the same as middlings. Because of their 
smaller content of the hulls, middlings are decid- 
edly more digestible than bran, while scarcely 
inferior to it in percentage of protein. 

Buckwheat middlings, a by-product from the 
milling of buckwheat, contains nearly twice as 
much proteids and fat as average wheat middlings, 
and correspondingly less carbohydrates. It is 
sometimes called buckwheat bran, but this name is 
also applied to the tough, innutritious hulls of the 
buckwheat, which have little feeding-value, and 
which are not infrequently used as an adulter- 
ant of the middlings. The middlings are credited 
with a tendency to ferment or become rancid when 
stored in bulk, and also with producing a soft oily 
butter-fat when fed in large amounts. 

Rice bran resembles wheat bran, but contains 
less proteids and fully twice as much fat. The pure 
bran is sold largely under the name of " rice meal," 
while the commercial " bran " contains an admix- 
ture of varying amounts of rice hulls. The hulls, 
which are separated from the kernel, as the first 
process in the milling, contain about 40 per cent 
of fiber, and are heavily impregnated with silica 
and covered with hard, silicified fibers which are 
liable to cause severe and even fatal irritation of 
the digestive organs. Their presence in the bran 
to any large extent is to be regarded as a danger- 
ous adulteration. Rice polish results from the 
polishing of the rice grains after the removal of 
the bran and germ. It contains somewhat less fat 
and proteids than the pure bran, but is consider- 
ably more digestible. All these rice by-products 
contain more or less " grits " or fragments of the 
kernel, which have been found to be rather difficult 
of digestion. The rice products are also rich in 
fat, which becomes rancid rather easily and often 
renders the material unpalatable. It is asserted 
that this rancidity can be prevented by kiln-drying 
the bran or polish as soon as produced. 

The tendency has been to regard the milling by- 
products largely as sources of proteids. While it is 
true that the bran and middlings are richer in pro- 
teids than whole wheat or other cereal grains, the 
difference is not sufficient to enable them to offset 



74 



PRINCIPLES OP STOCK-FEEDING 



to any marked degree the deficiencies of other 
ingredients of the ration in this respect. They are 
to be regarded primarily as sources of digestible 
food as a whole, with a tendency to increase some- 
what the proportion of proteids in the ration. 
Familiarity with the good qualities of wheat bran 
in particular, its comparative safety as a feed in 
inexperienced hands, and its good dietetic effect 
have tended to an exaggerated idea of its food value. 
When it rules high in price it is usually possible to 
substitute other feeding-stuffs for it, partially or 
wholly, which will furnish both proteids and energy 
more cheaply. Buckwheat middlings, on the con- 
trary, often furnish a cheap source of proteids for 
a ration otherwise deficient in it. 

(b) In the manufacture of the great variety of 
so-called cereals, or breakfast foods, now on the 
market, a considerable quantity of by-products 
accumulates. In the case of the most common of 




Fig. 64. Partial section of oatgrain (enlarged 170 diameters). 0, 
Hull; 1, seed coat; 4, gluten cells; 5, starch cells. (Jordan.) 

these, oatmeal, the residue consists chiefly of the 
hulls of the oats together with some of the lighter 
grains. As already noted, the hulls themselves 
have scarcely more feeding value than the straw, 
which they resemble in composition, while the pro- 
portion of light oats is not sufficient materially to 
raise the value. Oat-hulls are rarely offered as 
such in the market, but are usually disposed of in 
one of two ways. First, they are made the basis of 
various proprietary feeds, cheap by-products of 
various sorts being added, usually including a small 
amount of the protein-rich by-products shortly to 
be described. These feeds are offered under various 
names and with abundant advertising testimonials. 
While they are by no means worthless, it is evident 
that the oat-hulls themselves are no more valuable 
because of the addition to them of other materials, 
while the consumer ultimately pays the cost of mix- 
ing, transportation and advertising. The second 
use to which oat-hulls are put is the adulteration of 
the mixed feeds, especially corn and oat feeds, 



which are freely offered on the market. Since it is 
difficult to recognize even a considerable adulter- 
ation of this sort, such mixed feeds should be pur- 
chased only from manufacturers of known integrity 
or under a satisfactory guarantee as to purity. 
Barley feed, a by-product of the manufacture of 
pearled barley, is similar in its properties to oat- 
hulls for feed. 

In the manufacture of hominy from corn, the 
hull, the germ and the more starchy parts of the 
kernel are rejected and constitute hominy chop, 
which is similar to the whole kernel in composition 
and digestibility, except that its percentage of fat 
is greater. Consequently it has a higher feeding 
value, although the fat is likely to become rancid 
on long keeping, and thus lower its quality. 

(c) The manufacture of alcoholic liquors consists 
essentially in the conversion of the starch of grains 
or potatoes into sugar and the subsequent fermen- 
tation of this sugar by means of yeast. The result- 
ing liquor may be consumed directly (beer, ale) or 
it may be distilled, yielding the more concentrated 
distilled liquors or commercial alcohol. 

The first step in the process is the preparation of 
malt, by allowing moistened barley to germinate. 
The growth of the sprouts is stopped by drying 
when they are about one-third inch long, and these 
dried sprouts, separated from the grain, constitute 
malt-sprouts. Being young roots of barley, they 
have the general properties of all young plant- 
growth, containing a high percentage of crude 
protein, much of it in the form of amides, and a low 
percentage of crude fiber. The next step in the 
process is the mashing of the ground malt and 
other grain with warm water. In this process, the 
ferment of the sprouted barley acts on the starch 
of the grain, transforming it into sugar. In the 
manufacture of beer or ale, the resulting liquid is 
drawn off and fermented separately, leaving a resi- 
due known as brewers' grains, which is used exten- 
sively as a dairy food. In the fresh state it is a 
valuable food, but is subject to the disadvantage of 
fermenting or souring very readily, and tending in 
this state to injure the quality of the milk. Some- 
what recently, economical processes for drying it 
have been perfected, and the dried brewers' grains 
constitutes a valuable feed which can be shipped 
like any other dried feed. In the preparation of 
distilled liquor or alcohol, the liquid is fermented 
in contact with the grains and the alcohol then 
distilled off, leaving a residue known as distillers' 
grains or distillery slop. This residue is much wet- 
ter than brewers' grains, but is less subject to fer- 
mentation, since the sugar has been more completely 
removed. Large quantities of it are now put on 
the market in the dried form, both under its own 
name and various trade names, some of which, 
such as "Ajax flakes," "Atlas gluten meal" and the 
like, contain no suggestion of the real nature of the 
material. It constitutes a valuable source of stock- 
food. The grains produced from rye are regarded 
as the poorest and those from corn as of the best 
quality. In all these processes the object is to con- 
vert the starch of the grain as completely as pos- 
sible into sugar and then into alcohol. This results 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



75 



in increasing the percentage of all the other ingre- 
dients in the residue. They contain accordingly a 
high percentage of proteids with also a somewhat 
greater percentage of crude fiber than the ordinary 
grains. They serve, therefore, not only to supply 
food as a whole, but also to correct a deficiency of 
proteids in the ration. 

(d) Starch and glucose are made in the United 
States chiefly from corn. The starch is separated 
by coarse grinding and the use of water, the starch 




Fig. 65. Partial section of maize kernel (enlarged 170 diam- 
eters). 1, Outer layer of skin: 2, inner layer of skin; 4, 
gluten cell; 5, starch cells. (Jordan.) 

being carried off in suspension and allowed to 
settle out. Glucose is manufactured by further 
treatment of the starch with acid. In the prepara- 
tion of the starch, the parts of the kernel which 
are rejected are the hull, the germ and the more 
glutinous part of the interior of the grain from 
which the starch cannot be completely separated. 
The hulls are comparatively low in proteids and con- 
tain considerable fiber. When sold separately they 
are called corn bran, although the composition of 
commercial samples indicates some admixture of 
the germs. The germ contains about 30 per cent 
of oil, which has a commercial value and is secured 
by pressing the germs. The residue constitutes 
germ, meal, which still contains about 7 per cent 
of oil, and in the neighborhood of 11 per cent of 
crude protein. The glutinous residue of the kernel 
constitutes gluten meal, containing, in general, 30 
to 40 per cent of crude protein with a compara- 
tively low percentage of fat and fiber. Some fac- 
tories mix the gluten meal and the hulls, and sell 
the mixture under the name of gluten feed, which 
contains approximately 24 per cent of crude pro- 
tein, 6 per cent of crude fiber and 6 per cent of 
fat. Sometimes the hulls and germs are sold together 
under the names " sugar feed" or " starch feed," 
either wet or dry. In fact, various mixtures of 
the three main products are made and sold under 
diverse commercial names. These various glucose 
products should invariably be purchased on a guar- 
antee as regards composition and purity. 

(e) Sugar has come to be manufactured from 
sugar-beets to a considerable extent in the United 
States. The sugar is extracted from the finely cut 
beets by means of water in what is known as the 
diffusion process. The residue from this constitutes 



what is commonly known as beet pulp, which is 
essentially sugar-beets minus the sugar and some 
of the other soluble substances. In the fresh state 
it contains 90 to 95 per cent of water, which 
may be reduced to about 85 to 87 per cent 
by pressing. Its general properties are similar to 
those of roots and it occupies much the same place 
in the ration. Its digestible matter consists chiefly 
of carbohydrates belonging to the group of pectins 
and gums, somewhat inferior to the sugar of the 
beets, but according to recent investigation fully 
as valuable as the digestible matter of mangels. 
The wet beet pulp is too heavy to bear long trans- 
portation, but may be preserved in the neighbor- 
hood of the factory by ensiling. It is now, how- 
ever, dried and put on the market as dried beet 
pulp, containing not more than 5 to 10 per cent of 
water. The dried pulp is relatively about equally 
valuable with the wet pulp, especially if soaked in 
water, as it should be before feeding. 

In the further manufacture of sugar either from 
sugar-beets or sugar-cane, there remains, as a final 
residue, the molasses. This contains 20 to 25 per 
cent of water, approximately 50 per cent of sugar, 
scarcely more flan one-half per cent of true 
proteids, and 8 to 10 per cent of so-called 
non-proteids, along with other substances of doubt- 
ful nutritive value. It is essentially a source of 
easily soluble carbohydrates, principally sugar. 
Beet molasses, in particular, has a marked laxative 
action, commonly ascribed to the potash salts 
present in it but perhaps due quite as much to the 
sugar. For this reason, care is required to accustom 
animals to it gradually and not to over-feed with 
it. Its laxative qualities are said to be valuable 
when used in small amounts for horses in prevent- 
ing attacks of colic. Owing to its physical proper- 
ties, it is an inconvenient material to handle. To 
avoid this difficulty, the so-called molasses feeds 
have been put on the market. These consist of 
molasses dried down on some suitable material. 
A large number of concentrated feeding-stuffs have 
been used for this purpose, and it has also been 
dried together with the beet pulp, forming the 
so-called molasses pulp. All these feeds are of 
value in proportion to the materials out of which 
they are made. 

(/) The extraction of commercial oils from 
various oil-bearing seeds leaves by-products, called 
oil-cake or oil-meal, some of which have a high 
feeding value. Of these, cottonseed and linseed 
meal are the only ones extensively used in the 
United States and are typical of the others. The 
seeds of cotton and flax are rich in both fat and 
proteids. Hulled cottonseed contains about 30 per 
cent of each and flaxseed about 22 per cent proteids 
and 35 per cent fat, the latter percentage, how- 
ever, being somewhat variable. The oil is extracted 
from the seeds either by pressure or by the use of 
solvents, leaving a residue still containing some fat 
and very rich in protein. At present cotton oil is 
extracted only by pressure, the resulting hard cake 
being ground to cottonseed meal. The highest 
grade of cottonseed meal is made from the hulled 
seed and contains 40 to 42 per cent of crude pro- 



76 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEBIXG 



tein and 7 to 9 per cent of fat. It should be practi- 
cally free from the hulls and therefore contain 
little crude fiber. Cottonseed meal is adulterated 
extensively with the tough, black hulls of the cot- 
tonseed, which have a very low feeding value. This 
is especially true of the inferior grades of commer- 
cial cottonseed meal, which are sold at a lower 
price than the standard grade. 

Linseed oil is extracted from the flaxseed both by 
pressure and by means of naphtha, the latter being 
completely removed from the resulting oil-meal 
and recovered for use again. The "new process" 
of extraction removes the fat more completely than 
the " old process " of pressure, and the resulting 
linseed meal is somewhat poorer in fat and con- 
tains somewhat more protein than the old-process 
meal. The process of extraction by pressure has 
been so far perfected in recent years, however, 
that the difference between the old-process and 
new-process meal is distinctly less than formerly. 
The protein of the new-process meal appears to be 
slightly less digestible than that of the old-pro- 
cess meal, which tends still further to reduce the 
difference between the two. 

The corn-germ meal mentioned in connection with 
the gluten feeds may also be classed as an oil-meal. 

III. Feeding 

The details of the practice of feeding are con- 
sidered in connection with the discussion of the 
various animals, in a subsequent part of this work, 
and only the principles involved are taken up here. 
The practice of feeding is now modified and simpli- 
fied by many machines that prepare the food, some 
of the types of which are shown in Figs. 77 to 103. 
These figures may suggest devices for particular 
needs ; but it is not the intention to recommend 
any particular machine. 

Maintenance requirements. 

As shown earlier in this article, the animal body 
is comparable in some respects with a heat motor 
in that it is a converter of energy. It applies the 
proteids of its food to maintain its bodily ma- 
chinery in repair, while it utilizes the available 
energy of its food, first, to keep the bodily ma- 
chinery in operation, and second, to produce exter- 
nal work or material products. As in the case of 
an engine, a certain expenditure of fuel is required 
to keep the machine running when it is doing no 
visible work. In other words, as common experi- 
ence shows, an animal requires food even when idle 
and producing nothing. The amount required just 
to prevent the body consuming its own tissues is 
called the maintenance requirement. The word 
maintenance, therefore, is used in a restricted sense 
and not, as it sometimes is in common parlance, to 
indicate the total amount of food required by a 
working horse or beef animal. The actual feeding 
of animals simply to maintain them is not usually 
economically desirable, and when it is, observation 
usually suffices to determine whether the ration 
consumed is adequate. The importance of the main- 
tenance requirement lies in the fact that a consid- 



erable proportion of every productive ration is 
consumed in simple maintenance, and that it is 
therefore important to know what proportion is 
thus used and what part remains available for 
productive purposes. 

The maintenance requirement includes the de- 
mand for proteids and for energy. The proteid 
tissues of the animal are constantly breaking down 
and wearing out even in a state of rest. It is prob- 
able that the amount so broken down when no food 
is given represents the smallest amount on which 
the animal can be maintained. It is impracticable 
to apply this test to domestic animals, however, 
and their maintenance requirements as regards 
proteids must be ascertained by direct experiment. 

As regards the energy requirements for mainte- 
nance, the case is similar. Were the animal 
deprived of food, the energy required for its vital 
activities would be supplied by the burning up of 
tissue and there would be a loss of the latter. The 
maintenance ration must be sufficient just to pre- 
vent the loss that would occur without food. In 
other words, it must contain energy available for 
maintenance in amount equal to that which would 
otherwise be supplied by the breaking down of 
tissues. The most logical method of stating the 
maintenance requirement, therefore, is in terms of 
net available energy, or "maintenance values." 
Unfortunately, however, as we have seen, the 
inaintenance values of only a few feeding-stuffs 
have been determined. Most of the results of exper- 
iments thus far have been expressed in terms of 
total digestible matter or of fuel values, and for 
the present this seems the most practicable method 
of statement. 

Influence of kind of feeding-stuff. — As we have 
seen, the fuel values of different feeding-stuffs are 
not equally available for maintenance because of 
differences in the amount of energy expended in 
digestion and assimilation. It follows, therefore, 
that with the same animal under identical condi- 
tions the amount of food required exactly to 
maintain it will differ according to the degree of 
availability of the energy of the food. For example, 
according to the figures previously given, to prevent 
a loss of 100 Calories from the tissues of the animal 
would require a fuel value of .W-=159 Calories in 
timothy hay but only of yy = 128 Calories in corn 
meal. Since the energy of concentrated feeds is 
more available than that of coarse feeds, the larger 
the proportion of the former in the ration the less 
will be the amount of digestible matter or of fuel 
value required for maintenance. Conversely, the 
more of the difficultly digestible feeds the ration 
contains the larger will be the apparent main- 
tenance requirement. 

Influence of size of animal. — It is obvious that the 
maintenance requirements of different animals of 
the same species will vary with their size or weight. 
It has been shown, however, that the amount of 
energy required for the vital activity of the 
fasting animal is approximately proportionate 
to the amount of surface exposed by the animal. 
This being the case, the amount of any given 
feed actually required for maintenance will also 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEELING 



77 



be proportional to the surface of the animal. 
We cannot measure readily the surface area of an 
animal, but since animals of the same species are 
approximately of the same shape, it follows from a 
well-known geometrical principle that their sur- 
faces will be nearly proportional to the squares of 
the cube roots of their weights, and the maintenance 
iv [uirement may be safely computed on this basis 
for similar animals. The increase in weight of a 
fattening animal also causes the maintenance 
requirement to increase, and, as it would seem, 
more and more rapidly as the completion of the 
fattening is approached. 

Temperature. — The temperature of the animal's 
surroundings may also influence, to a certain 
degree, the maintenance requirement, although not 
to the extent often supposed. The primary object 
of the maintenance ration is to supply energy to 
keep the animal machinery in action, and, in a sense, 
the production of heat is incidental. While only 
part of the fuel value of the food is available for 
actual maintenance, it is all finally liberated as 
heat, arising in part from the work of digestion 
and in part from the oxidation of the available 
part of the food. At moderate temperatures, the 
heat thus produced may be enough or more than 
enough to maintain the temperature of the body, 
while at low temperatures it may be insufficient. 
At the lower temperature, then, the animal mu;t 
receive additional food simply to keep it warm ftr 
it will burn up its own tissues for that purpose, 
while above a certain point the heat supply arising 
from the consumption of the maintenance ration 
will be ample, and the maintenance requirement 
will not be affected by changes of temperature. 
The data now accessible render it probable that 
with our common domestic animals it is only at a 
rather low temperature that extra food is required 
simply for heat production. 



Maintenance requirements of cattle. — The results 
of earlier experiments on the maintenance require- 
ments of cattle, as well as the feeding standards 
based on them, have in recent years been shown to 
be entirely too high. The data given below are 
based on more recent experiments at the Pennsyl- 
vania Experiment Station and the experiment 
station at Moeckern in Germany. 

(1) Proteids. — In nine experiments by the Ger- 
man investigators, the smallest amount of digesti- 
ble crude protein which sufficed for maintenance 
for a 1,000-pound animal was .65 pounds. The ex- 
periments at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station 
have given somewhat lower figures, namely about 
.4 pounds of true proteids. As was pointed out in 
considering the digestibility of the food, however, 
rations very low in proteids tend to suffer as regards 
their digestibility. Since it is comparatively easy 
to supply abundance of proteids for maintenance in 
the ordinary coarse fodder of the farm, particularly 
if legumes are available, it is probably safe to in- 
crease the figures in case of actual maintenance 
feeding to 0.5 or 0.6 pounds true proteids. 

(2) Energy. — The following tabulation shows 
the fuel value required for maintenance according 
to the earlier Pennsylvania experiments, the 
Moeckern experiments, and the later Pennsylvania 
experiments. 

Pee 1,000 Pounds Live Weight 

Earlier Pennsylvania experiments . . . 12,320 Cals. 

Moeckern experiments 10,900 Cals. 

Two later Pennsylvania experiments . . 11,430 Cals. 

In the case of a ration consisting as largely as 
possible of grain, the earlier Pennsylvania experi- 
ments give a result in accordance with the theo- 
retical considerations already mentioned, the fuel 
value of the maintenance requirements per 1,000 



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Fig. 66. Rate of heat emission. The arrows indicate when the animal stood up and lay down. 



Individuality. — Considerable differences have 
been observed in the maintenance requirements of 
different individuals of the same species on similar 
feed and under like conditions. It seems probable 
that much, at least, of this variation is due to dif- 
ferences in the temperaments of the animals. Rest- 
lessness, that is, muscular activity, has been shown 
to have a very marked effect on "the rate of oxida- 
tion in the body, while the mere effort of standing 
in the case of cattle may increase the metabolism 
by 30 to 50 per cent. Obviously, the maintenance 
requirement of a quiet animal will be considerably 
less than that of a restless one. 



pounds live weight being 9,860 Cals., or 2,460 Cals. 
less than the average of the experiments with the 
same animals on coarse feeds exclusively. This 
difference, therefore, may be considered fairly to 
represent the possible range in the maintenance 
requirement if we exclude rations consisting of 
very indigestible materials. 

The two later experiments (with the respiration 
calorimeter) at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station 
gave as the net available energy required for main- 
tenance per 1,000 pounds live weight, 7,350 Cals. 
Since these two experiments agree well with the 
others as regards the fuel values required with 



78 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



similar feeds, we may probably consider the above 
figure to represent with a fair degree of accuracy 
the maintenance requirement in terms of available 
energy. 

Maintenance requirements of sheep. — The mainte- 
nance ration of sheep necessarily includes the 
amount required for the growth of wool, and to 
this extent departs from the strict definition of the 
maintenance ration previously given. 

(1) Proteids. — As regards proteid requirements, 
few definite data are on record. It is clear, how- 
ever, that it must be relatively greater than in the 
case of cattle, since the wool fiber is essentially 
proteid. The amount of proteids in the average 
daily growth of wool per 1,000 pounds live weight 
may be said in general terms to range from .1 to 
.2 pound. If we were to assume that the remaining 
demand for proteids was comparable with that of 
cattle, we should have a total of .6 to .8 pound 
per 1,000 pounds live weight, but there are indica- 
tions that the figures for sheep should be placed 
materially higher. Several experiments in which 
1.1 to 1.3 pound of digestible crude protein, per 
1,000 pounds live weight, was fed have shown 
that these amounts were sufficient when the total 
amount of the ration was adequate, while some of 
them at least indicate that the lower figure named 
is about the minimum. These figures refer, as 
stated, to crude protein. If we state the require- 
ment at, say one pound of true proteids per 1,000 
pounds live weight, we shall probably be safe. 

(2) Energy. — As regards the energy require- 
ment, a larger number of results are on record, 
although they are based chiefly on live- weight 
experiments. Two respiration experiments, after 
allowing as accurately as possible for the small 
gains made, give an average of 1,420 Cals. fuel 
value per 100 pounds live weight for maintenance. 
The average of three series of live-weight experi- 
ments is decidedly higher, namely, 1,761 Cals. If 
we average these two figures (thus giving double 
weight to the respiration experiments) we obtain 
1,591 Cals., or in round numbers 1,600 Cals. This 
amount covers the actual growth of the wool as 
well as the requirements for maintenance of the 
body. All the experiments were chiefly or exclu- 
sively on coarse fodder. When much grain is fed, 
the figures, as in the case, of cattle, are lower. 

These results make it clear that, in proportion 
to its surface, the sheep requires less for mainte- 
nance than cattle. Thus, if we compute the 
maintenance requirement for sheep per 1,000 
pounds in proportion to the square of the cube root 
of the live weight, we obtain 7,385 Cals. in place 
of approximately 11,000 Cals. required for cattle. 
The cause of this difference is not clear. It can 
hardly be attributed to the immediate influence of 
tne wool, because, as already stated, domestic ani- 
mals are ordinarily producing an excess of heat 
and the maintenance demand represents the re- 
quirements of the body for energy and not for heat. 
It is another question whether, in the course of its 
development, the sheep may not have adjusted its 
internal work to the lessened heat radiation due to 
its thick coat. 



The consideration of the maintenance require- 
ments of the sheep leads naturally to the question 
of the influence of food on wool production. In 
considering this question, it is necessary to distin- 
guish between the growth of the pure wool fiber 
and the production of fat and other materials which 
accompany it in the crude wool. In brief, it may be 
stated that partial starvation or lack of sufficient 
proteids in the food decreases the rate of growth 
of the wool fiber but does not stop it entirely. A 
liberal maintenance ration ensures the normal 
growth of the wool, but heavy feeding in excess of 
this has not been found to increase the growth of 
the pure wool fiber, although it may increase the 
total weight of the fleece. 

Maintenance requirements of swine. — Scarcely any 
data are on record as to the maintenance require- 
ments of swine, either as regards proteids or 
energy. Two respiration experiments showed a 
consumption of tissue during fasting equivalent to 
about 1,200 Cals. per 100 pounds live weight, and 
accordingly this would indicate the amount of net 
available energy required to support the animal. 
Since, however, we have no satisfactory data as to 
the maintenance values of foods for swine, the above 
figures are at present of little practical significance. 

Maintenance requirements of the horse. — (1) Pro- 
teids. — As regards the proteid requirements of the 
horse for maintenance, no definite data are avail- 
able. Since the working animal must have a well- 
developed and well-nourished muscular system, it 
may be presumed that the proteid requirements are 
somewhat greater than for the maintenance, for 
example, of a beef- or milk-producing animal. The 
question of the proteid requirement, however, can 
be considered most profitably in connection with 
the discussion of the feeding of working animals. 

(2) Energy. — The energy requirement for main- 
tenance is somewhat less readily determined in the 
case of the horse than with cattle, owing to the 
more nervous nature of the horse. Food supplied 
in excess of maintenance is likely to lead to rest- 
lessness and unnecessary activity in the stall, so 
that a ration might simply maintain the weight of 
the animal, yet be greater than was absolutely 
necessary for this purpose. By comparing the 
amounts of food required to enable the horse to 
perform two different amounts of work, Wolff was 
able to figure back to the amount necessary if no 
work had been required. In this way he found that 
the amount of food required for maintenance 
varied with the proportion of crude fiber contained 
in it, as did also its value for work production, the 
maintenance requirement per 500 kilograms (1,100 
pounds) live weight varying from 7.30 pounds to 
10.24 pounds of total digestible matter (including 
the fat, multiplied by 2.4). In other words, it was 
found, exactly as in the case of cattle, that the 
coarser and more woody feeding-stuffs were less 
efficient for maintenance. Wolff found further 
that if he omitted the crude fiber entirely from his 
computations his results for the maintenance re- 
quirement agreed very satisfactorily, averaging 
7.27 pounds of fiber-free digestible nutrients per 
500 kilograms live weight. In other words, the 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



79 



expenditure of energy in digestion and assimila- 
tion seemed to be proportional to the crude fiber. 
It is to be noted, however, that but a limited vari- 
ety of feeds was used in these experiments. Muntz 
and Grandeau have reached a maintenance require- 
ment similar to Wolff's by placing the horse on a 
ration insufficient for maintenance and then grad- 
ually increasing it until equilibrium was reached. 




Fig. 67. The ' ' marbling ' ' of meat. 

Zuntz and Hagemann, after correcting what 
they regard as errors in Wolff's method of calcula- 
tion, compute the average maintenance requirement 
from his experiments as 8.32 pounds digestible mat- 
ter per 500 kilograms live weight, this including the 
crude fiber. From one of their own experiments 
with a ration containing less crude fiber they obtain 
a requirement of 7.20 pounds. These amounts are 
equivalent, respectively, to 14,950 Cals. and 12,930 
Cals. of fuel value, the greater amount being re- 
quired with the coarser and more woody food. Com- 
puting the work of digestion and assimilation 
according to their method, and subtracting it from 
the fuel value of the ration, they find the amount 
of available energy to be very nearly the same in 
the two cases, averaging 7,920 Cals. Accordingly, 
a ration containing, according to the table of 
"Available Energy per Pound for the Horse " (page 
66) previously given, the above-named amount of 
available energy would be a maintenance ration 
for a 500-kilogram horse. Zuntz and Hagemann, 
however, present evidence to show that a consider- 
able share of this represents energy required to 
produce heat to maintain the temperature of the 
body. When the horse is doing work on a medium 
or heavy ration, however, it has abundance of 
heat from other sources, and this part of the 
maintenance ration is not needed. They estimate 
the actual demand for energy for the internal 
work of the body at 4,356 Cals. per 500 kilograms 
live weight, and make this the basis of their com- 
putations of rations. 

Meat production. 

By meat, in the general sense of the term, is 
meant the edible part of the carcass. This part is 
made up of the adipose tissue and of the lean meat, 
or meat in the narrower sense of the term. The 
adipose tissue, commonly .spoken of as the fat, is 
not pure fat, but consists of cells of connective tis- 



sue which have become loaded with fat and contains 
85 to 90 per cent of pure, dry fat, the remainder 
consisting of the proteid material of the connec- 
tive tissue together with the accompanying ash and 
water. Adipose tissue is chiefly found immediately 
beneath the skin and about the internal organs, 
but smaller masses of it are scattered throughout 
the body. The lean meat is practically equivalent 
to muscular tissue. The essential part of the mus- 
cles consists of various proteids, together with 
accompanying ash ingredients and a large percent- 
age of water. In addition, the lean meat, as ordi- 
narily met with, always contains more or less fat 
tissue, which, if abundant, produces the well-known 
marbling of the meat. For example, the lean meat 
of an unfattened steer twenty -seven months old 
had the following percentage composition : 

Water 70.09 

Ash 95 

Protein 19.30 

Fat 9.66 



100.00 



In other words, of the dry matter of this meat 

about two-thirds was protein and something 
less than one-third fat. The water of lean meat 
is associated with the proteids, the fat tissue con- 
taining little. 

Growth and fattening. — Two tolerably distinct 
processes are involved in meat production, namely, 
growth and fattening. Growth may be said to 
consist substantially in an increase of the proteid 
tissues of the body, including, of course, not merely 
the muscles but the bones, ligaments, cartilage 
and connective tissue. Fattening, on the other 
hand, as its name implies, is simply the more or 
less rapid formation of adipose tissue, which does 
not form a necessary part of the structure of the 
body. As related to 
meat production, it is 
essentially an improve- 
ment in the quality of 
the product by the ac- 
cumulation of fat tis- 
sue between the fibers 
of the lean meat and 
incidentally in other 
parts of the carcass. 
Obviously, no line can 
be drawn between the 
two processes. The 
growing animal pro- 
duces more or less fat 
on a liberal ration, 
while fattening is 
often effected with 
animals which have 
not fully completed 
their growth. At the same time, there is a clear 
distinction between the two, as indicated by the 
fact that they are often undertaken by different 
individuals. 

Rate of growth. — Growth is evidently the funda- 
mental factor in meat production, since it consists 
in an increase of the essential constituents of the 




Fig. 68. Fat-ceUs in muscle. 



80 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



meat. In this process, age is the chief determining 
factor, the rate of growth decreasing from birth to 
maturity. By rate of growth is meant the increase 
of the proteid tissues, expressed as a percentage 
of the amount already present in the animal. 
Otherwise expressed, the gain of lean meat in a 
unit of time becomes constantly a smaller and 
smaller percentage of the amount of lean meat 
already present in the carcass, or, in general, of 
the live weight. The accompanying diagram, rep- 
resenting the approximate average results regard- 
ing the rate of growth on a considerable number 
of domestic animals, 



Composition of increase in live weight. — It is evi- 
dent, then, that the composition of the increase in 
live weight of an animal will Contain relatively 
more proteids and consequently more water (since 
the water is associated with the proteids) and less 
fat in a young animal than in an older animal, and 
also that on a fattening ration the increase of ;.n 
animal at any given age will contain more fat and 
relatively less proteids than that of an animal on 
simply a growing ration. The following table shows 
the average results of a number of determination;! 
and may serve to illustrate the statement just made: 



shows clearly that the 
rate is high in youth 
and decreases, at first 
rapidly and then more 
slowly, as the animal 
matures. It should be 
noted, of course, that 
the results expressed 
by the diagram are re- 
lative to the weight of 
the animal and do not 
show the actual num- 
ber of pounds of in- 
crease per day. 

Growth, then, is a 
function of the imma- 
ture animal. It appears 
to take place at a rate 
fixed by the species 
and individuality of 
the animal, and so far 
as appears cannot be 
materially stimulated, 
if at all, by a large supply of proteids in the food, 
although it can be checked by a deficiency of them 
because of lack of material. Fattening, on the 
other hand, is largely dependent on the total 
amount of food consumed in excess of that required 
for maintenance. It may take place at any age, 
provided the food supply is sufficient, but is brought 
about more easily in fairly mature animals, partly 
because less of the food is demanded for growth 
and partly, perhaps, because the older animals 
consume less in muscular activity. 



Composition op Increase in Live Weight 





Average 
age 


Water 


Ash 


Proteids 


Fat 


Energy jut 
pound 


Cattle ...... < 


Days 

15 

840 

1,460* 

290 
521 

745 

290 

458 

548* 

1,003 

8 
181 
495 


Per cent 
61.99 
39.65 
24.60 


Per cent 

3.49 
6.18 
1.47 


Per cent 

18.51 

13.57 

7.69 

11.31 

7.03 
5.72 

9.91 
4.13 

7.13 

3.16 

17.87 
9.41 

10.11 
6.44 


Per cent 
16.01 
40.60 
66.20 

44.85 
65.70 
72.10 

51.68 
79.84 

70.40 

84.60 

1.63 

47.23 
39.02 
71.50 


Calories 

1.169 
2,100 
3,052 


Sheep— / 
On growing ration 1 

On fattening ra- J 
tion .... 1 


43.84 
27.27 
22.18 

38.41 
16.03 


2,225 
3,014 
3,255 

2,484 
3,547 


20.10 2.34 
12.24 


3,218 
3,727 


I 


79.48 
40.37 
47.47 
22.00 


1.02 
2.99 
3.40 
0.06 


533 
2,279 
1,943 
3,247 



* Approximate. 



p. 

!« 

































































100 



aoo 



400 



500 



600 



300 

Age in days. 

Fig. 69. Hate of increase of proteid tissue per 1,000 pounds 

live weight at different ages. 



Influence of age of animal on meat production. — 
From the above facts, it is clear that age is a very 
important factor in meat production. It is a familiar 
fact that animals gain most rapidly when young, 
and the above table reveals the cause. In the first 
place, they store up relatively large amounts of 
proteids as compared with older animals, and in the 
second place, the proteids thus stored carry a large 
amount of water with them, which, of course, adds 
to the weight of the animal. A further consequence 
of these facts is that gain is made more cheaply by 
the young animal. A glance at the foregoing table 
shows, for example, that a pound of gain by toler- 
ably mature cattle contains stored up in it nearly 
twice as much energy as a similar gain made by 
young calves. Since this energy is derived from the 
food of the animal, it is clear that it must require 
much larger amounts of feed to produce a pound 
of gain in the second case than in the first. On 
the other hand, as already noted, fattening does 
not take place so readily in the young as in the 
mature animal. Fattening, however, is a more 
rapid process than growth. In the early stages of 
the animal's life, then, we shall naturally direct 
our efforts largely to the production of growth, 
while the fattening process may begin after the 
rate of growth has slackened considerably, yet early 
enough so that when the normal limit of growth 
of the animal is reached the fattening process 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



81 



will also be completed, and the animal be ready 
for sale. 

Individuality. — It is a familiar observation that 
individual animals differ as to their rate of growth. 
A tendency to early maturity, which is in fact syn- 
onymous with rapid growth, is a distinct advantage 
to the meat-producer in that it tends to shorten 
the time during which the animal must be fed, 
and thus to reduce the expenditure for mere main- 
tenance and secure quicker returns for the invest- 
ment. Animals also differ in their feeding capacity, 
that is, in the returns made for the feed. This 
difference is often ascribed to difference in diges- 
tive or assimilative power, but at present there 
is no good evidence of any very marked differ- 
ences between animals in this respect. It seems 
probable that the observed differences in feeding 
capacity may be traced largely to differences in the 
ability to consume large amounts of feed and per- 
haps to differences in the maintenance requirement. 
Anything which increases the former or diminishes 
the latter would render a larger proportion of the 
food available for productive purposes, and thus 
increase the returns from the total feed. This is a 
point, however, on which further investigation is 
much needed. 

Food requirements. — (1) Proteids. — The proteid 
requirements for meat-producing animals evidently 
must be relatively greater in youth and decrease 
with advancing maturity, while in fully mature 
animals they are comparatively small. The proteid 
requirements of mature fattening animals have 
been greatly exaggerated in the past. Abundant 
evidence is at hand to show that a proteid supply 
scarcely greater than that required for mainte- 
nance will suffice for the mature fattening animal, 
although at some sacrifice as regards the percent- 
age digestibility of its food. In the United States, 
however, most commercial fattening is done with 
more or less immature animals, and numerous 
experiments have clearly shown the advantage 
of a somewhat more liberal supply of proteids 
than is afforded by many of the rations in common 
use. 

From the results of a considerable number of 
fattening experiments with cattle, the writer has 
formulated the approximate proteid requirements 
shown in the following table, where they are com- 
pared with those for growth formulated by Kellner, 
the leading German authority : 

Approximate Proteid Requirements of Cattle, Per 
Pounds Live "Weight 



Few, if any, American data regarding the pro- 
teid requirements of sheep are at present available. 
Kellner recommends the following amounts at the 
ages named : 



Proteid Requirements for Sheep, Per 
Live Weight. — Kellner 


1,000 Pounds 




Wool breeds 


Mutton breeds 


Age 5- 6 months . . . 
Age 6- 8 months . . . 
Age 8-11 months . . . 
Age 11-15 months . . . 
Age 15-20 months . . . 


3.0 lbs. 
2.5 lbs. 

1.8 lbs. 
1.5 lbs. 
1.2 lbs. 


4.5 lbs. 
3.5 lbs. 
2.5 lbs. 
2.0 lbs. 
1.5 lbs. 



Pigs are distinguished by a remarkably rapid 
growth and therefore need a relatively large sup- 
ply of proteids in the food. Numerous well-known 
experiments have shown that a deficiency of pro- 
teids in the food of the young pig produces disas- 
trous results, leading to a deficiency in the develop- 
ment of the bony and muscular system and an over- 
loading of the carcass with fat. As a natural 
result there is a tendency to set high proteid stan- 
dards for the pig — perhaps needlessly high. Kell- 
ner's standards for growing pigs are as follows : 

Proteid Requirements of Swine, Per 1,000 Pounds 
Live Weight. — Kellner 





Breeding 


Fattening 




animals 


animals 


Age 2- 3 months .... 


6.2 lbs. 


6.2 lbs. 


Age 3- 5 months .... 


4.0 lbs. 


4.5 lbs. 


Age 5- 6 months .... 


3.0 lbs. 


3.5 lbs. 


Age 6- 8 months .... 


2.3 lbs. 


3.0 lbs. 


Age 9-12 months .... 


1.7 lbs. 


2.4 lbs. 



1,000 



American results 



Age 1 month .... 4.80 lbs. 
Age 2 months .... 4.00 lbs. 
Age 3 months .... 3.50 lbs. 

Age 1-lJ years . . 2.00 lbs. 

Age 2 yeare .... 1.75 lbs. 
Age 1\ years .... 1.50 lbs. 



German results 



Age 2-3 months 
Age 3-6 months 
Age 6-12 months 
Age 1-1J years . 
Age 1J-2 years . 



Mature, fattening . . . 1.60 lbs. 



No systematic compilation of American results 
on this point is at present available, but there is 
not lacking a number of experiments indicating 
that considerably lower amounts of proteids for 
pigs two to six months old may give equally satis- 
factory results. 

(2) Energy. — The total amount of food to be sup- 
plied to a meat-producing animal must necessarily 
remain largely a matter for the skill and experience 
of the feeder in adapting his feeding to the indi- 
viduality of the animal. Nevertheless, certain gen- 
eral principles may be indicated. 

First, the maintenance requirement of the 
animal must be satisfied before any gain can 
be produced. The more feed an animal can 
be induced to consume in excess of its main- 
tenance ration, the more rapid will be the 
gain, and the more cheaply it will be pro- 
duced, because the smaller will be the pro- 
portion of the total ration which must be 
applied to maintenance purposes. For ex- 
ample, if a ration has a production value of 
9,000 Cals., and 6,000 Cals. are required for 
maintenance, only one-third of the ration is 
applicable to the production of gain. If the 
gain on this ration is one pound per day, it 



50 lbs. 
50 lbs. 
80 lbs. 
20 lbs. 
,50 lbs. 



ce 



82 



PRINCIPLES OP STOCK-FEEDING 



takes a total of 9,000 Cats, to produce it. If now 
the ration be increased to 12,000 Cals. production 
value, one-half the ration is applicable to produc- 
tion purposes, the gain, other things being equal, 
will be two pounds per day instead of one, and the 
total food-cost of a pound of gain will be 6,000 
Cals. instead of 9,000 Cals. 

Second, rapid gains, especially in fattening ani- 
mals, can be produced only by the use of concen- 
trated feeding-stuffs. In the first place, as has been 
shown, the production values of concentrates are 
higher than those of coarse feeds, although by no 
means always cheaper per unit. It is only by the 
use of concentrates, however, that it is possible for 
the animal to consume the large amount of food 
required to produce rapid gains. The advantage of 
being able to give a large amount of food in excess 
of the maintenance requirement offsets the usually 
greater relative cost of the concentrated feeding- 
stuffs. 

(3) Feeding standards in the ordinary sense 
would seem to have comparatively little application 
in meat production, but, nevertheless, some gen- 
eral statements regarding the total amount of food 
may be made. These statements include the amount 
required for maintenance. For young animals larger 
amounts are required in proportion to the live 
weight than for mature animals because of their 
smaller size, and, therefore, relatively greater 
surface. For cattle and sheep, amounts of feed 
varying from the equivalent of 20,000 Cals. of 
production value per 1,000 pounds live weight for 
very young animals to half that amount for nearly 
mature animals are recommended by good authori- 
ties. These amounts are computed per 1,000 pounds 
live weight in proportion to the weight. Since swine 
subsist largely on concentrated feeding-stuffs, they 
are able to consume relatively larger amounts of 
food than cattle and sheep. The current feeding 
standards call for a production value of about 
36,000 Cals. per 1,000 pounds live weight for ani- 
mals two to three months old, the amount gradu- 



material. In the handling of fattening animals, 
therefore, which are to be fed for a comparatively 
short time and where, accordingly, the question of 
health and vigor is of less importance, it is desir- 




Fig. 70. Laying the foundation for a silo. 



ally diminishing to approximately 17,000 Cals. at 
ten to twelve months. 

Management. — Without entering on a full de- 
scription of the methods of handling meat-pro- 
ducing animals, the influence of certain factors in 
their environment calls for consideration. 

(1) Exercise. — All forms of muscular exertion 
are effected ultimately at the expense of food 




Fig. 71. Modes of feeding. Silos on a dairy-farm. 

able to reduce the amount of exercise taken as far 
as practicable. In particular it is important that 
the surroundings of the animals be made such as 
to induce them to lie down as large a part of the 
time as may be, since, as was noted in discussing 
the maintenance requirement, the mere effort of 
standing may largely increase the amount of tissue 
or of food material oxidized, at least by cattle. 
In the case of growing animals, however, other 
important considerations come in. Activity of the 
muscles, as is well known, has a tendency to stim- 
ulate their growth, and, since the muscular tissue 
is the essential part of the meat, the benefits in 
this respect of moderate exercise may much more 
than offset the additional amount of food material 
oxidized. Furthermore, the maintenance of the 
health and vigor of the animals, particularly in 
the case of breeding animals, is a consideration 
which must never be lost sight of. 

(2) Temperature. — It was pointed out in discus- 
sing the maintenance requirement that except at 
comparatively low temperatures a simple mainte- 
nance ration supplies sufficient heat to maintain 
the body temperature of domestic animals. With 
the consumption of heavy growing or fattening 
rations the amount of heat incidentally liberated 
in their digestion is greatly increased, and conse- 
quently fattening animals may be exposed to a 
very considerable degree of cold, not only without 
increasing the use of the food for heat production, 
but to the very decided advantage of the animals 
in many cases. Numerous practical feeding experi- 
ments have shown that animals, particularly cattle, 
yield quite as large returns for their food when 
the feeding is conducted in open sheds or even in 
feed-lots as when conducted in a warm barn. This 
is especially true in the comparatively dry winters 
of the middle and far West. The greater the rela- 
tive humidity of the air, the more rapidly does it 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



83 



abstract heat from the animal, as common exper- 
ience shows. In a moist climate, therefore, animals 
are more likely to suffer from exposure to cold than 
in a dry climate, but so far as cattle are concerned 
the indications are that outside feeding is quite 
practicable in most if not all parts of the United 
States. 

(3) Shelter. — The question of shelter for meat- 
producing animals involves much more than the 
mere matter of temperature. In particular, shelter 
from precipitation (rain or snow) seems to be a 
matter of considerable importance. When the coat 
of an animal becomes thoroughly wet, a large 
amount of heat is required to evaporate the mois- 
ture and this may readily overpass the limit beyond 
which ill effects are produced. This seems to be 
especially true of sheep as compared with cattle. 
Furthermore, a dry bed is of importance. In the 




Fig. 72. Modes of feeding. Bank silo in British Columbia. 



first place, the heating of wet bedding and espe- 
cially the melting of snow requires the expenditure 
of a large amount of animal heat, while, in the 
second place, comfortable quarters are important, 
as already noted, in inducing the animal to lie down 
freely. A shelter is also of some importance as a 
windbreak. Moving air abstracts heat from the 
body much more rapidly than still air of the same 
temperature and humidity. 

(4) Water-supply. — A sufficient water-supply is 
important for all classes of animals. With our 
domestic animals the normal consumption is three 
to four times that of the dry matter of the food. 
When practicable, the water-supply should be always 
accessible. The temperature of the water for fat- 
tening animals is probably rather unimportant, 
since, as has been seen, such animals are usually 
producing an excess of heat. It is not impossible, 
however, that the drinking at one time of much 
very cold water may temporarily require an 
increased production of heat to warm it promptly 
to the temperature of the body. For this reason, as 
well as in order to give opportunity to the animals 
to consume all the water needed, a water-supply 
accessible at all times is very desirable. 

Milk production. 

Since but little milk is produced in the United 
States except by cows, the following discussion will 
be confined to the feeding of these animals. 



Milk production differs very essentially from 
meat production. In the latter we desire to secure 
an increase in the size and weight of the animal, 
and, broadly speaking, all the food supplied in 
excess of the maintenance requirement aids in 
producing the desired result. In milk production, 
on the contrary, what we desire is the product of 
a single gland of the body. An increase in the 
weight of the mature animal is not desired ; it is 
at best a diversion of the food to a use other than 
that intended, while any considerable fattening of 
the animal has a tendency to check the milk pro- 
duction. Feeding for milk then is not simply a 
question of supplying certain quantities of proteids 
and of energy in the feed in excess of maintenance, 
but also of the distribution which the animal 
makes of these amounts. The art of milk produc- 
tion consists in stimulating the milk glands to the 
largest profitable production, and in supplying in 
the feed the necessary material for this purpose, 
while avoiding any considerable production of body 
tissue. Three factors may be said to determine 
milk production, namely, the animal, its environ- 
ment, and its feeding. 

The animal. — The characteristics of the individ- 
ual animal, including both the characteristics 
common to the breed to which it belongs and its 
own individual peculiarities, may be said in brief 
to determine the capacity of the animal as a milk- 
producer. While the actual amount of milk yielded 
is affected by feed, care and the like, these influ- 
ences simply determine whether or not the animal 
shall reach her maximum capacity of production. 
This capacity might be compared with the limit of 
speed of a horse. Conditions determine whether 
it reaches or falls short of its maximum ability. 
These individual differences are a familiar fact, 
although their importance is not always fully real- 
ized. On the capacity of the cow more than on any 
other single factor does the dairyman's success 
depend. Capacity as a milk-producer has been 
found by experience to be usually associated with 
certain characteristics of appearance and confor- 
mation which differentiate the " dairy type " of 
cattle from the "beef type." Individuals of the 
dairy type are most frequent among animals of the 
recognized dairy breeds, but technical purity of 
breeding by no means ensures a high degree of 
excellence as a milk-producer, for individuals of 
the same breed differ widely in their capacity. 




Fig. 73. Brick-paved feed-lot, with convenient shelter, water 
and feeding arrangement. Adapted from Circular No. 98, 
Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. 



84 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



As regards the composition of the milk, too, the 
individuality of the animal is practically the deter- 
mining factor. While minor effects on the compo- 
sition have sometimes been produced by changes in 
feeding, they are relatively small and of little or 
no economic importance. For practical purposes, 
the composition of the milk is fixed by the inherited 
breed and individual peculiarities of the animal. 
This statement applies to the average composition 
of the milk. It is a well-known fact that the com- 
position may differ from day to day or from milk- 
ing to milking, especially as regards the percent- 
age of fat. Some animals show very marked differ- 
ences of this sort, while in others they are much 
less ; on the average of several days or a week they 
almost entirely disappear. 

The stage of lactation is another factor in the 
animal which, as is well known, affects the yield 
of milk. A slight increase in the quantity is fre- 
quently noticed in the first month or so after calv- 
ing. Following that, the typical course is a slow 
falling off for several months followed by a rapid 
decrease as parturition is approached. Many ir- 
regularities occur, however, varying from animal 
to animal and from year to year with the same 
animal. The composition of the milk is also 
affected, the percentage of solid matter and especi- 
ally of fat tending to increase with advancing 
lactation, but these changes are also irregular and 
vary in different animals. 

Environment and care. — The surroundings and 
care of the animal may also affect the milk yield. 

(1) Milking. — The greater the frequency of 
milking, up to a certain limit, the more and richer 
milk has been found to be produced, at least in 
certain rather short experiments, although it may 
perhaps be doubted whether the difference would 
be very marked over a considerable period of time. 
On the other hand, incomplete milking, allowing 
residues of milk to remain in the udder, tends to 
depress the activity of milk secretion. It is import- 
ant, therefore, that cows should be milked fre- 
quently enough to prevent this. Beyond this point 
it simply becomes a question whether the extra 
milk secured by more frequent milking is sufficient 
to pay for the additional labor involved. Various 
methods of manipulating the udder after milking, 
such, e. g., as the Hegelund method, have been 
found of practical advantage in increasing the yield 
of milk and especially of milk-fat. It seems prob- 
able that part at least of their good effect is due 
to the more complete removal of the last residues 
of milk from the udder. 

(2) Exercise. — Since muscular work increases 
the expenditure of food material, there has been 
a tendency to deprive dairy animals of a due 
opportunity for exercise. Direct experiments have 
shown that a moderate amount of work may be 
performed by well-fed cows with but a slight 
decrease in the actual yield of the valuable sub- 
stances of milk, although the amount of water in 
the milk was somewhat lessened. On lighter rations, 
work tends to draw on the body fat, but the amount 
of energy expended in this way is probably slight 
as compared with the beneficial effects on the 



health and general condition of the animals of daily 
opportunity for freedom, motion and fresh air. 

(3) Temperature. — A dairy cow is probably, like 
a beef steer, producing more heat in her body than 
is needed to keep her warm under ordinary con- 
ditions. Exposure to moderate cold, therefore, does 



''*"??*•' 




n feed-yard. 



not necessarily result in increasing the amount of 
material burned up in the body. It must be borne 
in mind, however, that a typical dairy cow proba- 
bly exposes more surface to radiation than a beef 
steer of the same weight, and that she usually 
lacks the protective layer of fat. She is, therefore, 
probably unable to withstand as low temperatures as 
the steer without extra consumption of food for 
warmth. But above a certain degree, what is true 
of the steer will also be true of the cow. 

This is not equivalent, however, to saying that 
exposure to cold will have no effect on the milk 
yield. The danger is that a sudden chill, through 
nervous influence, will check the activity of the 
udder and turn the current of nutrition away from 
milk production to fat production. Accordingly, it 
is advisable to prevent abrupt changes of temper- 
ature or exposure to cold draughts. On the other 
hand, certain experimenters have been successful 
in keeping dairy cows through the winter in a cold 
but dry, covered barnyard, the animals having been 
accustomed to this treatment gradually during the 
fall. The question is of more importance, however, 
as regards stable ventilation. It seems probable 
that rather lower temperatures than have hitherto 
been considered advisable may be admissible in a 
dairy-barn, and that, consequently, better ventila- 
tion may be practicable without the necessity for 
artificial heating. 

(4) Water-supply. — An abundant supply of pure 
water is even more essential to dairy cows than to 
other classes of stock. Not only do they consume a 
large amount of dry matter, requiring, as already 
stated, about four times its weight of water, but 
about 87 per cent of the milk produced is also 
water. The water-supply not only should be abun- 
dant, but also should be accessible to the cows as 
frequently as practicable. From this point of view, 
the various self-watering devices constitute an 
ideal method of watering. Comparisons have shown 
that when water is constantly accessible cows may 
consume sensibly more than when they are watered 
but once or twice a day, and that the larger 
consumption of water may result in an increased 
production of milk without any falling off in the 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



85 



quality. If self-watering devices are not too expen- 
sive, and can be kept clean, they are to be recom- 
mended, especially for dairy cattle. 

Much has been written regarding the proper 
temperature of the water-supply. In the light of 
tne preceding paragraph, it would appear that 
simply from the point of view of heat saving there 
is little if any occasion for heating the water- 
supply. Numerous tests have shown increased pro- 
duction of milk as a result of warming the drink- 
ing water, but it is probable that much of this 
effect at least arises from the fact that very cold 
water is not consumed in sufficient quantity to 
supply the needs of the animal. To this extent, 
warming the supply is advisable. 

(5) Handling. — The secretion of milk is to a 
greater or less degree under the control of the ner- 
vous system of the animal. Any abuse of the ani- 
mal or undue excitement is likely to diminish the 
milk-production, and the same thing is true of 
discomfort from any source. Dairy cows should be 
kept as quiet and comfortable as practicable, and 
consideration and humanity in their handling have 
a distinct monetary value. 

Feeding. — As regards the feeding of the dairy 
cow, we need to consider both the proteid supply 
and the energy supply. 

(1) Proteids. — Milk is decidedly proteid in its 
composition. If the carbohydrates (milk-sugar) of 
the milk be reduced to their equivalent of fat by 
dividing by 2.25, the ratio of proteids to fat and its 
equivalent in average milk is approximately one to 
two. This is a much larger proportion of proteids 
than is contained in the gain in body weight in any 
except very young animals. Naturally, therefore, 
the production of milk calls for a liberal supply of 
proteids in the food. Wolff's familiar standard 
calls for 2.5 pounds digestible protein per day for 
a 1,000-pound cow in full flow of milk. The later 
Wolff-Lehmann standards have modified this by 
making the requirement somewhat in proportion to 
the milk yield. American investigations in recent 
years seem to indicate that the amounts called for 
in the German standards may be unnecessarily 
large. 

The dairy cow requires proteids for two purposes, 
first, for the maintenance of her body tissues and, 
second, as a source of supply of the proteids of the 
milk. Thus, a 1,000-pound cow would require, as 
we have seen, about .5 pounds of digestible pro- 
teids for maintenance. If she is producing twenty 
pounds per day of milk, of average composition, 
that milk will contain .64 pounds of proteids. The 
cow, therefore, will require in her daily ration at 
least 1.14 pounds of digestible proteids for these 
two purposes together. Experience, shows, how- 
ever, that a certain excess over this minimum is 
necessary. In the first place, it is doubtful whether 
the food proteids can be converted into milk pro- 
teids without some loss in the process. In the 
second place, a certain excess of proteids seems to 
be necessary to maintain, or at least to stimulate, 
the activities of the udder, by which milk is pro- 
duced. How large an excess is necessary for this 
purpose, however, is still to a degree an unsettled 



question. German authorities recommend an excess 
of 50 to 100 per cent over the proteids of the milk, 
according to the extent to which the cow is being 
pushed. This would make the total proteid require- 
ment in the case supposed 1.78 pounds. There are 
not wanting, however, experiments which seem to 
indicate that so large an excess is unnecessary and 
that possibly an excess of not more than 25 to 35 
per cent may be sufficient. Twenty-five per cent 
excess would make the requirement in the above 
case 1.30 pounds. Of the above results, tnen, even 
the highest, it will be observed, is less than the old 
Wolff standard. One reason for this, however, is 
that they refer to true proteids and not to the 
total protein of the ration. The question of the 
proteid supply is, in part, an economic question. 
As the proteids in the ration are increased, while 
they probably stimulate the milk production, an 
increasing proportion of them is simply metabol- 
ized in the body and goes to enrich the excreta. 
Consequently, the stimulation of the milk produc- 
tion is secured at a relatively increasing price, 
and, ultimately, must reach an economic limit. 

(2) Energy. — The solids contained in one pound 
of average milk correspond to about 340 Cals. 
of energy.- This amount varies, of course, with 
the composition of the milk, being greater the 
larger the percentage of total solids and especially 
of fat, so that, for example, one pound of fairly 
good Jersey or Guernsey milk would be equivalent 
to about 390 Cals. For the present purpose, 
however, it seems preferable to base comparisons 
on milk of average composition. To produce one 
pound of such milk it is evident that the cow must 
be supplied, in addition to her maintenance require- 
ment, with food having a production value of 340 
Cals. Unfortunately no direct determinations of 
the production values of feeding-stuffs for milk 
have yet been reported. Kellner, however, adduces 
reasons for believing that the values for meat pro- 
duction as tabulated on a previous page are approxi- 
mately applicable also to milk production, and 
confirms this conclusion by examples drawn from 
practice. If this belief is justified, it becomes a 
comparatively easy matter to compute the food 
requirements of a dairy cow. If, for example, we 
have a cow weighing 1,000 pounds and producing 
22 pounds of average milk daily, her daily ration 
must contain 340 X 22 = 7,480 Cals. of produc- 
tion value in addition to her maintenance require- 
ment. As we have already seen, the maintenance 
requirement of such an animal is approximately 
7,350 Cals. of net available energy, of which not 
over 70 per cent — equal to about 5,150 Cals. — 
would be production value. On this basis, then, the 
requirement of the animal in terms of production 
values will be : 

For milk production 7,480 Cals. 

For maintenance 5,150 Cals. 

Total 12,630 Cals. 

A study of experiments on milk production, how- 
ever, shows that the ratio between food and milk 
is by no means constant. The tendency to milk 



86 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



production is such that the activity of the glands 
will continue for a long time even on an insuffi- 
cient ration, the lacking material being drawn 
from the tissues of the body. In such a case the 
apparent food 'requirement obviously will be below 
the truth. On the other hand, heavy feeding, while 
tending to increase the milk production, also tends 
to cause a gain of tissue, especially of fat, by the 
animal, and in this case the apparent food require- 
ment is larger than the true one. Between these 
two extremes experiments indicate that the amount 
of food which must be supplied for the production 
of a pound of milk after the maintenance require- 
ment is satisfied is approximately uniform, and 
that if not exactly measured by Kellner's produc- 
tion values it is at least fairly proportional to 
them. If this be true, it is clear that the more 
liberal the feeding can be made without causing 
the animal to fatten (that is, the greater the 
capacity of the cow as a milk-producing machine) 
the larger will be the return per unit of total food, 
precisely as explained in the case of the fattening 
steer, since the proportion of the ration used for 
productive purposes becomes greater. In practice, 
however, we have to reckon with the fact that on 
a liberal ration there is an increasing tendency for 
the animal to get fat, and that when cows .are 
pushed to their capacity a considerable proportion 
of the food is liable to be applied in this way, this 
proportion increasing as the limit of milk produc- 
tion is approached. Consequently, on heavy feed- 
ing, the milk production becomes more and more 
expensive, and a limit is soon reached beyond which 
it is not economically profitable to force the cow. 

(3) Fat requirements. — Comparatively recent 
experiments seem to show that for a dairy ration 
to reach its maximum efficiency it must contain a 
certain minimum amount of digestible fat. While 
it has been demonstrated that milk-fat can be and 
is produced from other ingredients of the food than 
fat, nevertheless, a diminution of the fat below 
.75 to 1.0 pounds per day seems to affect unfa- 
vorably the production of milk and especially of 
milk-fat. This fact should be borne in mind in the 
computation of rations, although as a rule Ameri- 
can rations tend to be high rather than low in fat. 

(4) Choice of feeding-stuffs. — The proportion of 
coarse fodder in a dairy ration may vary within wide 
limits according to the intensity of the feeding and 
the capacity of the digestive organs. The total dry 
matter of a ration may range from twenty to thirty 
pounds, the smaller amount, of course, indicating a 
less percentage of coarse fodder. When the cow is 
to be pushed to her full capacity, it will be necessary 
to increase the proportion of concentrated feeding- 
stuffs, while in moderate feeding coarse fodder may 
form a considerable proportion of the ration, especi- 
ally if palatable and of good quality. 

Practice shows that a supply of succulent food is 
an important factor in the welfare of a dairy herd. 
A part of its advantage doubtless arises from the 
less amount of energy which has to be expended in 
its mastication, digestion and assimilation, but it 
may be questioned whether this factor plays a very 
large part. It seems more probable that the chief 



advantage of succulent food arises from its dietetic 
effect ; that it tends to stimulate milk production 
rather than fattening. The various root crops, 
including such residues as sugar-beet pulp, are 
recognized as the most desirable kind of succulent 
food, but their use is rather limited, owing to the 
expense of growing and handling them. In Ameri- 
can practice, silage, especially of corn, is more 
widely used for succulent food. 

Finally, the effect of the ration on the taste and 
odor of the milk is an important element in the 
choice of feeding-stuffs for the dairy cow. Certain 
materials, as turnips, cabbage, rape, garlic, wild 
mustard and the like, transmit their peculiar flavors 
directly to the milk, with more or less readiness, 
while other feeding-stuffs seem to affect the milK 
indirectly through the air of the stable rather than 
directly through the organism. The longer the time 
elapsing between the feeding of one of these 
materials and the milking the less is likely to be 
the injurious effect. Consequently these effects can 
often be prevented or moderated by giving the 
feeding-6tuff in question immediately after milking. 

Feeding for work production. 

The horse (or mule) is almost the exclusive work- 
ing animal in the United States, and the following 
discussion will be confined to this animal. 

Source of energy. — Work is performed by an animal 
by the contraction of its muscles, and the energy 
required is furnished by the breaking down of mate- 
rials contained inthem. Since the muscles are largely 
proteid in their nature, it was for a long time 
thought that in the performance of work this pro- 
teid material was broken down and oxidized. Exact 
experiments, however, have demonstrated that this 
is not necessarily the case. It has been found that 
when the animal is receiving an adequate amount 
of total food, the breaking down of proteids in the 
body is not increased by the performance of work. 
On the other hand, muscular exertion causes a very 
marked increase in the amount of non-nitrogen- 
ous matter metabolized. In the contraction of a 
muscle there appears to be a sudden breaking down 
of some non-nitrogenous material in the muscle, a 
part of the energy liberated appearing as heat and 
another part as mechanical work. The products 
resulting from this chemical action are subsequently 
burned up by means of the oxygen carried to them 
by the blood, so that the net result is an increased 
consumption of oxygen and an increased evolution 
of carbon dioxid and water by the animal. Under 
normal conditions, then, the energy expended in 
work is derived from the breaking down and oxi- 
dation of non-nitrogenous materials. If, however, 
the supply of these in the food is not sufficient to 
make good the amount oxidized, a part of the pro- 
teids of the food or the body may also serve as a 
source of muscular energy. In brief, then, all the 
ingredients of the food may serve as sources of 
power, but normally the latter is derived chiefly 
from the carbohydrates and fats. 

Certain secondary effects of muscular exertion 
must also be taken into account. In order to sup- 
ply the muscles with the necessary oxygen to act 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



87 



on the products of the breaking down of matter, 
and also to carry away the carbon dioxid resulting 
from the oxidation, the rapidity of the circulation 
of the blood must be increased, and in order to 
purify the blood in the lungs the respiration must 
also be quickened and deepened. All this involves 
work on the part of the muscles of the heart and 
respiratory organs, and this work, like the external 
work, is at the expense of material contained in 
those muscles, and has to be provided for in the 
food as well as the expenditure by the muscles 
directly concerned in the performance of the 
external work. 

Available energy. — The ultimate source of energy 
for muscular work is, of course, the food consumed 
by the animal, and chiefly, as has been seen, its 
carbohydrates and fats. It is important, however, 
to remember that the immediate source of muscu- 
lar energy is the breaking down of material in the 
tissues. A fasting animal can perform work for a 
certain length of time. The function of the food 
is to replace the loss of tissue caused by the mus- 
cular activity. For this purpose, only that part of 
the energy of the food is available which is left 
after the necessary expenditure for the digestion 
and assimilation of the food. In other words, it 



of oxygen taken up and carbon dioxid given off 
during work. From these results, it is easily pos- 
sible to determine the amounts of carbohydrates 
and fats metabolized in the body, and from these 
the amount of energy liberated. This latter amount 
is then compared with the actual amount of work 
done. 

(1) Locomotion. — In doing work, the horse has 
first of all to move his own body, and this requires 
a certain expenditure of energy. In addition to 
this he may draw a load, or carry it on his back, 
either on a level or uphill, thus doing useful work 
and requiring an additional expenditure of energy. 
For moving his own body a distance of one mile 
along a level surface, it has been found that a 
horse weighing 500 kilograms (1,100 pounds) oxi- 
dizes carbohydrates and fats equivalent to the 
following amounts of energy : 

Walking — 

Speed of 2.88 miles per hour ... 264 Cala. 

Speed of 3.33 miles per hour ... 298 Cals. 

Speed of 3.62 miles per hour . . . 319 Cals. 
Trotting 445 Cals. 

It appears that the exertion required to walk a 
given distance on level ground increases as the 



rvTit i f 



*c=s: 





Fig. 75. Sketch of the Zuntz tread-power dynamometer. (Adapted from Landw. Jahrb., Vol. xviii, Plate I.) 



would appear that the food is of value for the pro- 
duction of work in proportion to its net available 
energy, or maintenance value. On a preceding 
page there has been given a table showing the 
results secured by Zuntz and Hagemann, for the 
available energy of certain feeding-stuffs for the 
horse. Assuming these figures to be correct, they 
show, for example, that one pound of meadow hay 
will supply sufficient energy to the body of the 
horse to make good an expenditure by the muscles 
of 327 Cals. of energy for the performance of 
muscular work, while one pound of oats would 
make good a loss of 882 Cals. Unfortunately, 
however, the data on which this table is con- 
stucted involve a number of assumptions and the 
results are of somewhat questionable value. 

Utilization of available energy. — Very extensive 
and careful experiments have been made to deter- 
mine how much of the energy liberated in the 
body by the breaking down and oxidation of tissue 
during muscular work is actually recovered in the 
form of work. The general method of these experi- 
ments has been to determine the increased amount 



speed increases. When the gait is changed to a 
trot there is a marked increase in the energy 
expended in traveling the same distance, but the 
requirement remained unaffected by the speed up 
to a rate of about 7.5 miles per hour, beyond which 
no experiments were made. It may be safely 
assumed, however, that at high speeds the expendi- 
ture of energy is much greater. There is no way of 
directly measuring the actual amount of mechanical 
work performed in simple locomotion, so as to 
compare it with the amount of energy liberated in 
the body. The best available computations of it, 
however, indicate a percentage utilization of the 
energy in this form of work of about 35 per cent, 
or rather- greater than that observed in most forms 
of useful work ; but no very great accuracy can be 
claimed for the result. 

(2) Useful work. — The useful work of a horse 
or other prime motor is commonly measured in 
foot-pounds, one foot-pound being the energy 
required to lift one pound one foot vertically. One 
Calorie of heat energy is equivalent to 3,087 foot- 
pounds. If, now, we require a horse to do 3,087 foot- 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



pounds of useful work, we find that the amount of 
energy which he expends, in addition to that re- 
quired for moving his own body horizontally, will 
be about three Calories ; in other words, about 
one-third of the energy liberated is recovered in 
the work done. The proportion utilized varies, 
however, with different kinds of work, as the fol- 
lowing table shows : 

Percentage Utilization op Net Available Energy 
by the Horse 

Walking — Per cent 

Ascending 11 per cent grade 34.3 

Ascending 18 per cent grade 33.7 

Ascending 16 per cent grade with load on back . 36. 2 

Draft 0.5 per cent grade 31.3 

Draft 8.5 per cent grade 22.7 

Trotting — 

Ascending 11 per cent grade 31.96 

Draft 0.5 per cent grade 31.7 

It is seen that, in general, about one-third of the 
energy actually liberated in the body is recovered 
in the form of work, the remaining two- 
thirds taking the form of heat and causing 
the familiar increase in heat production dur- 
ing work. It will be observed, however, that 
the percentage of the energy recovered varies 
more or less, it being affected by the kind 
of work, by the speed of the animal, by the <5^i 
gait (whether trotting or walking), and 
other factors. The individuality of the ani- 
mal also plays a part, horses of one type 
showing a greater efficiency as riding horses 
and others a greater efficiency as draft 
horses. 

The foregoing results are often cited to 
show the high efficiency of the animal as a 
prime motor in comparison with artificial 
motors. Such a comparison, however, is to a 
certain degree misleading. It fails to take 
account of the fact that to perform work 
the animal must expend a considerable *u~?ixtt 
of energy in moving his own body, and that a 
further expenditure of energy is required for his 
maintenance even when doing no work. Moreover, 
it ignores the expenditure of energy required to 
digest the food and prepare it for use in the organ- 
ism. When all these factors are included, but little 
remains of the supposed superiority of the animal 
over the artificial motor. 

Energy requirements of the horse. — The foregoing 
data afford a basis for computing the expenditure 
of energy by the horse in the performance of a 
known amount and kind of work. 

For example^ suppose a horse weighing 1,100 
pounds is required to haul a load of one ton 20 
miles per day on a level road at the rate of 2.88 
miles per hour, the draft averaging 100 pounds. 
The useful work will then be : 

5,280X20X100=10,560,000 ft.-lbs.=3,421 Cals. 

According to the table just given, 31.3 per cent 
of the energy liberated in the body is utilized in 
draft. To perform 3,421 Cals. of work, therefore, 
will require the expenditure of 3,421-^0.313 



=10,929 Cals. of energy in the body. The ex- 
penditure of energy for locomotion, according to a 
previous table, will be 264X20=5,280 Cals. To 
these must be added the maintenance requirement 
of the animal as computed by Zuntz and Hagemann, 
viz., 4,356 Cals. The available energy required 
per day then will be : 

For useful work 10,929 Cals. 

For locomotion 5,280 Cals. 

For maintenance 4,356 Cals. 

Total 20,565 

The foregoing computation furnishes an illustra- 
tion of the statements previously made regarding 
the efficiency of the animal as a motor. In this 
instance, the performance of work equivalent to 
3,421 Calories requires an expenditure of 20,565 
Calories of net available energy. To supply this 
amount of net available energy to the animal in 
ordinary feeding-stuffs would require food having 
a fuel value of approximately 27,500 Calories. 




Fie. 



76. Sketch of dynamometer used by Wolff. (Adapted from 
Landw. Versuchs-Stationen, Vol. xsi.) 

Accordingly, the actual utilization of the fuel value 
of the food is, in this instance, 12.4 per cent, or 
less than that of a good steam engine. 

If we assume ten pounds of hay and ten pounds 
of oats as the basis of the ration of the horse in 
the foregoing example, the remainder of the food 
to be supplied in the form of corn, we make the 
following computation (based on the table of avail- 
able energy already referred to on page 66) : 

Net Available Energy 

Requirement 20,565 Cals. 

Basal ration— 

10 pounds meadow hay . 3,270 Cals. 
10 pounds oats .... 8,820 Cals. 

12,090 Cals. 

Lacking 8,475 Cals. 

Corn to complete the ration .... 
8,475-^1,263 = 6.72 pounds. 

So far as concerns the amount of energy actually 
expended by the working animal, the basis for such 
computations as the foregoing appears well estab- 
lished. Unfortunately, the same is not true of the 
data for the available energy of feeding-stuffs for 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



89 



the horse, as was noted in connection with the 
table. They do not represent the direct result of 
experimental work, but are computed from data, 
some of which appear of questionable validity. 

Pending more accurate determinations of the 
available energy of feeding-stuffs for the horse, 
Kellner has made the attempt to utilize for this pur- 
pose the production values of feeding-stuffs which 
he has worked out for cattle. The method is admit- 
tedly a temporary expedient, but he regards it as 
more satisfactory than the estimates of available 
energy on which the foregoing computation was 
based. He uses as the basis of his method the 
maintenance requirement as formulated by Wolff, 
namely, 7.27 pounds fiber-free nutrients per 500 
kilograms live weight. Assuming this to be equiva- 
lent to an equal weight of starch, it corresponds 
to a production value of 7,788 Cals. Further, on 
the basis of the average results of Zuntz and Hage- 
mann, Kellner assumes that one-third of the starch 
value of feeding-stuffs can be utilized for work, 
which is equivalent to a utilization of 53 per cent 
of the production value. The actual work done by 
the animal, then, divided by .53, with the mainte- 
nance requirement added, would give the ration 
required for any given amount of work. Compari- 
sons of this method of computation with the results 
of Wolff's extensive experiments show a very fair 
agreement. Applying Kellner's method to the ex- 
ample previously given, we should have the follow- 
ing results, expressed in terms of production values: 

For useful work . . . 3,421-M).53 = 6,454 Cals. 

For locomotion 3,118 Cals. 

For maintenance 7,788 Cals. 

Total 17,360 Cals. 



of the carbohydrates and fats of the food. Provided, 
therefore, that the ration of the working animal 
contains ample proteids to maintain the proteid 
tissues of the body when at rest, no more need be 
added because of the work performed. All that is 
necessary is that the ration shall contain a suffici- 
ently large proportion of protein to insure its full 
digestibility. It is probable that a nutritive ratio 
of one to eight or perhaps even wider is ample for 
all purposes of work production. 

Standards. — By either Zuntz's or Kellner's method 
it is possible to compute a ration corresponding 
accurately to any given requirement. The practical 
difficulty is that, as horses are ordinarily used, 
these requirements are variable and not readily 
capable of exact measurement. When the work of 
a horse is fairly uniform from day to day, and par- 
ticularly if a considerable number are kept, such 
computations as those indicated may prove of value. 
In most cases, however, the amount of food must 
be proportioned to the work done in accordance 
with the skilled observation and judgment of the 
feeder. As a general guide, Kellner recommends 
the following amounts per 1,000 pounds live 
weight: 



Proteids 
For light work ... 1.0 lbs. 
For medium work . . 1.4 lbs. 
For heavy work . . 2.0 lbs. 



Production value 
9,800 Cals. 
12,400 Cals. 
16,000 Cals. 



In an investigation of the practice of horse- 
feeding in the United States, Langworthy obtained 
the following average results for the digestible 
nutrients consumed per 1,000 pounds live weight. 
The results on heavy work are based on only a 
few observations on heavy draft horses. 



Light work . 
Moderate work 
Heavy work . 



Pounds 

0.99 
1.49 
1.12 



Pounds 
1.24 
1.63 

1.35 



Nitrogen-free 
extract 



Pounds 

5.06 
8.09 
6.94 



Pounds 

0.32 
0.42 
0.49 



Fiber-free 
nutrients 
(fat x 2.4) 



Pounds 

6.82 

10.59 

9.24 



Assuming as before the basis of the ration to be 
ten pounds of hay and ten pounds of oats, and using 
Kellner's production values (page 67), we have : 

Production Values 

Requirement 17,360 Cals. 

Basal ration — 

10 pounds hay . . . 3,356 Cals. 

10 pounds oats . . . 6,628 Cals. 

9,984 Cals. 



Lacking 7,376 Cals. 

Corn to complete ration 

7,376^-888 = 8.30 pounds. 

As will be seen by this example, Kellner's method 
of computation tends to give somewhat higher 
results than the one previously employed. 

Proteid requirements. — It has already been pointed 
out that muscular work is performed at the expense 



Assuming the fiber-free nutrients to be equiva- 
lent to starch, the above figures correspond to the 
following production values : 

Light work 7,302 Cals. 

Moderate work 11,330 Cals. 

Heavy work 9,893 Cals. 

These figures are considerably lower than those 
recommended by Kellner and suggest the need for 
further investigation, although it is to be noted 
that Langworthy's figures are based on digestive 
coefficients obtained with the horse, while Kellner 
uses those obtained in experiments on cattle. 

The somewhat limited capacity of the digestive 
organs of the horse makes it evident that if a large 
amount of energy is to be supplied it must be con- 
tained, to a considerable degree, in concentrated 
feeding-stuffs, since otherwise it would be impos- 
sible for the animal to consume a sufficient weight 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 




Fig. 78. 
A lever cutter. 



Fig. 79. Fig. 80. 

Hand or power feed-cutter. Self-sharpening feed-cutter. 



Fig. 77. Lever hay- and straw- 
cutter. 




Fig. 90. Two forms of root-cutters. 



Pig. 91. One-hole com-shellers. The larger one has a capacity of sixty 
to eighty bushels per hour; weight, 290 pounds. 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-FEEDING 



91 




Fig. 101. Grinding mill. 



Fig. 102. Sacking feed ele- 
vator with deliveries for 
two sacks. Fig. 103. Grain bagger and weigher. 



92 



FEEDING AND COMPUTATION TABLES 



of food to be equivalent to the work requirement. 
As the severity of the work increases, the ration 
should consist, to a larger and larger extent, of 
grain, with only sufficient coarse fodder to furnish 
the necessary bulk. Probably the majority of farm 
horses are fed an excessive amount of hay. This 
excess not only fails to produce the desired nutri- 
tive effect but overloads the digestive organs and 
tends to interfere with the breathing. 

It should be noted that all the foregoing con- 
siderations relate to work horses. While some of 
them, notably the avoidance of an excess of coarse 
fodder, apply equally to the race horse or fast 
roadster, the feeding of such animals is an art by 
itself. In many cases the total amount of work 
which they perform is less than that of the ordi- 
nary work horse, but they are required always to 
be in condition for strenuous exertion for a short 
time. No scientific data are available as to the ex- 
penditure of energy or the food requirements at 
high speed. 

Literature 

Armsby, Manual of Cattle Feeding, New York, 
John Wiley & Sons (1880); Stewart, Feeding Ani- 
mals, third edition, Lake View, N. Y., The Author 
(1886); Henry, Feeds and Feeding, second edition, 
Madison, Wis., The Author (1900); Jordan, The 
Feeding of Animals, New York, The Macmillan 
Company (1901); Ware, Cattle Feeding with Sugar 
Beets, Sugar, Molasses and Sugar Beet Residuum, 
Philadelphia, The Philadelphia Book Company 
(1902); Warrington, The Chemistry of the Farm, 



15th edition, London, Vinton & Co. (1902); Armsby, 
Principles of Animal Nutrition, New York, John 
Wiley & Sons (1903); Shaw, The Feeding and Man- 
agement of Live Stock, St. Anthony Park, Minn. 
(1902); Anderson, Influences Affecting Milk Pro- 
duction, Ithaca, N. Y. (1902); Snyder, The Chem- 
istry of Plant and Animal Life, Easton, Pa., The 
Chemical Publishing Company (1903); Smith, Prof- 
itable Stock Feeding, Lincoln, Nebraska, The 
Author (1906); Shaw, Feeding Farm Animals, New 
York, Orange Judd Co. (1907). 



FEEDING AND COMPUTATION 
TABLES 

Much effort has been expended in compiling 
tables for the computation of rations for farm ani- 
mals. For extensive tables the reader is referred 
to Voorhees, Forage Crops ; Jordan, The Feeding 
of Farm Animals ; Roberts, The Fertility of the 
Land, The Horse, and The Farmer's Business Hand- 
book (3 books); Woll, Handbook for Farmers and 
Dairymen ; Wilcox & Smith, Farmer's Cyclopedia 
of Agriculture; Smith, Profitable Stock-Feeding; 
Brooks, Agriculture, Vol. IV, Animal Husbandry ; 
Allen, The Feeding of Farm Animals, Farmer's 
Bulletin No. 22, United States Department of Agri- 
culture ; Bulletin No. 81, Vermont Agricultural 
Experiment Station. The three tables that follow 
here are adapted from Henry's " Feeds and Feed- 
ing," by the courtesy of Prof. Henry (now cor- 
rected from 10th edition of Henry). 



Table I. Average Composition op American Feeding-stuffs. 



Feeding-stuffs 



Concentrates 

Corn, dent 

Corn, flint 

Corn, sweet 

Corn meal 

Corn cob 

Corn-and-cob meal .... 

Corn bran 

Corn germ 

Hominy chops 

Germ meal 

Dried starch and sugar feed 

Starch feed, wet 

Maize feed (Chicago) . . . 

Grano-gluten 

Cream gluten 

Gluten meal 

Gluten feed 

Wheat, all analyses .... 

Wheat, spring 

Wheat, winter 

Flour, high grade 

Flour, low grade 

Flour, dark feeding .... 
Bran, all analyses .... 



Percentage composition 


Water 


Ash 


Protein 


Crude 
fiber 


Nitrogen- 
free extract 


Ether 
extract 


10.6 


1.5 


10.3 


2.2 


70.4 


5.0 


11.3 


1.4 


10.5 


1.7 


70.1 


5.0 


8.8 


1.9 


11.6 


2.8 


66.8 


8.1 


15.0 


1.4 


9.2 


1.9 


68.7 


3.8 


10.7 


1.4 


2.4 


30.1 


54.9 


0.5 


15.1 


1.5 


8.5 


6.6 


64.8 


3.5 


9.4 


1.2 


11.2 


11.9 


60.1 


6.2 


10.7 


4.0 


9.8 


4.1 


64.0 


7.4 


9.6 


2.7 


10.5 


4.9 


64.3 


8.0 


8.6 


2.4 


21.7 


3.8 


47.3 


11.2 


10.9 


0.9 


19.7 


4.7 


54.8 


9.0 


65.4 


0.3 


6.1 


3.1 


22.0 


3.1 


9.1 


0.9 


22.8 


7.6 


52.7 


6.9 


5.8 


2.8 


31.1 


12.0 


33.4 


14.9 


8.1 


0.7 


36.1 


1.3 


39.0 


11.8 


9.5 


1.5 


33.8 


2.0 


46.6 


6.6 


9.2 


2.0 


25.0 


6.8 


53.5 


3.5 


10.5 


1.8 


11.9 


1.8 


71.9 


2.1 


10.4 


1.9 


12.5 


1.8 


71.2 


2.2 


10.5 


1.8 


11.8 


1.8 


72.0 


2.1 


12.2 


0.6 


14.9 


0.3 


70.0 


2.0 


12.0 


2.0 


18.0 


0.9 


63.3 


3.9 


9.7 


4.3 


19.9 


3.8 


56.2 


6.2 


11.9 


5.8 


15.4 


9.0 


53.9 


4.0 



86 

68 

26 

77 

18 

7 

6 

3 

106 

23 

4 

12 

3 

1 

3 

12 

102 

310 
13 

262 
1 
1 

1 



FEEDING AND COMPUTATION TABLES 



93 



Table I. Average 


Composition op American Feeding-stuffs, 


continued 








Percentage composition 


© 


Feeding- stuffs 


Water 


Ash 


Protein 


Crude 
fiber 


Nitrogen- 
free extract 


Ether 
extract 


O >, 


Concentrates, continued 


11.0 
11.5 
10.0 
11.2 
11.6 

8.7 
13.1 
11.6 
12.4 

10.8 
11.9 
12.2 
75.7 
8.7 
9.5 

10.4 
7.9 
7.0 
6.5 
7.4 

12.4 

10.2 

8.8 

9.7 

10.8 

13.4 

14.6 
13.2 
8.2 
11.1 
12.8 

12.8 
12.8 

9.9 
12.1 

9.5 

9.2 
8.1 
9.8 
9.0 

10.3 
6.1 
7.0 

11.1 
6.2 

10.3 

10.4 
8.6 

10.8 
7.5 

10.7 

10.0 

10.5 

11.7 
14.6 
11.3 


6.2 
6.4 
3.2 
4.4 
2.9 

2.1 
0.7 
3.4 
3.2 

2.5 
2.6 
3.6 
1.0 
3.7 
6.1 

3.2 
2.0 
5.3 
6.9 
6.7 

0.4 

8.1 

15.6 

9.7 

4.8 

2.0 
1.0 
2.2 
4.9 
5.1 
5.0 

2.1 
2.8 
1.6 
2.8 
5.0 

4.3 
4.7 
5.5 
5.5 
3.5 
5.5 
6.6 
2.8 
4.7 
5.9 
4.3 
2.6 
6.7 
2.4 
4.9 
7.9 

2.6 
4.8 
3.2 
3.8 


15.7 
15.7 
19.2 
16.9 
12.5 

11.3 

6.7 

14.6 

15.7 

12.0 
10.5 
12.3 
5.4 
25.0 
26.3 

11.4 
14.7 

8.0 
13.5 

3.4 

7.4 
12.0 

3.2 
11.9 
11.9 

10.8 
6.9 
4.6 
12.6 
27.1 
26.7 

9.1 

9.9 

11.2 

10.9 

9.9 

22.6 
21.6 
33.9 
37.5 
18.4 
16.8 
45.3 
4.2 
31.2 
19.7 
16.8 
16.3 
-32.8 
27.9 
47.6 
31.2 

20.2 
33.5 
20.5 
26.6 


9.8 
8.7 
3.2 
6.2 
4.9 

1.5 
0.4 
3.5 
4.1 

4.2 
6.5 
7.3 
3.8 
13.6 
11.6 

10.8 
0.9 
21.5 
18.2 
30.7 

0.2 

5.4 

36.2 

12.0 

3.3 

11.7 

0.3 

43.5 

32.9 

8.3 

4.4 

2.6 

7.0 
2.7 
8.1 
7.7 

7.1 

7.3 

7.3 

8.9 

23.2 

20.4 

6.3 

46.3 

3.7 

14.4 

24.0 

29.9 

13.5 

7.0 

5.1 

11.3 

14.4 
4.5 
3.9 
7.2 


52.4 
53.4 
59.6 
56.2 
65.1 

74.5 
78.3 
63.9 
61.5 

68.7 
66.3 
61.8 
12.5 
42.3 
44.9 

59.4 
67.4 
55.3 
50.2 
50.5 

79.2 
51.2 
35.2 
46.6 
62.3 

59.7 
75.8 
35.3 
37.9 
40.8 
44.3 

69.8 
64.3 
71.5 
62.6 
63.2 

23.2 
27.9 
35.7 
36.4 
24.7 
23.5 
24.6 
33.4 
17.6 
38.7 
35.0 
21.4 
27.1 
15.6 
23.7 
30,0 

51.1 
28.3 
56.3 
50.1 


4.9 
4.3 
4.8 
5.1 
3.0 

1.9 
0.8 
2.8 
3.1 

1.8 
2.2 
2.8 
1.6 
6.7 
1.6 

4.8 
7.1 
2.9 
4.8 
1.3 

0.4 
13.1 

1.0 
10.1 

7.2 

2.4 
1.4 
1.1 
3.5 
7.6 
6.8 

3.6 
3.2 
3.1 
3.5 

4.7 

33.7 
30.4 

7.8 

2.0 
19.9 
27.7 
10.2 

2.2 
36.6 
11.0 

9.5 
21.2 

9.1 
39.6 

8.0 

9.6 

1.2 

17.2 

1.5 

1.0 

l 


52 




27 




106 
94 




10 


Eye 


57 




4 




29 




21 

22 




3 




2 




15 
53 

47 


Oats 


126 




6 




110 




2 


Oat hulls 


11 




10 




2 

17 
24 




21 




33 




4 




2 




4 




2 




40 
10 




4 




19 




6 




1 
50 




2 




191 

52 
5 




2 
319 




20 


Cottonseed kernels (without hulls) . . . 


2 




600 




2 








7 
2,480 




500 




2 




16 

2 




1 







94 



FEEDING AND COMPUTATION TABLES 
Table I. Average Composition op American Feeding-stuffs, continued 



Feeding-stuffs 



Roughage 
Corn forage, field-cured — 

Fodder corn 

Corn stover, ears removed 

Corn husks 

Corn leaves 



Corn forage, green — ■ 
Fodder corn, all varieties 

Dent varieties 

Dent, kernels glazed . . . 
Flint varieties .... 
Flint, kernels glazed . . 
Sweet varieties . . . . , 
Leaves and husks . . . 
Stripped stalks 



Hay from grasses — 

Hay from mixed grasses 

Timothy, all analyses 

Timothy, cut in full bloom 

Timothy, cut soon after bloom .... 
Timothy, cut when nearly ripe .... 

Orchard-grass '. . . . 

Red-top, cut at different stages . . . 

Red-top, cut in bloom 

Kentucky blue-grass 

Kentucky blue-grass, cut when seed is 

in milk 

Kentucky blue-grass, cut when seed is ripe 

Hungarian grass 

Meadow fescue 

Italian rye'grass 

Perennial rye-grass 

Rowen (mixed) 

Mixed grasses and clovers 

Barley hay, cut in milk 

Oat hay, cut in milk 

Swamp hay 

Salt-marsh hay 

Wild-oat grass 

Buttercups 

White daisy 

Johnson-grass 



Fresh grass — 

Pasture grass , 

Kentucky blue-grass , 

Timothy, different stages 

Orchard-grass, in bloom , 

Red-top, in bloom , 

Oat fodder , 

Rye fodder , 

Sorghum fodder , 

Barley fodder , 

Hungarian grass , 

Meadow fescue, in bloom 

Italian rye-grass, coming into bloom 

Tall oat-grass, in bloom 

Japanese millet 

Barnyard millet 

Hay from legumes — 

Red clover , 

Red clover in bloom , 



Percentage composition 



42.2 
40.5 
50.9 
30.0 



79.3 
79.0 
73.4 
79.8 
77.1 
79.1 
66.2 
76.1 



15.3 

13.2 

15.0 

14.2 

14.1 

9.9 

8.9 

8.7 

21.2 

24.4 
27.8 

7.7 
20.0 

8.5 
14.0 
16.6 
12.9 
15.0 
14.0 
11.6 
10.4 
14.3 

9.3 
10.3 
10.2 



80.0 
65 1 
61.6 
73.0 
65.3 
62.2 
76.6 
79.4 
79.0 
71.1 
69.9 
73.2 
69.5 
75.0 
75.0 



15.3 
20.8 



2.7 
3.4 
1.8 
5.5 



1.2 
1.2 
1.5 

1.1 
1.1 
1.3 
2.9 
0.7 



5.5 
4.4 
4.5 
4.4 
3.9 
6.0 
5.2 
4.9 
6.3 

7.0 
6.4 
6.0 
6.8 
6.9 
7.9 
6.8 
5.5 
4.2 
5.7 
6.7 
7.7 
3.8 
5.6 
6.6 
6.1 



2.0 
2.8 
2.1 
2.0 
2.3 
2.5 
1.8 
1.1 
1.8 
1.7 
1.8 
2.5 
2.0 
1.5 
1.9 



6.2 



4.5 
3.8 
2.5 
6.0 



1.8 
1.7 
2.0 
2.0 
2.7 
1.9 
2.1 
0.5 



7.4 
5.9 
6.0 

5.7 
5.0 
8.1 
7.9 
8.0 
7.8 

6.3 
5.8 
7.5 
7.0 
7.5 
10.1 
116 
10.1 
8.8 
8.9 
7.2 
5.5 
5.0 
9.9 
7.7 
7.2 



3.5 
4.1 
3.1 
2.6 
2.8 
3.4 
2.6 
1.3 
2.7 
3.1 
2.4 
3.1 
2.4 
2.1 
2.4 



12.3 
12.4 



Crude Nitrogen 
fiber free extract 



14.3 
19.7 
15.8 

21.4 



5.0 
5.6 
6.7 
4.3 
4.3 
4.4 
8.7 
7.3 



27.2 
29.0 
29.6 
28.1 
31.1 
32.4 
28.6 
29.9 
23.0 

24.5 

23.8 
27.7 
25.9 
30.5 
25.4 
22.5 
27.6 
24.7 
27.4 
26.6 
30.0 
25.0 
30.6 
30.0 
28.5 



4.0 

9.1 

11.8 

8.2 

11.0 

11.2 

11.6 

6.1 

7.9 

9.2 

10.8 

6.8 

9.4 

7.8 

7.0 



24.8 
21.9 



34.7 
31.5 
28.3 
35.7 



12.2 
12.0 
15.5 
12.1 
14.6 
12.8 
19.0 
14.9 



42.1 
45.0 
41.9 
44.6 
43.7 
41.0 
47.5 
46.4 
37.8 

34.2 
33.2 
49.0 
38.4 
45.0 
40.5 
39.4 
41.3 
44.9 
41.2 
45.9 
44.1 
48.8 
41.1 
42.0 
45.9 



9.7 
17.6 
20.2 
13.3 
17.7 
19.3 

6.8 
11.6 

8.0 
14.2 
14.3 
13.3 
15.8 
13.1 
13.1 



38.1 
33.8 



Ether 
extract 



1.6 
1.1 
0.7 
1.4 



0.5 
0.5 
0.9 
0.7 
0.8 
0.5 
1.1 
0.5 



2.5 
2.5 
3.0 
3.0 
2.2 
2.6 
1.9 
2.1 
3.9 

3.6 
3.0 
2.1 
2.7 
1.7 
2.1 
3.1 
2.6 
2.4 
2.8 
2.0 
2.4 
3.3 
3.5 
3.4 
2.1 



0.8 
1.3 
1.2 
0.9 
0.9 
1.4 
0.6 
0.5 
0.6 
0.7 
0.8 
1.3 
0.9 
0.5 
0.6 



3.3 
4.5 



FEEDING AND COMPUTATION TABLES 
Table I. Average Composition op American Feeding-stuffs, continued 



95 



Feeding-stuffs 



Roughage, continued 
Hay from legumes, continued — 

Red clover, mammoth 

Alsike clover 

White clover 

Crimson clover 

Japan clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Soybean 

Pea vine 

Vetch 

Serradella 

Flat pea 

Peanut vines (without nuts) . . . 
Sainfoin 

Fresh legumes — 

Red clover, different stages . . . 

Alsike clover 

Crimson clover 

Alfalfa 

• Cowpea 

Soybean 

Serradella 

Horse bean 

Flat pea 

Straw — 

Wheat 

Rye 

Oat 

Barley 

Wheat chaff 

Oat chaff 

Buckwheat-straw 

Soybean 

Horse bean 

Silage — 

Corn, immature 

Sorghum 

Red clover 

Soybean 

Apple pomace 

Cowpea vine 

Cowpea and soybean vines, mixed . 

Field-pea vine 

Barnyard millet and soybean . . . 
Corn and soybean ....'... 
Rye 

Boots and tubers — 

Potato 

Beets, common 

Beets, sugar- 

Beet, mangel 

Turnip 

Rutabaga 

Carrot 

Parsnip 

Artichoke 

Sweet-potato 



Percentage composition 



21.2 

9.7 

9.7 

9.6 

11.0 

S.4 

10.5 

11.8 

15.0 

11.3 

9.2 

8.4 

7.6 

15.0 



9.6 

7.1 

9.2 

14.2 

14.3 

14.3 

9.9 

10.1 

9.2 



79.1 
76.1 
72.0 
74.2 
85.0 
79.3 
69.8 
50.1 
79.0 
76.0 



79.1 
88.5 
86.5 
90.9 
90.1 
88.6 
88.6 
88.3 
79.5 
68.3 



6.1 
8.3 
8.3 
8.6 
8.5 
7.4 

14.2 
7.0 
6.7 
7.9 
7.2 
7.9 

10.S 
7.3 



2.1 
2.0 
1.7 
2.7 
1.7 
2.6 
3.2 
1.2 
2.9 



4.2 
3.2 
5.1 
5.7 
9.2 
10.0 
5.5 
5.8 
8.7 



1.4 
1.1 
2.6 
2.8 
0.6 
2.9 
4.5 
3.5 
2.8 
2.4 
1.6 



0.9 
1.0 
0.9 
1.1 
0.9 
1.2 
1.0 
0.7 
1.0 
1.1 



10.7 
12.S 
15.7 
15.2 
13.8 
14.3 
8.9 
14.9 
13.7 
17.0 
15.2 
22.9 
10.7 
14.S 



4.4 
3.9 
3.1 

4.8 
2.4 
4.0 
2.7 

2.8 
8.7 



3.4 
3.0 
4.0 
3.5 
4.5 
4.0 
5.2 
4.6 



1.7 
0.8 
4.2 
4.1 
1.2 
2.7 
3.8 
5.9 
2.8 
2.5 
2.4 



2.1 
-1.5 
1.8 
1.4 
1.3 
1.2 
1.1 
1.6 
2.6 
1.9 



Crude Nitrogen- 
fiber free extract 



24.5 
25:6 
24.1 
27.2 
24.0 
25.0 
21.2 
24.2 
24.7 
25.4 
21.6 
26.2 
23.6 
20.4 



8.1 
7.4 
5.2 
7.4 
4.8 
6.7 
5.4 
4.9 
7.9 



38.1 
38.9 
37.0 
36.0 
36.0 
34.0 
43.0 
40.4 
37.6 



6.0 

6.4 
8.4 
9.7 
3.3 
6.0 
9.5 
13.0 
7.2 
7.2 
5.8 



0.4 
0.9 
0.9 
0.9 
1.2 
1.3 
1.3 
1.0. 
0.8 
1.1 



Ether 
extract 



33.6 
40.7 
39.3 
36. 6 
39.0 
42.7 
42.6 
37.8 
37.6 
36.1 
44.2 
31.4 
42.7 
39.5 



13.5 
11.0 

8.4 
12.3 

7.1 
10.6 

8.6 

6.5 
12.2 



43.4 
46.6 
42.4 
39.0 
34.6 
36.2 
35.1 
37.4 
34.3 



11.0 

15.3 

11.6 

6.9 

8.8 

7.6 

11.1 

26.0 

7.2 

11.1 

9.2 



17.4 

8.0 

9.8 

5.5 

6.3 

7.5 

7.6 

10.2 

15.9 

26.8 



3.9 
2.9 
2.9 
2.8 
3.7 
2.2 
2.6 
4.3 
2.3 
2.3 
2.6 
3.2 
4.6 
3.0 



1.1 
0.9 
0.7 
1.0 
0.4 
1.0 
0.7 
0.4 
1.6 



1.3 
1.2 
2.3 
1.5 
1.4 
1.5 
1.3 
1.7 
1.4 



0.8 
0.3 
1.2 
2.2 
1.1 
1.5 
1.3 
1.6 
1.0 
0.8 
0.3 



0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 
0.4 
0.2 
0.2 
0.7 



10 

9 

7 

7 

2 

21 

17 

12 

1 

5 

3 



43 

4 

3 

23 

10 

27 

9 

2 

2 



7 

7 

12 

97 



99 
6 
5 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
9 
4 
1 



41 



19 
9 



2 
48 



96 



FEEDING AND COMPUTATION TABLES 
Table I. Average Composition of American Feeding-stuffs, continued 





Percentage Composition 


s 


Feeding-stuffs 


Water 


Ash 


Protein 


Crude 
fiber 


Nitrogen- 
free extract 


Ether 
extract 


Is 


Miscellaneous 


90.0 

75.7 
88.0 
90.9 
80.8 
88.4 
84.5 
55.3 
80.8 

87.2 
74.6 
91.0 
81.3 
86.9 
80.8 
90.4 
90.6 
90.1 
93.8 

8.5 
10.7 
10.8 
89.8 
20.8 
83.0 
83.9 
93.7 

5.0 


0.8 
4.0 
2.4 
0.5 
0.9 
2.2 
2.0 
1.0 
0.4 

0.7 
1.6 
0.4 
0.8 
0.9 
1.1 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.4 

4.7 
4.1 

29.2 
0.6 

10.6 
0.6 
0.6 
0.2 

11.3 


2.6 
2.0 
2.6 
1.3 
1.8 
2.4 
2.3 
2.5 
0.7 

3.6 
17.6 
2.1 
6.3 
3.7 
6.2 
3.3 
3.1 
4.0 
0.6 

84.4 

71.2 

48.4 

0.9 

9.1 

1.0 

0.6 

1.9 

27.4 


0.9 
4.9 
2.2 
1.7 
1.8 
1.6 
2.6 
4.4 
1.2 


5.5 

12.7 

4.4 

5.2 

7.9 

5.1 

8.4 

34.8 

16.6 

4.9 
2.7 
5.3 
4.7 
4.4 
4.8 
4.7 
5.3 
4.0 
5.1 

' 6.3 

*6.3 

59.5 
11.6 
11.7* 
2.8 
36.1 


0.2 
0.8 
0.4 
0.4 
0.8 
0.3 
0.5 
1.9 
0.4 

3.7 
3.6 
1.2 
6.8 
4.1 
7.1 
0.9 
0.3 
1.1 
0.1 

2.5 
13.7 
11.6 

' 6.9 

' 6.9 
12.3 


i 
i 








'41 




2 








3 




793 








42 








7 
96 
97 
85 




46 




3 




144 




6 




2.4 

' 2.9 
3.2 
0.6 


16 




35 




6 




2 




1 


Dried sediment from distillery slops . . 


8.0 


1 



Table II. Average Digestibility of American Feeding-stuffs, with Additions from the German Tables 

A. Experiments with Ruminants 



Feeding-stuffs 



Concentrates 

Dent corn 

Corn meal 

Corn cob 

Corn-and-cob meal 

Gluten meal 

Gluten meal (Chicago) 

Gluten meal (King's) 

Gluten feed 

Gluten feed (Buffalo) 

Gluten feed (Pope's) 

Gluten feed (Peoria) 

Gluten feed (Atlas) 

Maize feed (Chicago) 

Cream gluten (Pope's) 

Wheat bran 

Wheat bran, spring 

Wheat bran, winter 

Wheat middlings 

Rye meal 

Barley 

Malt-sprouts 



No 
of trials 



12 
21 
2 
3 
8 
2 
2 
15 
4 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

11 

7 
3 
4 
2 
4 
4 



Dry 
matter 



Per cent 

91 
88 
59 
79 
87 
88 
81 
87 
83 
87 
86 
80 
84 
93 

66 
67 
62 
82 
87 
86 
78 



76 
66 
17 
52 



91 
85 
86 
86 
83 
73 
84 
84 

77 
76 
77 
88 
84 
70 
77 



Crude 
fiber 



Per cent 

58 



65 
45 



76 
66 

77 
78 

'72 



41 
44 
27 
36 

'50 
83 



Nitrogen- Ether 
free extract extract 



93 
92 
60 



93 
79 
89 
84 
90 
90 
84 
85 



71 

74 
65 
88 
92 
92 
81 



Per 
cent 
86 
91 
50 
84 
93 
93 
94 
82 
87 
81 
79 
91 
90 
98 

63 
63 
64 
86 
64 
89 
90 



FEEDING AND COMPUTATION TABLES 



97 



Table II. Average Digestibility op American Feeding-stuffs, continued 



Feeding-stuffs 



No. 
of trials 



Dry 
matter 



Crude 
fiber 



Nitrogen Ether 
free extract extract 



Concentrates, continued 

Brewers' grains, wet 

Brewers' grains, dried 

Oats 

Rice meal 

Flax seed 

Linseed meal, old process 

Linseed meal, new process 

Cotton seed 

Cotton seed, roasted 

Cottonseed meal 

Cottonseed hulls 

Cottonseed hulls, when fed with cottonseed meal 

Cottonseed feed (hulls and meal) 

Cottonseed feed (hulls and meal) 

Pea meal 

Soybean meal 

Peanut feed 

Roughage 
Fodder corn, field-cured — 

Dent and flint varieties, average 

Dent, mature 

Dent, in milk 

Dent, immature, B. & W. (coarse) 

Dent, immature, no ears formed 

Flint, mature 

Flint, ears just forming 

Sweet, mature 

Corn stover, field-cured — 

Corn stover, all varieties 

Corn stover 

Corn stover, shredded, fed dry 

Corn stover, shredded, fed wet 

Corn stover, tops and blades 

Corn stover, leaves 

Corn stover, stalk below ear 

Corn stover, stalk above ear 

Corn stover, husks 

Corn stover, leaves below ear 

Corn forage, green — 
Dent fodder corn, average, glazing and mature 

Dent fodder corn, mature 

Dent fodder corn, glazing 

Dent fodder corn, in milk 

Dent fodder corn, immature 

Dent fodder corn, glazing, B. & W. (coarse) . 
Sweet fodder corn, roasting-ear stage .... 
Sweet fodder corn, in milk 

Hay from grasses — 

Meadow hay, rich in protein 

Meadow hay, medium in protein 

Meadow hay, poor in protein 

Timothy, all trials . 

Timothy, cut in bloom 

Timothy, cut soon after bloom 

Orchard-grass 

Red-top 

Hungarian-grass 

Mixed, rich in protein 

Mixed, medium in protein 

Rowen, average 



12 
6 
6 
2 

7 

3 
12 

2 

2 
14 
13 
11 

3 
11 

2 
10 

2 



23 

38 

11 

4 

8 

11 

3 

6 



13 

38 

9 

11 

15 

2 

6 

2 



48 

94 

28 

64 

8 

17 

3 

3 

2 

60 
2 
16 



63 
62 
70 

74 

77 
79 
82 
66 
56 
77 
41 
45 
46 
55 
87 
79 
32 



68 
65 
63 
57 
65 
70 
70 
67 



60 
62 
57 
60 
60 
61 
67 
55 
72 
65 



65 
67 
63 

62 
52 
72 
77 



67 
61 
56 
55 
59 
52 
56 
60 
65 
60 



73 
80 
77 
62 

91 
89 
84 
68 
47 
83 
6 

45' 

62 

83 

87 

71 



55 
45 
50 
27 
62 
64 
70 
64 



45 
52 
40 
36 
55 
46 
21 
22 
30 
35 



53 
45 
54 
50 
50 
24 
62 
77 



66 
57 
50 
48 
57 
43 
60 
61 
60 
57 
40 
69 



Per cent 
40 
50 
31 



60 
57 
74 
76 
66 
35 
47 
46 
37 
46 
26 



12 



65 
64 
64 
59 
71 
76 
72 
74 



67 
67 
65 
70 
71 
70 
74 
71 
80 
78 



52 
64 
51 
64 
67 
46 
60 
75 



63 
60 
56 
50 
57 
46 
61 
61 
68 
60 
49 
66 



62 
60 
77 
92 

55 
78 
80 
50 
51 
78 
34 
51 
50 
54 
94 
73 
49 



Per 

cent 

86 
90 
89 
91 

86 
89 
89 
87 
72 
94 
79 
76 
82 
85 
55 
85 
90 



73 


74 


71 


65 


66 


75 


61 


76 


64 


66 


71 


71 


71 


67 


68 


74 


61 


62 


64 


52 


56 


72 


59 


74 


62 


71 


64 


60 


69 


80 


54 


64 


75 


33 


68 


56 


74 


76 


71 


65 


75 


78 


66 


75 


62 


65 


59 


78 


77 


79 


81 


74 


68 


57 


64 


53 


59 


49 


62 


50 


63 


48 


59 


51 


55 


55 


62 


51 


67 


64 


61 


50 


58 


50 


64 


47 



C7 



98 



FEEDING AND COMPUTATION TABLES 
Table n. Average Digestibility of American Feeding-stuffs, continued 



Feeding- stuffs 



No. 

of trials 



Dry 

matter 



Protein 



Crude 
fiber 



Nitrogen- Ether 
free extract extract 



Roughage, continued 
Hay from grasses, continued — 

Pasture grass 

Barley hay 

Oats and vetch 

Timothy and clover, poorly cured 

Blue- joint grass (Calamagrostis Canadensis) in 

bloom 

Blue-joint grass, past bloom 

Wild-oat grass (Dantkonica spicata) 

Cat-tail millet (Pennisetum spicatum) .... 

Johnson-grass 

Witch (quack) grass (Agropyros repens) . . . 

Sorghum fodder (leaves) 

Sorghum bagasse (stalks after juice is removed) 

Swamp hay 

Salt hay or black grass (Juncus Gerardi) . . . 
Low meadow fox grass (Spartina juncea) . . . 
High-grown salt hay (largely Spartina juncea) . 
Branch grass (Spartina juncea with Spartina 

stricta, var. glabra) 

Buttercups (Ranunculus acris) 

White weed (Ox-eye daisy) (Leucanthemum vulgare) 

Straw and chaff — 

Wheat-straw 

Rye-straw 

Oat-straw 

Barley-straw 

Soybean-straw 

Oat chaff 

Wheat chaff 



Grasses, green — 

Pasture grasses, mixed 

Timothy 

Orchard-grass, in bloom 

Oat fodder, in bloom to early seed 

Rye, formation of heads 

Sorghum, average 

Barley, in bloom 

Hungarian-grass, early to late bloom 

Barley-and-peas, full bloom 

Oats-and-peas 

Rowen grass, mostly timothy, two-thirds grown 

Hay from legumes — ■ 

Red clover, in bloom 

Red clover, late bloom, fair quality 

Red clover, good quality 

Alsike 

White 

Crimson 

Alfalfa 

Alfalfa, late bloom 

Alfalfa, stage not given 

Cowpea-vine, fair quality 

Soybean 

Vetch 

Serradella, in bloom 

Peanut vines 

Sainfoin 



10 



Legumes, green — 

Red clover 

Rowen, late bloom . . . 
Crimson clover, late bloom 



11 
7 
4 
2 
3 



46 
2 
2 
9 
1 
9 

28 
2 
1 
2 
2 
6 
2 
2 
2 



73 
59 
58 
55 

69 
40 
64 
62 
57 
61 
63 
61 
39 
60 
53 
53 

56 
56 
58 



42 
46 
48 
52 
55 
42 
36 



71 
64 
56 

'74' 
64 

'66' 

65' 
66 



61 
55 
52 
59 
66 
62 
60 



59 
62 
65 
62 
60 
62 



66 
61 



73 
65 
65 
38 

70 
57 
58 
63 
40 
58 
61 
14 
34 
63 
57 
63 

62 
56 
58 



23 
23 
33 
25 
50 
38 
26 



70 
48 
59 
73 
79 
45 
71 
63 
75 
75 
72 



62 
55 
49 
66 
73 
69 
74 
77 
69 
65 
71 
76 
75 
63 
70 



66 
62 

77 



Per cent 

76 
62 
55 
53 

72 
37 
68 
67 
68 
62 
70 
64 
33 
60 
51 
50 

52 
41 
46 



50 
55 
54 
54 
38 
45 
39 



76 
56 
51 
55 
80 
58 
58 
70 
52 
61 
64 



49 
46 
48 
50 
61 
45 
43 
49 
43 
43 
61 
54 
50 
52 
36 



49 
52 
56 



74 
63 
59 
60 

69 
43 
65 
59 
57 
66 
65 
65 
46 
56 
52 
53 

54 
67 
67 



37 
39 
46 
53 
66 
49 
33 



73 
66 
54 
62 
71 
70 
72 
67 
68 
67 
68 



69 
64 
58 
66 
70 
62 
66 
64 
72 
71 
69 
66 
63 
70 
74 



71 
65 
74 



FEEDING AND COMPUTATION TABLES 
Table n. Average Digestibility op American Feeding-stuffs, continued 



99 



Feeding-stuffs 



Roughage, continued 
Legumes, green, continued — 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea, ready for soiling 

Soybean, before bloom 

Soybean, seed half grown 

Canada field peas . . 



Silage, etc. — 

Dent corn, grain milk stage to mature 

Dent corn, immature 

Dent corn, stage uncertain 

Dent corn, fine crushed (steers) . . . 

Dent corn, fine crushed (sheep) . . . 

Dent corn, uncooked, ears mature . . 

Dent corn, cooked, ears mature . . . 
i Flint, ears glazing 

Sweet, some ears matured 

Soybean 

Cowpea-vine 

Barnyard millet and soybean .... 

Corn and soybean 



Boots and tubers — 
Potato . . . . 
Beet, mangel . . 
Sugar-beet . . . 

Turnip 

Rutabaga . . . 



Miscellaneous 



Cow's milk . . . 
Acorns, fresh . . 
Dried blood . . 
Meat scrap . . . 
Fish guano . . . 
Beet pulp . . . 
Pumpkin .... 
Sugar-beet leaves 



No. 

of trials 



17 
13 

4 
2 
2 
1 
1 
11 
2 
4 
4 
4 



30 
22 
30 
10 
2 



Dry 

matter 



61 
68 
66 
62 
65 



64 
64 
60 
64 
54 



75 
68 
55 
60 
59 
69 



83 

87 
92 

87 
87 



88 
63 
93 

'82 

"77 



74 
76 
79 
69 
81 



52 
54 
24 
38 
22 
45 
39 
65 
54 
66 
57 
57 
63 



51 
70 
72 
73 
80 



94 
83 
62 
93 
90 
63 
77 
74 



Crude 
fiber 



43 
60 
50 

41 
49 



62 
70 
56 
75 
64 
59 
70 
77 
71 
49 
52 
69 
62 



37 
34 
51 
74 



62 



83 
65 
70 



Nitrogen 
free extract 



Per cent 

72 
81 
72 
73 
75 



69 
66 
68 
65 
55 
71 
75 
79 
72 
57 
72 
59 
78 



90 
95 
97 
92 
95 



98 

91 

100 



84 
90 
80 



Ether 
extract 



Per 

cent 

39 
59 
54 
54 
54 



85 
71 
70 
76 
68 
86 
87 
82 
83 
61 
63 
72 
83 



84 

100 
88 

100 
98 
76 

50 
55 



B. Experiments with Pigs 










Feeding-stuffs 


No. 
of trials 


Dry 

matter 


Protein 


Crude 
fiber 


Nitrogen- 
free extract 


Ether 
extract 




4 
2 
1 
1 

1 

8 
1 


Per cent 

92 
90 
83 
76 
90 
82 
80 
83 
82 
77 
66 
67 
93 
97 
72 
92 
95 


Per cent 

86 
88 
69 
76 
89 
76 
81 
80 
80 
73 
75 
66 
73 
84 
72 
97 
96 


Per cent 

40 
39 
38 
29 
78 
15 
49 
60 
60 
37 
34 
9 
55 


Per cent 

95 
94 
89 
84 
95 
90 
87 
83 
83 
87 
66 
75 
98 
98 
92 

' 98* 


Per 
cent 

76 




80 




46 
82 




50 




65 




57 




70 






70 




2 
2 
2 
8 
4 
1 
8 
1 






72 




58 
















87 




95 







100 



FEEDING AND COMPUTATION TABLES 



Table III. Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents in American Feeding-stuffs 



Name of feed 



Concentrates 

Corn, all analyses 

Dent corn 

Flint corn 

Sweet corn 

Corn cob 

Corn-and-eob meal 

Corn bran 

Gluten meal 

Germ oil meal 

Starch refuse 

Grano-gluten 

Hominy feed chops , 

Glucose meal 

Sugar meal 

Gluten feed 

Distillery grains (dried) , 

Atlas gluten feed (distillery by-products) 

Wheat 

High-grade flour 

Low-grade flour 

Red dog flour 

Wheat bran, all analyses 

Wheat bran, spring 

Wheat bran, winter 

Wheat shorts 

Wheat middlings 

Wheat screenings 

Rye 

Rye bran 

Rye shorts 

Barley 

Malt-sprouts 

Brewers' grains, wet 

Brewers' grains, dried 

Oats 

Oat meal 

Oat feed 

Oat dust 

Oat hulls 

Rice 

Rice hulls 

Rice bran 

Rice polish 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat hulls 

Buckwheat bran 

Buckwheat shorts 

Buckwheat middlings 

Sorghum seed 

Broom-corn seed 

Kafir 

Millet 

Flax seed 

Linseed meal, old process 

Linseed meal, new process 



Dry 

matter ir 
100 Lbs. 



Lbs. 

89.1 
89.4 
88.7 
91.2 
89.3 
84.9 
90.6 
90.5 
91.4 
88.0 
94.3 
90.4 
91.9 
93.2 
90.8 
92.4 
92.6 

89.5 
87.6 
87.6 
90.1 
88.1 
88.0 
88.5 
88.2 
87.9 
88.4 

91.3 

88.4 
90.7 

89.2 
90.5 
23.0 
91.3 

89.6 
92.1 
93.0 
93.5 
92.6 

87.6 
91.2 
90.3 

89.2 

86.6 
86.8 
91.8 

88.9 
87.2 

87.2 
87.2 
90.1 
87.9 

90.8 
90.2 
91.0 



Digestible nutrients in 100 Lbs. 



Lbs. 

7.9 

7.8 

8.0 

8.8 

0.5 

4.4 

6.0 

29.7 

15.8 

2.4 

26.7 

6.8 

30.3 

18.7 

21.3 

22.8 

23.33 



10.6 
8.2 
16.2 
11.9 
11.9 
12.1 
12.2 
12.8 
9.6 

9.5 
11.2 
11.9 

8.4 
20.3 

4.9 
20.0 

10.7 

11.9 

5.2 

5.1 

1.3 

6.4 
0.3 
7.6 

7.9 

8.1 

1.2 

5.9 

21.1 

22.7 

4.5 
4.6 
5.2 
7.1 

20.6 
30.2 
31.5 



Carbo- Ether 

hydrates extract 



Lbs. 

66.7 
66.8 
66.2 
63.7 
44.8 
60.0 
52.5 
42.5 
38.8 
70.6 
38.8 
60.5 
35.3 
51.7 
52.8 
39.7 
35.64 

67.5 
65.1 
62.7 
57.0 
42.0 
43.1 
37.1 
50.0 
53.0 
48.2 

69.4 
46.8 
45.1 

65.3 

46.0 

7.6 

32.2 

50.3 
65.1 
30.1 
32.8 
38.5 

79.2 
19.9 
38.8 
58.6 

48.2 
28.6 
34.0 
33.5 
37.5 

61.1 

42.2 
44.3 
48.5 

17.1 
32.0 
35.7 



Lbs. 

4.3 
4.3 
4.3 

7.0 

' 2.9 

4.8 
6.1 

10.8 
1.1 

12.4 
7.4 

14.5 
8.7 
2.9 

11.6 

11.88 

1.5 
1.0 
0.9 
3.4 
2.5 
3.1 
2.8 
3.8 
3.4 
1.9 

1.2 
1.8 
1.6 

1.6 
1.4 
1.7 
6.0 

3.8 
6.7 
2.6 
2.3 
0.6 

0.4 
0.1 
7.3 
5.3 

2.4 
0.5 
2.0 
5.5 

6.1 

2.8 
1.5 
1.4 
2.5 

29.0 
6.9 
2.4 



Fertilizing constituents in 
1,000 Lbs. 



Nitrogen Ph ° B s c ^ ork Potash 



Lbs. 

18.2 
16.5 
16.8 
18.6 

3.9 
13.6 
17.9 
54.8 
34.7 

7.6 
49.8 
16.8 
57.7 
36.3 
40.0 
49.9 



19.0 
19.2 
28.9 
29.4 
24.6 
25.1 
25.1 
28.2 
26.3 
20.0 

18.1 
23.3 
18.4 

19.2 
42.1 
10.7 
40.0 

18.2 
23.5 
12.8 
21.6 
5.3 

11.8 

5.1 

19.0 

19.0 

1.73 
7.3 

20.2 

42.7 

14.6 

15.8 
17.9 
17.4 

36.2 
54.2 
60.0 



Lbs. 

7.0 
7.1 
7.1 
7.1 
0.6 
5.7 
10.1 
3.3 
3.9 
2.9 
5.1 



4.1 
3.7 
6.0 



5.5 
5.7 
5.6 

26.9 



13.5 

9.5 

11.7 

8.6 
22.8 
12.6 

7.9 
17.4 

4.2 
16.1 

7.8 

' 6.1 

' 1.6 

1.8 

1.7 

2.9 

26.7 



4.3 
4.2 

12.3 

8.4 

7.2 

' 6.5 

13.9 

16.6 
17.4 



FEEDING AND COMPUTATION TABLES 



101 



Table HI. Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents, continued 



Name of feed 



Concentrates, continued 

Cotton seed 

Cottonseed meal 

Cottonseed hulls 

Coconut cake 

Palm-nut cake 

Sunflower seed 

Sunflower-seed cakes 

Peanut cake 

Rape-seed cake 

Peas, Canada 

Soybean 

Cowpea 

Horse bean 

Roughage 
Fodder corn — 

Fodder corn, green 

Foader corn, ears, if any, remaining 
Corn stover, ears removed .... 

Fresh grass— 

Pasture grasses 

Kentucky blue-grass 

Timothy 

Orchard-grass 

Red-top, in bloom 

Oat forage in milk 

Rye forage 

Sorghum 

Meadow fescue 

Hungarian-grass 

Green barley 

Peas-and-oats 

Peas-and-barley 

Kafir fodder 

Bay— 

Timothy, all analyses 

Orchard-grass 

Red-top 

Kentucky blue-grass 

Hungarian-grass 

Mixed grasses ... 

Rowen (mixed) 

Meadow fescue 

Mixed grasses and clover 

Soybean hay 

Oat hay 

Swamp grass 

Marsh or swamp hay 

White daisy 

Barley 

Straw — 

Wheat 

Rye 

Oat 

Barley 

Wheat chaff 

Oat chaff 

Fresh legumes — 

Red clover 

Alsike 



Dry 

matter in 
100 Lbs. 



Lbs. 

89.7 
93.0 
88.9 
89.7 
89.6 
91.4 
89.2 
89.3 
90.0 

85.0 

8S.3 
85.4 
88.7 



20.7 
57.8 
59.5 

20.0 
34.9 
38.4 
27.0 
34.7 
37.8 
23.4 
20.6 
30.1 
28.9 
21.0 
20.3 
20.0 
27.0 



90.1 
91.1 
86.0 
86.0 
84.7 
83.4 
80.0 
87.1 
88.2 
86.0 
88.4 
92.1 
85.0 
85.0 



90.4 
92.9 
90.8 

85.8 
85.7 
85.7 

29.2 
25.2 



Digestible nutrients in 100 Lbs. 



Fertilizing constituents in 
1 000 Lbs. 



Lbs. 

12.5 
37.6 
0.3 
15.4 
16.0 
14.8 
29.5 
42.8 
25.3 

19.7 
29.1 
16.S 
23.1 



1.0 
2.5 
1.4 

2.5 
2.8 
1.5 
1.2 
1.9 
2.5 
2.1 
0.6 
1.6 
2.0 
1.9 
1.8 
2.1 
0.87 



2.8 
4.9 
4.8 
4.4 
5.0 
4.2 
8.0 
4.2 
5.8 
10.6 
4.7 
4.0 
3.5 
3.8 
5.7 

0.8 
0.7 
1.3 
0.9 
1.2 
1.5 

2.9 
2.6 



Carbo- 



hydrates extract 



Lbs. 

30.0 
21.4 
33.2 
41.2 
52.6 
29.7 
23.3 
20.4 
23.7 

49.3 
23.3 
54.9 
49.8 



11.9 
34.6 
31.2 



10.1 
19.7 
19.9 
13.4 
21.3 
18.2 
14.1 
11.6 
18.6 
15.9 
10.4 
10.2 
9.1 
13.80 

42.4 
42.4 
46.9 
40.2 
46.9 
42.0 
40.1 
36.9 
41.8 
40.9 
36.7 
38.9 
44.7 
40.7 
43.6 



35.2 
39.6 
39.5 
40.1 
25.4 
33.0 



14.9 
11.4 



Ether 



Nitrogen ^J^ ™ Potash 



Lbs. 

17.3 
9.6 

1.7 
10.7 
9.0 
1S.2 
8.0 
7.2 
7.6 

0.4 

14.6 

1.1 

0.8 



0.4 
1.2 
0.7 



0.5 
0.8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.5 
1.0 
0.4 
0.3 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 
0.4 
0.4 
0.43 



1.3 
1.4 
1.0 
0.7 
1.1 
1.3 
1.5 
1.5 
1.3 
1.2 
1.7 
0.7 
0.7 
1.2 
1.0 



0.4 
0.4 
0.8 
0.6 
0.6 
0.7 



07 
0.5 



Lbs. 

29.4 
72.5 
6.7 
31.5 
26.9 
26.1 
52.5 
76.2 
49.9 

37.9 
53.6 
32.8 
42.6 



2.9 
7.2 
6.1 



5.6 
6.6 
5.0 
4.2 
4.5 
5.4 
4.2 
2.1 
3.8 
5.0 
4.3 
3.8 
4.5 



9.4 
12.9 
12.6 
12.5 
12.1 
11.9 
18.6 
11.2 
16.2 
23.8 
14.2 
11.5 



14.1 



5.0 
5.0 
5.8 
7.0 
7.2 
6.4 



7.0 
6.2 



acid 



Lbs. 

10.5 
30.4 
4.3 
16.0 
11.0 
12.2 
21.5 
20.0 
20.0 

8.4 
10.4 
10.1 
12.0 



1.1 
5.4 
3.8 

2.6 

2.6 
1.6 

1.3 

2.5 
0.7 

1.2 

i.s 



3.3 
3.7 
3.6 
4.0 
4.3 
2.7 

4.6 



6.7 



2.2 
2.5 
3.0 
2.0 
3.8 
1.4 



1.5 
1.1 



Lbs. 

10.9 
15.8 
10.4 
24.0 
5.0 
5.6 
11.7 
15.0 
13.0 

10.1 
12.6 
12.0 
12.9 



3.9 

8.9 

10.9 



7.4 

7.6 
7.6 

3.8 
7.1 
3.4 

4.2 

5.0 



14.2 
16.9 
10.2 
15.7 
15.4 
15.5 

21.0 



25.4 



6.3 

8.6 

17.7 

10.6 

8.2 

4.5J 

4.8 
2.0 



102 



FEEDING AND COMPUTATION TABLES 



Table III. Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents, continued 



Name of feed 



Roughage, continued 
Fresh legumes — 

Crimson clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Soybean 

Legume hay and straw — 

Red clover 

Red clover, mammoth . . . 

Alsike clover 

White clover 

Crimson clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Soybean-straw 

Pea-vine-straw 

Silage — 

Corn, recent analyses . . . 

Red clover 

Sorghum 

Alfalfa 

Grass 

Cowpea vine 

Soybean 

Barnyard millet and soybean 
Corn and soybean .... 

Roots and tubers — 

Potato 

Beet, common 

Beet, sugar 

Beet, mangel 

Flat turnip 

Rutabaga 

Carrot 

Parsnip 

Artichoke 

Miscellaneous 

Cabbage 

Spurry 

Sugar-beet leaves 

Pumpkin, field 

Pumpkin, garden 

Prickly comfrey 

Rape, Dwarf Essex 

Acorns 

Dried blood 

Meat scrap 

Dried fish 

Wet beet pulp 

Sugar-beet molasses ..... 

Cow's milk 

Cow's milk, colostrum .... 

Skim-milk, gravity 

Skim-milk 

Buttermilk 

Whey 



Dry 


Digestible nutrients in 100 Lbs. 


Fertilizing constituents in 
1.000 Lbs. 


matter in 














100 Lbs. 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Ether 
extract 


Nitrogen 


Phosphoric 
acid 


Potash 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


19.1 


2.4 


9.1 


0.5 


5.0 


1.2 


4.0 


28.2 


3.6 


12.1 


0.4 


7.7 


1.3 


5.6 


16.4 


1.8 


8.7 


0.2 


3.8 


1.3 


4.6 


24.9 


3.1 


11.0 


0.5 


6.4 


1.4 


5.6 


84.7 


7.1 


37.8 


1.8 


19.7 


5.5 


18.7 


78.8 


6.2 


34.7 


2.1 


17.1 


5.2 


11.6 


90.3 


8.4 


39.7 


1.1 


20.5 


5.0 


13.9 


90.3 


11.5 


42.2 


1.5 


25.1 


7.8 


13.2 


90.4 


10.5 


34.9 


1.2 


24.3 


4.0 


13.1 


91.6 


11.0 


39.6 


1.2 


21.9 


5.1 


16.8 


89.5 


5.8 


39.3 


1.3 


14.3 


5.2 


14.7 


89.9 


2.3 


40.0 


1.0 


17.5 


4.0 


13.2 


86.4 


4.3 


32.3 


0.8 


14.3 


3.5 


10.2 


26.4 


1.4 


14.2 


0.7 


4.3 


1.1 


3.7 


28.0 


1.5 


9.2 


0.5 


6.7 






23.9 


0.1 


13.5 


0.2 


1.3 


1.5 


1.9 


27.5 


3.0 


8.5 


1.9 








32.0 


1.9 


13.4 


1.6 








20.7 


1.5 


8.6 


0.9 


4.3 


1.5 


4.6 


25.8 


2.7 


9.6 


1.3 


6.6 


1.6 


7.5 


21.0 


1.6 


9.2 


0.7 


4.5 


1.1 


4.4 


24.0 


1.6 


13.2 


0.7 


4.0 


1.5 


3.6 


20.9 


1.1 


15.7 


0.1 


3.4 


1.6 


5.8 


11.5 


1.2 


7.9 


0.1 


2.4 


0.8 


4.8 


13.5 


1.3 


9.8 


0.1 


2.9 


0.8 


3.7 


9.1 


1.0 


5.5 


0.2 


2.2 


0.9 


3.8 


9.9 


0.9 


6.4 


0.1 


2.1 


0.9 


3.4 


11.4 


1.0 


8.1 


0.2 


1.9 


1.2 


4.9 


11.4 


0.8 


7.7 


0.3 


1.8 


0.9 


2.6 


11.7 


1.1 


10.1 


0.2 


2.6 


2.0 


4.4 


20.5 


1.3 


14.7 


0.2 


4.2 


1.4 


4.7 


10.0 


2.3 


5.9 


0.1 


4.2 


1.1 


4.3 


20.0 


1.5 


9.8 


0.3 


3.8 


2.5 


5.9 


12.0 


1.9 


5.0 


0.2 


4.2 


1.5 


6.2 


9.1 


1.0 


5.8 


0.2 


2.1 


■ . • 




19.2 


1.4 


8.3 


0.4 


2.9 


1.6 


0.9 


13.0 


1.7 


5.1 


0.2 


3.7 


1.2 


7.6 


14.3 


2.0 


8.2 


0.2 


3.5 


1.2 


3.5 


44.7 


2.1 


34.4 


1.7 


4.0 






91.5 


60.8 




2.5 


135.0 


13.5 


7.7 


89.3 


66.2 




13.4 


114.0 


81.1 




89.2 


45.0 




11.4 


77.4 


140.0 


3.0 


10.2 


0.5 


7.7 




1.4 


0.3 


11.4 


79.2 


4.7 


54.1 




14.5 


0.5 


56.3 


12.8 


3.4 


4.8 


3.7 


5.8 


1.9 


1.7 


25.4 


17.6 


2.7 


3.6 


28.2 


6.6 


1.1 


9.6 


3.1 


4.7 


0.8 


5.6 


2.0 


1.9 


9.4 


2.9 


5.3 


0.3 


5.0 


2.1 


2.0 


9.9 


3.8 


3.9 


1.0 


6.4 


1.7 


1.6 


6.2 


0.6 


5.0 


0.2 


1.0 


1.1 


2.0 



METHOD OF EXACT BALANCING OF RATIONS 



103 



METHOD OF EXACT BALANCING 
OF RATIONS 

By J. T. Willard 

Balancing a ration consists in choosing the feeds 
entering into it so that it will possess the proper 
weight, bulk and chemical composition for the 
animals to which it is to be fed, and for the im- 
mediate purpose in view in feeding them, whether 
for labor, growth, fattening, milk production or 
maintenance. The limits of this article will prevent 
any discussion of the subject in a broad way, and 
we will consider only the mode of calculating the 
quantities of the feeds chosen, in order to secure 
a ration having the chemical composition decided 
on as most suitable. Notwithstanding the fact that 
recent investigations are tending to minimize the 
importance of the balanced rations as hitherto 
held, the feeding standards thus secured must con- 
tinue to be the guide in practical feeding opera- 
tions for some time to come. 

All observation and experiment have shown that 
there are certain bodily functions for which only 
nitrogenous constituents of feeds, that is protein, 
will serve, while there are others which are per- 
formed with greater physiological economy by 
non-nitrogenous substances. Hence there is, for 
each purpose and condition of feeding, between the 
digestible nitrogenous constituents of the ration 
and its digestible non-nitrogenous constituents, a 
ratio that is physiologically the most economical. 
This ratio is expressed not in terms of the relative 
weights of the constituents named but in terms of 
the relative quantities of energy yielded by them. 
Protein and carbohydrates are about equal, weight 
for weight, in energy-yielding power, but average 
fat of feeds yields about two and one-fourth times 
as much energy as an equal weight of average car- 
bohydrates. What is known as the nutritive ratio 
of a feed or a ration is the ratio of the energy of 
its digestible protein to the energy of its digestible 
non-protein. It is equal, therefore, to the ratio of 
the weight of the digestible protein to the weight 
of the digestible carbohydrates plus two and one- 
fourth times the weight of the digestible fat. 
Thus, corn, having digestible protein, 7.14 per 
cent, carbohydrates, 66.12 per cent, and fat, 4.97 
per cent, has a nutritive ratio of 7.14 : 66.12+ (2Jx 
4.97) or 7.14: 77.3. If we make the protein unity 
by dividing both terms of this ratio by 7.14, we do 
not alter its value, and we get it in a form that 
facilitates comparison with others. It thus be- 
comes 1:10.83. This means that for every unit 
of energy in the digestible protein of corn there 
are 10.83 units in the digestible carbohydrates and 
fat, the non-protein. 

Rations can be best compared in respect to compo- 
sition and digestibility by means of nutritive ratios. 
The principles of alligation are employed in this 
method of balancing rations, which consists essen- 
tially in balancing feeds in pairs, using, however, 
any feed as often as desired in balancing others. 
If it is desired to compound a ration in which the 
nutritive ratio shall be 1:6.5, using corn, corn 
stover and alfalfa hay, we find on making the nec- 



essary calculations that the nutritive ratio of corn 
is 1 : 10.83, of corn stover, 1 : 17.39, and of alfalfa, 
1:3.S2. The second terms of these ratios repre- 
sent the non-protein. The first term, representing 
the protein, being made unity in each case, a com- 
parison of the second terms is all that is necessary 
to disclose the relative predominance of non-pro- 
tein. We see that, for each unit of energy in pro- 
tein, alfalfa has less non-protein energy than the 
proposed ration, while corn-stover and corn each 
possesses an excess of non-protein energy. It must 
be clear that, since two of these feeds are too rich 
in non-protein while one is too poor, it is possible 
to use quantities of each that will produce a mix- 
ture having the desired nutritive ratio. As a mat- 
ter of fact, when three or more such feeds are 
involved, an infinite number of proportions is 
possible, but there must be at least one feed that 
is richer in non-protein than the proposed ration, 
and at least one that is poorer in non-protein. 

If we compare corn, alfalfa and the proposed 
ration as to second terms of nutritive ratios, we 
see that that of corn is 10.83 — 6.5 = 4.33 larger, 
while that of alfalfa is 6.5— 3.82 = 2.68 smaller 
than the second term of the nutritive ratio of the 
proposed ration. The numbers 4.33 and 2.68 thus 
represent, in some sense, the excess and the defi- 
ciency of non-protein in corn and alfalfa, respect- 
ively. There is only one ratio in which these two 
feeds may be mixed to produce the desired nutri- 
tive ratio. 

To balance corn and alfalfa to the nutritive ratio 
of 1:6.5, they must be taken in such quantities 
that the excess of non-protein in the total amount 
of corn used is exactly equal to the deficiency of 
non-protein in the total amount of alfalfa used. 

If for each unit of protein in corn there is an 
excess of 4.33 units of non-protein, and for each 
unit of protein in alfalfa a deficiency of 2.68 units 
of non-protein, the excess from one and the defi- 
ciency of the other will be equal when we take 
enough corn to get 2.68 units of protein and 
enough alfalfa to get 4.33 units of protein. For, 
if with one unit of protein in corn we have an 
excess of 4.33 units of non-protein, with 2.68 units 
of protein, we should have an excess of 4.33 x 2.68 
= 11.60 units of non-protein. Also, if with each 
unit of protein in alfalfa we have a deficiency of 
2.68 units of non-protein, with 4.33 units of pro- 
tein in alfalfa we should have 2.68 x 4.33 = 11.60 
units of non-protein, and, this deficiency being ex- 
actly equal to the excess accompanying the corn, 
the mixture would be balanced to a nutritive ratio 
of 1:6.5. 

What proportions by weight do these represent? 
If the amount of energy yielded by one pound of 
protein be taken as equal to one of the "units" 
just referred to, then the weight of corn that con- 
tains a pound of protein, multiplied by 2.68, will 
give the number of pounds of corn, and the weight 
of alfalfa that contains a pound of protein, multi- 
plied by 4.33, will give the number of pounds of 
alfalfa. The weight of corn that contains a pound 
of protein is found by dividing 100 by the per- 
centage of protein in corn. That is, if corn con- 



104 



METHOD OF EXACT BALANCING OF RATIONS 



tains 7.14 per cent of protein, each 100 pounds 
contains 7.14 pounds of protein, and 100 divided 
by 7.14 is the number of pounds of corn that con- 
tain one pound of protein. This quotient is called 
the protein-equating factor, and for corn it is 
14.0. The protein-equating factor of alfalfa is 
100-^-10.58=9.45 ; that is, 9.45 pounds of alfalfa 
contain one pound of protein. 

Substituting the protein-equating factors in the 
preceeding statements as the weights of the feeds 
that contain one pound of protein, we have 14.0 x 
2.68=37.52 as the number of pounds of corn, and 
9.45 x 4.33 — 40.92 as the number of pounds of 
alfalfa. Corn and alfalfa of the composition as- 
sumed, if mixed in the ratio of 37.52 to 40.92 only, 
will produce a ration with the nutritive ratio of 
1: 6.5. If these two numbers be added together 
and each divided by the sum, the amounts required 
of each to produce one pound of the mixture will 
be obtained. These are .478 and .522 pounds. 

Let us arrange in tabular form the data that by 
processes exactly similar to those described have 
been calculated for alfalfa and corn stover, bal- 
ancing them to a nutritive ratio of 1:6.5. A tab- 
ular statement is also presented for the corn and 
alfalfa ration. 



Second term 
Mixture A — °' ratio 

Corn stover .... 17.39 
Proposed ration . . 6.50 

Alfalfa 3.82 

Mixture B — 

Corn 10.83 

Proposed ration . . 6.50 
Alfalfa 3.82 



Differ- Protein equat 
ence ing factor 
2.68 X 50.51 = 



10.89 X 9.45 
2.68 X 14.0 
4.33 x' 9.45 



We have thus calculated two mixtures, A and 
B, each possessing the desired nutritive ratio. It 
is obvious that these two mixtures may be com- 
bined in any ratio whatever, and that thus there is 



possible an infinite number of compound mixtures 
of the three feeds, the nutritive ratio being 1:6.5 
in each. As grain is found in B only, it will be 
seen that the ratio of grain to roughage can be 
made anything desired by proportioning properly 
the amounts of A and B in the compound mixture. 
It is very convenient to have the roughage and 
the concentrates of a ration separately balanced. 
The roughage may then be treated as a basal 
ration, with which greater or less quantities of the 
concentrate are fed according to individual needs. 
Of course the same care must be exercised in the 
choice of foods to be mixed as in the cut-and-try 
method, in order that the proper bulk and palata- 
bility may result. 

Furthermore, by study of the detailed chemical 
composition of A and B, it has been found that the 
ratio of fat to carbohydrates in A is 1:38.02, 
while in B it is 1:16.55. By the use of alligation 
in a manner similar to that described in the fore- 
going, and employing fat-equating factors, it is 
possible to calculate the ratio in which A and B 
may be combined so as to produce a compound 
mixture having any desired ratio of fat to car- 
bohydrates between 1:16.55 and 1:38.03. 

By similar reasoning, if feeds in sufficient vari- 
ety of composition are availa- 
ble, it is possible to calculate 
exactly the amounts of each to 
balance the ration, not only in 
respect to nutritive ratio and 
ratio of fat to carbohydrates, 
but in respect to percentage of 
digestible matter and other dif- 
ferences. To facilitate the work 
of computing the quantities of 
feed to be given, a table show- 
ing the nutritive ratio and the protein-equating 
factor of many of the common feeding-stuffs is here 
introduced. Fuller tables of composition and digest- 
ibility will be found in the preceding pages. 



Relative 
quantities 

135.36 .568 

or 
102.91 .432 



= 37.52 .478 

or 
= 40.88 .522 



Table Showing the Nutritive Ratio and Protein-equating Factor of Common Feeding-stuffs 



Feeding-stuff 



Nutritive 
ratio 



Green and dry fodder — 

Corn fodder (av. all varieties) . 1: 11.7 

Kafir fodder 1: 17.0 

Sorghum fodder 1:22.0 

Rape 1: 4.3 

Rye fodder 1: 7.4 

Oat fodder 1: 8.3 

Red-top in bloom 1:10.9 

Orchard-grass, in bloom .... 1: 9.0 
Meadow fescue, in bloom . . . 1:11.9 
Timothy, different stages ... 1: 11.3 

Kentucky blue-grass 1: 7.3 

Hungarian grass 1: 8.6 

Red clover, different stages . .1: 5.3 

Crimson clover 1: 4.8 

Alfalfa, different stages ... . 1: 3.1 

Cowpea 1: 5.1 

Soybean 1: 4.7 

Sorghum silage 1 : 25.6 

Corn silage (recent analyses) . .1: 13.7 
Corn fodder, field-cured . . . .1:14.9 
Corn stover, field-cured .... 1: 17.4 



Protein- 
equating 
factor 

90.9 

114.9 
166.7 
46.3 
48.8 
41.0 
48.5 
52.4 
67.1 
49.8 
37.6 
52.1 
32.6 
46.3 
25.7 
59.5 
35.8 
166.7 
82.6 
42.7 
50.5 



Feeding-stuff 



Nutritive 
ratio 



Green and dry fodder, continued — 

Kafir stover, field-cured . . . .1:24.0 
Kafir stover, field-cured (Kans.) . 1: 15.9 
Sorghum fodder, cured 1:21.9 

Hay from — 

Barley 1: 7.7 

Oats 1: 9.1 

Orchard-grass 1: 9.4 

Red-top 1: 10.2 

Timothy (all analyses) 1: 16.2 

Kentucky blue-grass 1: 8.8 

Hungarian grass 1: 12.2 

Meadowfescue 1:11.3 

Mixed grasses 1: 11.0 

Rowen (mixed) 1: 6.2 

Buffalo-grass 1: 7.2 

Prairie-grass 1 : 84.2 

Mixed grasses and clover . . .1: 7.5 

Red clover 1: 5.7 

Alsike clover 1: 5.5 

White clover 1: 3.9 



Protein- 
equating 
factor 



55.0 
31.1 
38.5 



19.6 
24.6 
20.9 
20.8 
34.6 
21.0 
22.2 
23.8 
23.7 
13.9 
16.1 
163.9 
16.2 
13.6 
12.3 
8.7 



METHOD OF EXACT BALANCING OF RATIONS 



105 



Feeding-staff ^atio™ 

Hay from — 

Crimson clover 1: 3.9 

Alfalfa 1: 3.8 

Alfalfa hay, first stage . . . . 1: 3.1 
Alfalfa hay, second stage ... 1: 3.5 
Alfalfa hay, third stage .... 1: 4.3 

Cowpea 1: 3.9 

Soybean 1: 3.9 

Wheat-straw 1:100.5 

Rye-straw 1:65.8 

Oat-straw 1:33.6 

Soybean-straw 1 : 18.4 

Roots and tubers — 

Potatoes 1: 12.1 

Beets 1: 7.4 

Beets, sugar-, 1: 9.5 

Mangels 1: 5.7 

Turnips 1: 8.3 

Rutabagas 1: 9.1 

Carrots 1:10.3 

Grains and other seeds — 

Corn (av. of dent and flint) . . . 1: 10.8 

Kafir 1: 9.8 

Barley 1: 7.9 

Oats 1: 6.2 

Rye 1: 8.0 

Wheat (all varieties) 1: 7.1 

Cottonseed (whole) 1: 6.7 

Mill products — 

Corn meal 1: 11.7 

Corn-and-cob meal 1:14.0 

Oat meal 1: 5.7 

Barley meal 1: 9.1 

Ground corn and oats equal parts 1 : 10.0 

Pea meal 1: 3.2 

Kafir meal 1: 8.9 

Soybean meal 1: 2.1 

By-products obtained in various in- 
dustries — 
Gluten meal — 

Buffalo 1: 3.2 

Chicago 1: 1.5 

Hammond .1: 2.8 

King 1: 2.3 

Cream gluten (recent analyses) . 1: 1.7 

Gluten feed (recent analyses) . .1: 3.3 

Buffalo (recent analyses) . . .1: 2.5 

Rockford (Diamond) 1: 3.1 

Hominy chops 1: 9.1 

Malt-sprouts 1: 2.5 

Brewers' grains (wet) 1 : 3.1 

Brewers' grains (dried) .... 1: 2.4 
Distillery grains (dried), princi- 
pally corn 1: 2.8 

Distillery grains (dried), princi- 
pally rye 1: 5.5 

Atlas gluten feed (distillery by- 
product) 1: 2.7 

Rye bran 1: 4.9 

Wheat bran (all analyses) . . .1: 4.0 

Wheat middlings 1: 4.8 

Wheat shorts 1: 4.8 

Buckwheat bran 1: 2.2 

Buckwheat middlings 1: 2.3 

Cottonseed feed 1: 4.8 

Cottonseed meal 1: 1.2 

Cottonseed hulls 1:34.7 



Protein- 
equating 
factor 



9.5 

9.5 

7.6 

8.4 

9.6 

9.3 

9.3 

270.3 

158.7 

83.3 

43.5 

73.5 

82.6 

90.9 

97.1 

123.5 

112.5 

123.5 

14.0 
17.3 
11.5 
10.8 
11.0 
9.8 
9.0 



16.0 
21.0 

8.7 
13.6 
14.3 

6.0 
16.3 

2.8 



4.6 
3.0 
4.0 
3.3 
3.3 
5.0 
4.3 
4.9 

11.9 
5.3 

25.0 
5.3 

4.6 

9.6 

4.3 
8.7 
8.3 
7.8 
8.2 
5.2 
4.5 

10.4 
2.7 

95.2 



Feeding-staff Nutritive J£J*£ 

rauo factor 
By-products obtained in various in- 
dustries, continued — 

Linseed meal (old process) . . . 1: 1.7 3.5 

Linseed meal (new process) . . 1: 1.5 3.3 

Sugar-beet pulp (fresh) .... 1:11.3 158.7 

Sugar-beet pulp (dry) 1: 9.6 14.7 

Sugar-beet leaves 1: 3.0 58.8 

Beet molasses 1: 6.1 11.0 

Meat scrap 1: 0.5 1.5 

Dried blood 1: 0.1 1.9 

Milk and its by-products — 

Whole milk 1: 3.9 29.6 

Skim-milk, cream raised by set- 
ting 1: 2.1 32.3 

Skim-milk, cream raised by sepa- 
rator 1: 1.9 33.2 

Buttermilk 1: 2.1 35.5 

Whey 1: 9.3178.6 

Summary. 

The following rules may be applied by any one 
in balancing feeds to a specified nutritive ratio : 

To balance two feeds so that the resulting mix- 
ture shall have a certain nutritive ratio, it is 
essential that in the first of the feeds the second 
term of the nutritive ratio be larger than that of 
the proposed ration, and that in the second it be 
smaller. To ascertain the relative amounts to be 
taken to balance the two feeds : 

Subtract the second term of the proposed nutri- 
tive ratio from the second term of the nutritive 
ratio of the first feed, and multiply the difference 
by the protein-equating factor of the second feed ; 
the product will be the relative amount of the 
second feed. 

Subtract the second term of the nutritive ratio 
of the second feed from the second term of the 
proposed nutritive ratio, and multiply the differ- 
ence by the protein-equating factor for the first 
feed ; the product will be the relative amount of 
the first feed. 

If the numbers representing the relative amounts 
be added together, and each number divided by 
their sum, the quotients will be numbers represent- 
ing the weights of each necessary to make one 
pound of the mixture; and, by multiplying these 
numbers by the weight of the ration to be com- 
pounded, the amount of each feed to be weighed is 
easily calculated. 

It is obvious that calculating rations is much 
facilitated by tables which show the nutritive 
ratios and protein-equating factors for the sev- 
eral feeds, such as are inserted in this article. 
Tables have been calculated showing pairs of 
feeds balanced to the nutritive ratios of the most 
important rations. 

Literature. 

The reader should consult Bulletin No. 115, of 
the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, for 
full details of this method. In that bulletin, exten- 
sive tables of balanced mixtures are given, as well 
as much other helpful information. 



106 



COMPUTING BALANCED RATIONS 



COMPUTING BALANCED RATIONS 
By John L. Stone 

The principles of nutrition and the composition 
and digestibility of feeding-stuffs are discussed and 
tabulated in preceding pages. The purpose of this 
article is to indicate a practicable method by which 
busy farmers may determine approximately how to 
combine the various available food-stuffs so as best 
to meet the requirements of the various farm ani- 
mals. It is well understood by the writer that the 
method pursued does not take into account all the 
recent results secured by investigators of nutrition 
problems. In regard to many feeds and some classes 
of animals, the necessary data are not available to 
enable this to be done. Again, the necessity of 
avoiding complicated computations, which the busy 
or unskilled would scarcely undertake, leads to dis- 
regarding certain factors in the feeding problem 
which, though important from the scientist's point- 
of-view, do not greatly affect results as secured 
by the practical feeder. 

There are questions besides those having to do 
with the nutrients supplied in feeds, such as pala- 
tability, variety, bulk and condiments that, perhaps, 
call for mention in this connection. 

Palatability. 

This subject has received little attention at the 
hands of experimenters. In fact, palatability may be 
so intimately associated with other qualities of feeds 
as to render definite experimentation difficult. In 
the case of persons, we know that relish for given 
foods has much to do with their nutritive effect. In 
some cases of sickness, a chief consideration is to 
find foods that the patient will relish in order to 
nourish and build him up. It is not likely that the 
domestic animals are as susceptible to palatability 
as persons, but this quality will materially affect 
the completeness of consumption and, consequently, 
the percentage of waste. It will also affect the 
amount that the animal will eat, and when extreme 
production is sought this is a vital factor. So long 
as thorough assimilation is secured, it is the last 
pounds consumed that produce largest returns. 

Variety. 

This is closely associated with palatability. 
Many practical feeders and some experimenters 
have pointed out that animals thrive better when 
receiving several kinds of food rather than few, 
and this even though the latter may supply as 
much, or more, nutrients as the former. The prob- 
able explanation of this is that the variety adds to 
palatability and that thus a more abundant flow of 
secretions is secured, which leads to more thorough 
digestion and assimilation. At any rate, experi- 
ence teaches the practical feeder that it pays to 
give attention to variety and to palatability in 
compounding rations. 

Bulk. 

In most cases, if the total dry matter is kept 
within allowable limits the bulk of the food will 
take care of itself. In exceptional cases, it may 



need looking after. Alfalfa hay and corn silage 
may be combined so that the nutritive ratio will 
conform to the standard for a dairy cow and the 
total dry matter not be very excessive, yet both 
being loose, porous materials, the bulk will be such 
that the cow cannot consume enough of it to pro- 
vide for highest production. The reverse condition 
may also occur. Both should be avoided. 

Condiments. 

Numerous condimental foods and condition pow- 
ders are advertised extensively and claims made 
that, when fed in small amounts, continuously, they 
wonderfully increase production of milk or meat. 
The basis of nearly all of these is corn, linseed or 
cottonseed meal and wheat middlings. Other ingre- 
dients are salt, fenugreek, gentian, ginger, sulfates 
of iron and soda, pepper, arsenic, potassium iodid, 
sulfur, iron (as Venetian red, for color) and char- 
coal. 

The effect that these substances might have on 
the animal system may be classed as condimental, 
tonic or alterative. In case of illness, one or 
another of these might well be administered for its 
medicinal effect, but there is nothing to show that 
the normal animal will be caused to produce more 
abundantly by' their use. The effect of their con- 
tinued use will depend on the amount administered 
and the condition of the animal. A stimulant or 
tonic action on an organ is followed by a reaction 
characterized by weakness and depression, and 
when carried to excess results in congestion and 
inflammation. Numerous experiments have failed 
to substantiate the claims put forth by the vendors 
of condimental foods, or the benefits that some 
feeders have fancied they derived from them. 

In " Food in Health and Disease," Yeo remarks 
concerning condimental foods, " Many of these, by 
conferring agreeable flavors and by their warm, 
carminative properties promote appetite and assist 
digestion ; but their excessive use is calculated to 
excite irritation and disorder of the digestive 
organs. In the great majority of cases, when tonic 
foods or condition powders appear to be necessary, 
they can be dispensed with, and usually to the 
advantage of the animal. Any real or apparent 
diseased condition that can be cured by the admin- 
istration of an indiscriminate mixture of drugs can 
ordinarily be relieved with less danger to the 
patient by the adoption of a rational system of 
treatment and feeding. In those instances in which 
drugs are necessary, it is far better to employ one 
or more, adapted to the treatment of the particular 
ailment, than to attempt a cure by the administra- 
tion of a " shot-gun " mixture, in the form of a 
patent food or condition powder. In the end, such 
specific treatment is infinitely less expensive, less 
dangerous and more satisfactory." 

Nutritive ratio. 

Since the protein on the one hand and the carbo- 
hydrates and fat on the other, serve, in the main, 
different purposes in the animal economy, it 
becomes evident that the relative amounts of these 
nutrients in the food are important. This relation 



COMPUTING BALANCED RATIONS 



107 



is expressed as the " nutritive ratio," which means 
the relation of digestible protein to digestible car- 
bohydrates and fat — the fat having been multiplied 
by two and one-fourth before adding to the carbo- 
hydrates, for reasons explained in Dr. Armsby's 
article. The nutritive ratio is found by dividing 
the carbohydrates, plus two and one-fourth times 
the fat, by the protein. In the accompanying table 
the sum of the carbohydrates and fat, thus obtained, 
is given in the third column, which, divided by 
the protein as given in the second column, gives 
the second term of the nutritive ratio in the fifth 
column. 

A feeding-stuff having a large proportion of 
carbohydrates and fat as compared to protein is 
said to have a " wide " nutritive ratio, while one 
having a small proportion of carbohydrates and fat 
as compared to protein has a "narrow" ratio. 
While these terms are relative, it may be said that 
a ratio greater than 1:6 is wide, while one less 
than 1:5 is narrow. The composition of feeding- 
stuffs, that is, the proportion in which the dif- 
ferent nutrients occur, is determined by chemical 
analysis, but the amount of each nutrient that is 
actually digestible has been determined by care- 
ful experiments with living animals. Only the 
digestible nutrients are considered in the tables 
given in this article. 

Feeding standards. 

The amount of nutrients required and the propor- 
tions in which each should be given, varies with 
the kind of animal and the purpose for which it is 
kept : whether it is growing, being fattened, doing 
work, or producing milk or wool. Thus, an ox at 
rest requires less food and the various nutrients in 
different proportions than an ox at work ; a cow 
producing a large flow of milk requires more food 
and the nutrients differently balanced than one 
producing less, or not producing. 

Various investigators have condensed the results 
of many experiments and much practical experi- 
ence into what are called "feeding standards," 
which attempt to state w T hat in general, and under 
average conditions, is a good ration for the purpose 



in view. While these standards cannot be con- 
sidered as mathematically exact, still the large 
number of practical feeders who testify to secur- 
ing better results after approximating rations to 
the standards is warrant for continuing the use of 
this method till more scientific methods are worked 
out in simple form. 

In table I, under the title of " feeding standards," 
are given the approximate requirements of various 
classes of animals and under varying conditions. 
These standards are mostly from German sources, 
but they have been found very helpful to American 
feeders. The standards are for animals of 1,000 
pounds live weight, and may be increased or dimin- 
ished for larger or smaller animals, though it is 
probable that the individuality of the animal, its 
power to assimilate and produce, will have more to 
do with the varying of the ration than its weight. 
It is premissible, perhaps, to depart from the 
amounts given in the first column under the head 
of "dry matter," more than in any other way. The 
digestive apparatus of farm animals is elastic and 
accommodates itself very readily to the varying 
bulk of its food. In the last column is given the 
nutritive ratio, which, perhaps, should be adhered 
to with some care, trusting to the appetite of the 
animal (which will be controlled largely by its 
power of digesting and producing) to indicate the 
amount of nutrients required. As a rule, the most 
rapid fattening or growth and abundant production 
are most economical, and these results are best 
secured by feeding an abundant and well-balanced 
ration (well up to the limit of the animal's appetite), 
while the dry matter is not permitted to rise much 
above the standard. 

These standards pre-suppose comfortable stables 
for the animals during cold weather. If the stables 
are not comfortable, make them so if possible ; but 
if the animals must be exposed to cold either in- 
doors or out, it will be well to increase the amount 
of carbohydrates in the rations. On the other hand, 
if the stables are so constructed that the tempera- 
ture never falls below 32° Fahr., a ration even nar- 
rower than that given in the standards may be fed 
to advantage. 



Table I. — Feeding Standards. 
A. — Per day and 1,000 pounds live weight* 



Oxen at rest in the stall , . 

Wool sheep, coarser breeds . 

Wool sheep, finer breeds . . 
Oxen moderately worked . 

Oxen heavily worked . . . . 

Horses lightly worked . . . 

Horses moderately worked . 

Horses heavily worked . . . 
Milch cows, Wolff's standard 



Dry 
matter 


Digestible 


Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Total 






and fat 




Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


17.5 


0.7 


8.3 


9.0 


20.0 


1.2 


10.8 


12.0 


22.5 


1.5 


12.0 


13.5 


24.0 


1.6 


12.0 


13.0 


26.0 


2.4 


14.3 


16.7 


20.0 


1.5 


10.4 


11.9 


21.0 


1.7 


11.8 


13.5 


23.0 


2.3 


14.3 


16.6 


24.0 


2.5 


13.4 


15.9 



Nutritive 
ratio 



1:11.9 
1:9.0 
1:8.0 
1:7.5 
1:6.0 
1:6.9 
1:6.9 
1:6.2 
1:5.4 



•The fattening rations are calculated for 1,000 pounds, live weight, at the beginning of the fattening. 



108 



COMPUTING BALANCED RATIONS 



Table I. — Feeding Standards, continued 
A. — Per day and 1,000 pounds live weight* continued 



Milch cows, when yielding daily — 

11 pounds milk 

16.6 pounds milk 

22.0 pounds milk 

27.5 pounds milk 

Fattening oxen, preliminary period . 
Fattening oxen, main period .... 
Fattening oxen, finishing period . . 
Fattening sheep, preliminary period. 
Fattening sheep, main period . . . 
Fattening swine, preliminary period 
Fattening swine, main period . . . 
Fattening swine, finishing period . . 
Growing cattle : 

Average live weight 
Age (months). per head. 

2-3 150 lbs. . . 

3-6 300 lbs. . . 

6-12 500 lbs. . . 

12-18 700 lbs. . . 

18-24 850 lbs. . . 

Growing sheep : 

5-6 56 lbs. . . 

6-8 67 lbs. . . 

8-11 75 lbs. . . 

11-15 82 lbs. . . 

15-50 85 lbs. . . 

Growing fat pigs : 

2-3 50 lbs. . . 

3-5 100 lbs. . . 
5-6 125 lbs. . . 
6-8 170 lbs. . . 
8-12 250 lbs. . . 



Dry 

matter 



Pounds 

25.0 
27.0 
29.0 
32.0 
27.0 
26.0 
25.0 
26.0 
25.0 
36.0 
31.0 
23.5 



22.0 
23.4 
24.0 
24.0 
24.0 

28.0 
25.0 
23.0 
225 
22.0 

42.0 
34.0 
31.5 
27.0 
21.0 



Digestible 



Pounds 

1.6 
2.0 
2.5 
3.3 
2.5 
3.0 
2.7 
3.0 
3.5 
5.0 
4.0 
2.7 



4.0 
3.2 
2.5 
2.0 
1.6 



3.2 

2.7 
2.1 
1.7 

1.4 

7.5 
5.0 
4.3 
3.4 
2.5 



Carbohy- 
drates 
and fat 



Pounds 
10.7 
11.9 
14.1 
14.8 
16.1 
16.4 
16.2 
16.3 
15.8 
27.5 
24.0 
17.5 



18.3 
15.8 
14.9 
13.9 

12.7 

17.4 
14.7 
12.5 
11.8 
11.1 

30.0 
25.0 
23.7 
20.4 
16.2 



Nutritive 
ratio 



Pounds 
12.3 
13.9 
16.6 
18.1 
18.6 
19.4 
18.9 
19.3 
19.3 
32.5 
2S.0 
20.2 



22.3 
19.0 
17.4 
15.9 
14.3 

20.6 
17.4 
14.6 
13.5 
12.5 

37.5 
30.0 
28.0 
23.8 
18.7 



1:6.7 
1:6.0 
1:5.7 
1:4.5 
1:0.4 
1:5.5 
1:6.0 
1:5.4 
1:4.5 
1:5.5 
1:6.0 
1:6.5 



1:4.6 
1:4.9 
1:6.0 
1:7.0 
1:8.0 

1:5.4 
1:5.4 
1:6.0 
1:7.0 
1:8.0 

1:4.0 
1:5.0 
1:5.5 
1:6.0 
1:6.5 



B. — Per day and per head 



Growing cattle : 

2-3 

3-6 

6-12 
12-18 
18-24 
Growing sheep : 

5-6 

6-8 

8-11 

11-15 

15-20 

Growing fat swine : 

2-3 

3-5 

5-6 

6-8 

8-12 



150 lbs. 
300 lbs. 
500 lbs. 
700 lbs. 
850 lbs. 

56 lbs. 
67 lbs. 
75 lbs. 
82 lbs. 
85 lbs. 

50 lbs. 
100 lbs. 
125 lbs. 
170 lbs. 
250 lbs. 



Dry 
matter 



Pounds 

3.3 

7.0 

12.0 

16.8 

20.4 

1.6 
1.7 
1.7 
1.8 
1.9 

2.1 
3.4 
3.9 
4.6 
5.2 



Digestible 



Pounds 

0.6 

1.0 
1.3 
1.4 
1.4 

0.18 
0.18 
0.16 
0.14 
0.12 

0.38 
0.50 
0.54 
0.58 
0.62 



Carbohy- 
drates 
and fat 



Pounds 

2.8 
4.9 
7.5 
9.7 
11.1 

0.974 
0.981 
0.953 
0.975 
0.955 

1.50 
2.50 
2.96 
3.47 
4.05 



Nutritive 
ratio 



Pounds 

3.4 

5.9 

8.8 
11.1 
12.5 

1.154 
1.161 
1.113 
1.115 
1.075 

1.88 
3.00 
3.50 
4.05 
4.67 



1:4.6 
1:4.9 
1:6.0 
1:7.0 
1:8.0 

1:5.4 
1:5.4 
1:6.0 
1:7.0 
1:8.0 

1:4.0 
1:5.0 
1:5.5 
1:6.0 
16.5 



K The fattening rations are calculated for 1,000 pounds, live weight, at the beginning of the fattening. 



COMPUTING BALANCED RATIONS 



109 



Table II gives a list of the feeding-stuffs in most 
common use. Column one is headed "dry matter" ; 
column two, " digestible protein " ; column three, 
" digestible carbohydrates + (fat X 2i) " ; column 
four, " total " (which is the sum of two and three) ; 
column five, "nutritive ratio." In each of these 
columns is given the computation of the various 
food-stuffs from one pound up to the amount that 
is likely to be used in compounding any ration. In 
the case of the coarse fodders, to save space, the 
increase is made by more than one pound at a time, 
but intermediate amounts can readily be obtained 
from the table if desired. In no case are the calcu- 
lations for ten pounds of a feeding-stuff given, as 



these can be obtained at once from the figures for 
one pound, simply by moving the decimal point one 
place to the right. 

These computations are based on the table of 
" Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feed- 
ing-Stuffs," given on pages 96-99, adapted from 
Henry's " Feeds and Feeding." The aim has been 
to carry the computations involved in formulating 
rations as near completion as possible, and to pre- 
sent the figures in such simple form that no feeder 
will have difficulty in comparing the ration he is 
feeding with the standards and correcting it, if 
necessary, to conform thereto. A little time and 
thought may be thus invested to advantage. 



Table II. — Digestible Nutrients in the Stated Amounts of the More Common Feeding-stuffs. 







Total dry 
matter 


Pounds of digestible nutrients 




Kind and amount of feed 


Protein 


Carbohy- 

drates+ 

(fatX2 25) 


Total 


Nutritive 
ratio 


Soiling fodder — 


.20 
1.00 
3.00 
4.00 
5.00 
6.00 
7.00 
8.00 

.16 
.80 
2.40 
3.20 
4.00 
4.S0 
5.60 
6.40 

.16 

.29 
1.45 
4.35 
5.80 
7.25 
8.70 
10.15 
11.60 

.28 
1.40 
4.20 
5.60 
7.00 
8.40 
9.80 
11.20 

.29 
1.45 
4.35 
5.80 
7.25 
8.70 
10.15 
11.60 


.010 
.050 
.150 
.200 
.250 
.300 
.350 
.400 

.018 
.090 
.270 
.360 
.450 
.540 
.630 
.720 

.017 

.029 
.145 
.435 
.580 
.725 
.870 
1.015 
1.160 

.039 
.195 

.585 

.780 

.975 

1.170 

1.365 

1.560 

.020 
.100 
.300 
.400 
.500 
.600 
.700 
.800 


.125 

.625 
1.875 
2.500 
3.125 
3 750 
4.375 
5.000 

.076 
.380 
1.140 
1.520 
1.900 
2.280 
2.660 
3.040 

.077 

.164 
.820 
2.460 
3.280 
4.100 
4.920 
5.740 
6.560 

.138 
.690 
2.070 
2.760 
3.450 
4.140 
4.830 
5.520 

.169 

.845 
2.535 
3.380 
4.225 
5.070 
5.915 
6.760 


.135 
.675 
2.025 
2.700 
3.375 
4.050 
4.725 
5.400 

.094 
.470 
1.410 
1.SS0 
2.350 
2.820 
3.290 
3.760 

.094 

.193 
.965 
2.S95 
3.860 
4.825 
5.790 
6.755 
7.720 

.177 
.885 
2.655 
3.540 
4.425 
5.310 
6.195 
7.080 

.189 
.945 
2.835 
3.780 
4.725 
5.670 
6.615 
7.560 


1'12 5 




5 lbs 




it 


15 " 




« 


' 20 " 




■i 


' 25 " 




>• 


' 30 " 




« 


' 35 " 




■i 


' 40 " 




Peas-and- 

Peas-and- 
Practicall 

Red clove 

Alfalfa, 

Himgariai 
« 




1-42 


5 lbs 




15 " 




20 " 




25 " 




30 " 




35 " 




40 " 




r the same as peas-and-oats 

r, 1 lb 


1:4.5 
1:5.6 


5 lbs 




15 " 




20 " 




25 " 




30 " 




35 " 




40 " 




1 lb 


1:3.5 


5 lbs 




15 " 




20 " 




25 " 




30 " 




35 " 




40 " 






1:8.4 


5 lbs 




" 15 " 




20 " 




25 " 




30 " 




35 " 




" 40 " 









110 COMPUTING BALANCED RATIONS 

Table II. — Digestible Nutkients in the Stated Amounts of the More Common Feeding-stuffs, continued. 



Kiud and amount of feed 



Soiling fodder, continued — 
Corn silage, 1 lb. . . , 



5 lbs. 
15 " 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
50 

Roots and tubers — 

Potatoes, 1 lb. 

5 lbs. 

15 " 

20 " 

25 " 



Beet, mangel, 1 lb. 
5 lbs. 
15 " 
20 " 
25 " 
30 " 



Beet, sugar-. 



1 lb. 

5 lbs. 
15 " 
20 " 
25 " 
30 " 



Carrot, 



lib. 

5 lbs. 
15 " 
20 " 
25 " 
30 " 



Flat turnip, 1 lb. 
5 lbs. 
15 " 
20 " 
25 " 
30 " 



Hay and straw — 
Timothy, 1 lb. . 
3 lbs. 
5 " . 

7 " . 



9 
12 
15 
18 
20 



Mixed grasses and clover, 



lib. 

3 lbs. 
5 " 

7 " 

8 " 

9 " 



Total dry 
matter 



.21 
1.05 
3.15 
4.20 
5.25 
6.30 
735 
8.40 
9.45 
1050 



.21 
1.05 
3.15 
4.20 
5.25 

.09 
.45 
1.35 
1.80 
2.25 
2.70 

.13 
.65 
1.95 
2.60 
3.25 
3.90 

.11 
.55 
1.65 
2.20 
2.75 
3.30 

.10 
.50 
1.50 
2 00 
2.50 
3.00 



.87 

2.G1 

4.35 

6.09 

6.96 

7.83 

10.44 

13.05 

15.66 

17.40 

.87 
2.61 
4.35 
6.09 
6.96 
7.83 



Pounds of digestible nutrients 



.009 
.045 
.135 
.180 
.225 
.270 
.315 
.360 
.405 
.450 



.009 
.045 
.135 
.180 
.225 

.011 
.055 
.165 
.220 
.275 
.330 

.011 
.055 
.165 
.220 
.275 
.330 

.008 
.040 
.120 
.160 
.200 
.240 

.010 
.050 
.150 
.200 
.250 
.300 



.028 
.084 
.140 
.196 
.224 
.252 
.336 
.420 
.504 
.560 

.062 
.1S6 
.310 
.434 
.496 
.558 



Carbohy- 

dratf : ".+ 
(fatX'225) 



.129 
.045 
1.935 
2.5.N0 
3.225 
3870 

4 5 1 ■". 
5.1G0 

5 805 
6.450 



.165 

.825 

2.475 

3.300 

4.125 

.056 

.280 

.840 

1.120 

1.400 

1.680 

.104 
.520 
1.560 
2 080 
2.000 
3.120 

.082 
.410 
1.230 
1.640 
2.050 
2.460 

.077 
.385 
1.155 
1.540 
1.925 
2.310 



.465 
1.395 
2.325 
3.255 
3.720 
4.185 
5.5S0 
G.975 
8.370 
9.300 

.460 
1.3S1 
2.300 
3.220 
3.6S0 
4.140 



.138 
.690 
2.070 
2.760 
3.450 
4.140 
4.830 
5520 
6.210 
6.900 



.174 

.870 

2.610 

3.4S0 

4.350 

.067 
.335 
1.005 
1.340 
1.675 
2.010 

.115 
.575 
1.725 
2.300 
2.875 
3.450 

.090 
.450 
1.305 
1.800 
2 250 
2.700 

.087 
.435 
1.350 
1.740 
2.175 
2.610 



.493 

1.479 
2.465 
3.451 
3.944 
4.437 
5.916 
7.395 
S.S74 
9.S60 

.522 
1.566 
2.610 
3.054 
4.176 
4.09S 



Nutritive 
ratio 



1:14.3 



1:18.3 



1:5.1 



1:9.4 



1 : 10.3 



1:7.7 



1:16.6 



1:7.4 



COMPUTING BALANCED RATIONS 



111 



Table LT. — Digestible Nutrients in the Stated Amounts of the 


More Common Feeding-stuffs, continued. 




Total dry 
matter 


Pounds of digestible 


nutrients 




Kind and amount of feed 


Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fatX2.25) 


Total 


Nutritive 
ratio 


Hay and straw, continued — 

15 " 


10.44 
13.05 
15.66 
17.40 

.92 
2.76 
4.60 
6.44 
7.36 
8.28 
11.04 

.85 
2.55 
t:25 
5.95 

6.S0 
7.65 
10.20 
12.75 
15.30 
17.00 

.92 

2.76 

4.60 

6.44 

7.36 

8.28 

11.04 

12.80 

16.56 

1S.40 

.58 
2.90 
4.64 
6.96 
8.70 
10.44 
11.60 

.60 
3.00 
4.80 
7.20 
9.00 
10.80 
12.00 

.86 

2.58 

4.30 

6.88 

10.32 

12.90 

.95 
1.90 
2.85 
3.80 
4.75 
6.65 


.744 

.930 

1.116 

1.240 

.045 
.135 
.225 
.315 
.360 
.405 
.540 

. .oos 

.204 

.340 

.476 

.544 

.612 

.816 

1.020 

1.221 

1.360 

.110 

.330 

.550 

.770. 

.880 

.990 

1.320 

1.6.50 

1.980 

2.200 

.025 
.125 
.200 
.300 
.375 
.450 
.500 

.017 
.085 
.136 
.204 
.255 
.306 
.340 

.043 

.129 
.215 
.344 
.516 
.645 

.036 
.072 
.108 
.144 
.180 
.252 


5.520 

6.900 
8.280 
9.200 

.546 
1.638 
2.730 
3.822 
4.368 
4.914 
6.552 

. .396 

1.188 
1.9S0 
2.772 
3.168 
3.564 
4.752 
5.940 
7.128. 
7.920 

.423 
1.269 
2.115 
2.961 
3.384 
3.807 
5.076 
6.345 
7.614 
8.460 

.373 

1.865 
2.984 
4.476 
5.595 
6.714 
7.460 

.340 
1.720 
2.720 
4.080 
5.160 
6.120 
6.880 

.341 

1.023 
1.705 
2.728 
4.092 
5.115 

.397 

.794 
1.191 
1.588 
1.985 
2.779 


6.264 

7.830 

9.396 

10.440 

.591 
1.773 
2.955 
4.137 
4.728 
5.319 
7.092 

.464 
1.392 
2.320 
3.248 
3.712 
4.176 
5.568 
6.960 
8.352 
9.280 

.533 

1.599 
2.665 
3.731 
4.264 
4.797 
6.396 
7.995 
9.594 
10660 

.398 
1.990 
3.184 
4.776 
5.970 
7.164 
7.960 

.357 

1.805 
2.856 
4.284 
5.415 
6.426 
7.220 

.384 

1.152 
1.920 
3.072 
4.608 
2.760 

.433 

.866 
1.299 
1.732 
2.165 
3.031 




" " " 18 " 




" " " 20 " 






1:12.1 


3 lbs 




5 " 




" " 7 " 




8 " 




" " 9 " 




" 12 " 






1:5.8 


3 lbs 




" 5 " 




" 7 " 




" 8 " 




" 9 " 




" " 12 " 




" " 15 " 




" 18 " 




" 20 " 




Alfalfa hay, 1 lb 


1:3.8 


3 lbs 




5 " 




7 " 




8 " 




9 " 




" 12 " 




" 15 " 




" 18 " 




" 20 " 






1:14.9 


" 5 lbs 




8 " 




12 " 




15 " 




18 " 




20 " 






1:19.9 


" 5 lbs 




8 " 




12 " 




15 " 




" 18 " 




" 20 " 






1:7.9 


3 lbs 




5 " 




8 " 




12 " 




15 " 




Bean-straw, 1 lb 


I'll 


2 lbs 




3 " 




4 " 




5 " 




7 " 









112 



COMPUTING BALANCED RATIONS 



Table II. — Digestible Nutrients in the Stated Amounts op the More Common Feeding-stuffs, continued. 




Total dry 
matter 


Pounds of digestible nutrients 




Kind and amount of feed 


Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates+ 
(fatX2.25) 


Total 


Nutritive 
ratio 


Hay and straw, continued — 


8.55 
11.40 

.90 

2.70 

4.50 

7.20 

10.80 

13.50 

.91 

2.73 

4.55 

7.28 

10.92 

13.65 

.89 
1.78 
2.67 
3.56 
4.45 
5.34 
6.23 
7.12 
8.01 

.90 
1.80 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 
5.40 

.88 
1.76 
2.64 
3.52 
4.40 
5.28 

.89 
1.78 
2.67 
3.56 
4.45 
5.34 

.89 
1.78 
2.67 
3.56 
4.45 
5.34 
6.23 
7.12 
8.01 
10.68 
13.35 

.87 
1.74 
2.61 


.324 
.432 

.004 
.012 
.020 
.032 
.048 
.060 

.012 
.036 
.060 
.096 
.144 
.180 

.079 

.158 
.237 
.316 
.395 
.474 
.553 
.632 
.711 

.102 
.204 
.306 
.408 
.510 
.612 

.099 
.198 
.297 
.396 
.495 
.594 

.087 
.174 
.261 
.348 
.435 
.522 

.092 
.184 
.276 
.368 
.460 
.552 
.644 
.736 
.828 
1.104 
1.380 

.077 
.154 
.231 


3.573 
4.764 

.372 

1.016 
1.860 
2.976 
4.064 
5.580 

.404 
1.212 
2.020 
3.232 
4.848 
6060 

.764 
1.528 
2.292 
3.056 
3. 820 
4.584 
5.348 
6.112 
6.876 

.730 
1.460 
2.190 
2.920 
3.650 
4.380 

.700 
1.400 
2.100 
2.800 
3.500 
4.200 

.692 
1.384 
2.076 
2.768 
3.460 
4.152 

.568 
1.136 
1.704 
2.272 
2.840 
3.408 
3.976 
4.544 
5.112 
6.816 
S.520 

.533 
1.066 
1.599 


3.897 
5.196 

.376 
1.128 
1.880 
3.008 
4.512 
5.640 

.416 
1.248 
2.0S0 
3.328 
4.992 
6.240 

.843 
1.686 
2.529 
3.372 

4.215 
5.058 
4.901 
6.744 

7.587 

.832 
1.664 
2.496 
3.328 
4.160 
4.992 

.799 
1.598 
2.397 
3.196 
3.995 
4.794 

.779 
1.558 
2.337 
3.116 
3.895 
4.674 

.660 
1.320 
1.9S0 
2.640 
3.300 
3.960 
4.620 
5.280 
5.940 
7.920 
9.900 

.610 
1.220 
1.830 




12 " 






1:93 


3 lbs. 




5 " 




8 " 




12 " 




15 " 






1:33.6 


" 3 lbs 




5 " 




8 " 




" 12 " 




" 15 " 




Grain — 
Corn (av.), 1 lb 


1:9.7 


2 lbs 




" 3 " 




4 " 




5 " 




6 " 




7 " 




" 8 " 




9 " 




Wheat, 1 lb 


1:7.2 


2 lbs 




3 " 




" 4 " 




5 " . . , 




6 " 




Rye, 1 lb 


1:7.1 


2 lbs 




" 3 " 




4 " 




5 " 




6 " 




Barley, 1 lb 


1-79 


2 lbs 




" 3 " 




" 4 " 




" 5 " 




6 " 




Oats, 1 lb 


1-6 2 


2 lbs 




3 " 




" 4 " 




5 " 




6 " 




" 7 " 




8 " 




9 " 




" 12 " 




" 15 " 




Buckwheat, 1 lb 


1-69 


2 lbs 




3 " 









COMPUTING BALANCED RATIONS 



113 



Table II.- 


-Digestible Nutrients in the Stated Amounts of the 


More Common Feeding-stuffs, continued. 




Total dry 
matter 


Pounds of digestible nutrients 




Kind and amount of feed 


Protein 


Carbohy- 

drates+ 

(fatX2.25) 


Total 


Nutritive 
ratio 


Grain, conti 
Buckwheat 

Peas, 1 lb. 

" 2 lbs 
" 3 " 

" 4 « 

" 5 " 

" 6 " 

" 7 " 
" 8 " 
" 9 " 

Mill product 
Corn-and-c 

Wheat bra 


med — 

, 4 lbs 


3.48 
4.35 
5.22 
6.09 
6.96 
7.83 

.90 
l.SO 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 
5.40 
6.30 
7.20 
8.10 

.85 
1.70 
2.55 
3.40 
4.25 
5.10 
5.95 
6.80 
7.65 
10.20 

.88 
1.76 
2.64 
3.52 
4.40 
5.28 
6.16 
7.04 
7.92 

.88 
1.76 
2.64 
3.52 
4.40 
5.28 
6.16 
7.04 
7.92 

.90 
1.80 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 
5.40 _ 
6.30 
7.20 
8.10 

.88 
1.76 
2.64 
3.52 
4.40 


.308 
.385 
.462 
.539 
.616 
.693 

.168 

.336 

.504 

.672 

.840 

1.008 

1.176 

1.344 

1.512 

.044 

.088 
.132 
.176 
.220 
.264 
.308 
.352 
.396 
.528 

.122 
.244 
.366 
.488 
.610 
.732 
.854 
.976 
1.098 

.128 
.256 
.384 
.512 
.640 
.768 
.896 
1.024 
1.152 

.135 
.270 
.405 
.540 
.675 
.810 
.945 
1.080 
1.215 

.082 
.164 
.246 
.328 
.410 


2.132 
2.665 
3.198 
3.731 
4.264 
4.797 

.534 
1.068 
1.602 
2.136 
2.670 
3.204 
3.738 
4.272 
4.806 

.665 
1.330 
1.995 
2.660 
3.325 
3.990 
4.655 
5.320 
5.985 
7.980 

.453 
.906 
1.359 
1.812 
2.265 
2.718 
3.171 
3.624 
4.077 

.607 

1.214 
1.821 
2.428 
3.035 
3.642 
4.249 
4.856 
5.463 

.658 
1.316 
1.974 
2.632 
3.290 
3.948 
4.606 
5.264 
5.922 

.647 

1.294 
1.941 
2.588 
3.235 


2.440 
3.050 
3.660 
4.270 
4.880 
5.490 

.702 
1.404 
2.106 
2.S08 
3.510 
4.212 
4.914 
5.616 
6.318 

.709 
1.418 
2.127 
2.836 
3.545 
4.254 
4.963 
5.672 
6.381 
8.508 

.575 
1.150 
1.725 
2.300 
2.875 
3.450 
4.025 
4.600 
5.175 

.735 
1.470 
2.205 
2.940 
3.675 
4.410 
5.145 
5.880 
6.615 

.793 
1.586 
2.379 
3.172 
3.965 
4.758 
5.551 
6.344 
7.137 

.729 
1.458 
2.187 
2.916 
3.645 




5 " 




6 " 




7 " 




8 " 




9 " 






1:3.2 


































s — 


1:15.1 


2 lbs 




3 " 




4 " 




5 " 




6 " 




7 " 




8 " 




9 " 




" 12 " 




u, 1 lb 


1:3.7 


2 lbs 




3 " 




4 " 




5 " 




6 " 




7 " 




8 " 




9 " 






1:4.7 




'• 


' 2 lbs 






' 3 " 






' 4 " 






' 5 " 






' 6 " 






' 7 " 






8 " 






9 " 




Dark feedii 

tt it 
,t it 

Low grade 

tt tt 




1:4.9 


" 2 lbs 




" 3 " 




" 4 " 




" 5 " 




" 6 " 




" 7 " 




" 8 " 




" 9 " 




flour, 1 lb 


1:7.9 


" 2 lbs 




" 3 " 




" 4 " 




" 5 " 













C8 



114 



COMPUTING BALANCED RATIONS 



Table II. — Digestible Nutrients in the Stated Amounts of TH3 !.Ij.:j "jmmd.j Fesding-stufps, continued. 




Total dry 
matter 


Pounds of digestible nutrients 




Kind and amount of feed 


Protein 


Oarlinhy- 
drates+ 
(fatX2.25) 


Total 


Nutritive 
ratio 


Milk products, 
Low grade f. 

Rye bran, 1 

" 2 

" " 3 

« " 4 

" " 5 
" " 6 

" " 7 
" " 8 
" " 9 


continued — 


5.28 
6.16 
7.04 
7.92 

.88 
1.76 
2.64 
3.52 
4.40 
5.28 
6.16 
7.04 
7.92 

.90 
1.80 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 
5.40 
6.30 
7.20 
8.10 

.87 
1.74 
2.61 
3.48 
4.35 
5.22 
6.09 
6.96 
7.83 

.90 
1.80 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 
3.40 
6.30 
7.20 
8.10 

.24 

.48 

.72 

.96 

1.20 

1.44 

1.68 

1.92 

2.16 

2.64 

2.88 

3.60 

.92 
1.84 
2.76 
3.68 
4.60 


.492 
.574 
.656 
.738 

.115 
.230 
.345 
.460 
.575 
.690 
.805 
.920 
1.035 

.074 
.148 
.222 
.296 
.370 
.444 
.518 
.592 
.666 

.220 

.440 
.660 
.880 
1.100 
1.320 
1.540 
1.760 
1.980 

.186 

.372 

.558 

.744 

.930 

1.116 

1.302 

1.488 

1.674 

.039 
.078 
.117 
.156 
.195 
.234 
.273 
.312 
.351 
.429 
.468 
.585 

.157 
.314 
.471 
.628 

.785 


3.882 

4.529 
5.176 
5.823 

.548 
1.096 
1.644 
2.192 
2.740 
3.2S8 
3.836 
4.3S4 
4.952 

.347 
.694 
1.041 
1.388 
1.735 
2.082 
2.429 
2.776 
3.123 

.456 
.912 
1.368 
1.824 
2.280 
2.736 
3.192 
3.648 
4.104 

.409 
.818 
1.227 
1.636 
2.045 
2.454 
2.863 
3.273 
3.681 

.125 

.250 

.375 

.500 

.625 

.750 

.875 

1.000 

1.125 

1.375 

1.500 

1.875 

.478 

.950 

1.434 

1.912 

2.390 


4.374 
5.103 
5.832 
6.561 

.663 
1.326 
1.989 
2.652 
3.315 
3.978 
4.641 
5.304 
5.967 

.421 

.842 
1.263 
1.684 
2.105 
2.526 
2.847 
3.368 
3.789 

.676 
1.352 
2.028 
2.704 
3.380 
4.056 
4.732 
5.408 
6.084 

.595 
1.190 
1.785 
2.380 
2.975 
3.570 
4.165 
4.760 
5.355 

.164 

.328 

.492 

.656 

.820 

.9S4 

1.148 

1.312 

1.476 

1.804 

1.968 

2.460 

.635 
1.270 
1.905 
2.540 
3.175 




7 " 




8 " 




" 9 " 




lb 


1:4.8 


lbs 








•• 




■< 




« 




« 




" 




« 






1:4.7 




2 lbs 




» 


3 " 




" 


4 " 




« 


" 5 " 




•« 


" 6 " 




« 


" 7 " 




« 


" 8 " 




« 


" 9 " 




Buckwheat n 

By-products — 
Malt-sprouts 




1:2.1 


2 lbs 




" 3 " 




4 " 




5 " 




6 " 




" 7 " 




8 " 




9 " 




1 lb 


1:2.2 


2 lbs 




3 " 




4 " 




5 " 




6 " 




7 " 




8 " 




9 " 






1:3.2 






" 2 lbs 




< 


" 3 " 




< 


4 " 




< 


" 5 " 




■ 


" 6 " 




• 


" 7 " 




< 


8 " 




« 


9 " 




< 


" 11 " 




< 


" 12 " 




« 


" 15 " 




Brewers' gra 




1:3 


2 lbs 




3 " 




4 " 




5 " 













COMPUTING BALANCED RATIONS 115 

Table n. — Digestible Nutrients in the Stated Amounts op the More Common Feeding-stuffs, continued. 



Kind and amount of feed 



By-products, continued — 
Brewers' grains, dry, 6 lbs. 
'" 7 " 



Buffalo gluten feed, 1 lb. 
" 2 lbs. 



Chicago gluten meal, 1 lb. 

" 2 lbs. 

" 3 " 

« « 4 « 

" 5 " 

" 6 " 

" 7 " 



Distillers' dried grains, 



Bile's xxxx, 



Hominy chops, 



lib. 

2 lbs. 

3 " 

4 " 

5 " 

6 " 

7 " 



Linseed meal (old process), 1 lb. 

2 lbs. 

3 " . 

4 " 

5 " 
" " " 6 " 

7 " 

Linseed meal (new process), 1 lb. 



2 lbs. 

3 " 

4 " 

5 " 

6 " 

7 " 



Cottonseed meal, 



1 lb. 

2 lbs. 

3 " 

4 " 

5 " 



Total dry 
matter 



5.52 
6.44 
7.36 
8.28 

.90 
1.80 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 
5.40 
6.30 
7.20 

.ss 

1.76 
2.64 
3.52 
4.40 
5 28 
6.16 
7.04 



.92 
1.84 
2.76 
3.68 
4.60 
5.52 
6.44 
7.36 

.89 
1.78 
2.67 
3.56 
4.45 
5.34 
6.23 
7.12 
8.01 

.91 
1.82 
2.73 
3.64 
4.55 
5.46 
6.37 

.90 
1.80 
2.70 
3.6CL 
4.50 
5.40 
6.30 

.92 
1.84 
2.76 
3.68 
4.60 



Pounds of digestible nutrients 



.942 
1.099 
1.256 
1.413 

.232 

.464 
.696 
.928 
1.160 
1.392 
1.624 
1.856 

.322 

.644 
.966 
1.288 
1.610 
1.932 
2.254 
2.576 



.24S 

.496 

.744 

.992 

1.240 

1.488 

1.736 

1.984 

.075 

.150 
.225 
.300 
.375 
.450 
.525 
.600 
.675 

.293 

.586 
.879 
1.172 
1.465 
1.758 
2.051 

.282 
.564 
.846 
1.128 
1.410 
1.692 
1.974 

.372 

.744 

1.116 

1.488 

1.860 



Carboby- 

drates-H 

(fatX2.25) 



2.S68 
3.346 
3.824 
4.302 

.699 
1.398 
2.097 
2.796 
3.495 
4.194 
4.893 
5.592 

.468 
.936 
1.404 
1.S72 
2.340 
2.808 
3.276 
3.744 



.552 
1.104 
1.656 
2.208 
2.760 
3.312 
3.864 
4.416 

.705 
1.410 
2.115 
2.820 
3.525 
4.230 
4.935 
5.640 
6.345 

.485 
.970 
1.455 
1.940 
2.425 
2.910 
3.395 

.464 

.928 
1.392 
1.856 
2.320 
2.784 
3.248 

.444 

.888 

1.332 

1.776 

2.220 



3.810 
4.445 
5.080 
5.715 

.931 

1.862 
2.793 
3.724 
4.655 
5.586 
6.517 
7.448 

.790 
1.580 
2.370 
3.160 
3.950 
4.740 
5.530 
6.320 



.800 
1.600 
2.400 
3.200 
4.000 
4.800 
5.600 
6.400 

.780 
1.560 
2.340 
3.120 
3.900 
4.680 
5.460 
6.240 
7.020 

.778 
1.556 
2.334 
3.112 
3.890 
4.668 
5.446 

.746 

1.492 
2.238 
2.984 
3.730 
4.476 
5.232 

.816 
1.632 

2.448 
3.264 
4.080 



Nutritive 
ratio 



1:3 



1:1.5 



1:2.2 



1:9.4 



1:1.7 



1:1.6 



1:1.2 



116 COMPUTING BALANCED RATIONS 

Table II. — Digestible Nutrients in the Stated Amounts of the More Common Feeding-stuffs, continued. 



Kind and amount of feed 



By-products, continued — 
Cottonseed meal, 6 lbs. 
7 " 



Miscellaneous 



lib. 

5 lbs. 
15 " 
20 " 
25 " 
30 " 
35 " 
40 " 



Sugar-beet leaves, 



lib. 

5 lbs. 
15 " 
20 " 
25 " 
30 *' 
35 " 
40 " 



Pea-vine silage, 



lib. 

5 lbs. 
15 " 
20 " 
25 " 
30 " 
35 " 
40 " 



Sugar-beet pulp, 



lib. 

5 lbs. 
15 " 
20 " 
25 " 
30 " 
35 " 
40 " 



Beet molasses, 



Apple pomace, 



lib. 

2 lbs. 

3 " 

4 " 

5 " 

6 " 

7 " 

8 " 

9 " 

1 lb. 

5 lbs. 
15 " 
20 " 
25 " 
30 " 
35 " 
40 " 



Apples, 



lib. 
5 lbs. 



Total dry 
matter 



5.52 
6.44 
7.36 
8.28 



.15 
.75 
2.25 
3.00 
3.75 
4.50 
5.25 
6.00 

.12 
.60 
1.80 
2.40 
3.00 
3.60 
4.20 
4.80 

.27 
1.35 
4.05 
5.40 
6.75 
8.10 
9.45 
10.80 

.10 
.50 
1.50 
2.00 
2.50 
300 
3.50 
4.00 

.79 
1.58 
2.37 
3.16 
3.95 
4.74 
5.53 
6.32 
7.11 

.233 

1.165 
3.495 
4.660 
5.825 
6.990 
8.155 
9.320 

.19 
.95 

2.85 



Pounds of digestible nutrients 



2.232 
2.604 
2.976 
3.348 



.018 
.090 
.270 
.360 
.450 
.540 
.630 
.720 

.017 
.085 
.255 
.340 
.425 
.510 
.595 
.680 

.025 
.125 
.375 
.500 
.625 
.750 
.875 
.900 

.006 
.030 
.090 
.120 
.150 
.180 
.210 
.240 

.091 
.182 
.273 
.364 
.455 
.546 
.637 
.728 
.819 

.011 
.055 
.165 
.220 
.275 
.330 
.385 
.440 

.007 
.035 
.105 



Carbohy- 

drates-h 

(fatX2.25) 



2.664 

3.00S 
3.552 
3.996 



.091 
.445 
1.365 
1.820 
2.275 
2.7.30 
3.185 
3.640 

.051 
.255 
.765 
1.020 
1.275 
1.530 
1.785 
2.040 

.141 
.705 
2.115 
2.820 
3.525 
4.230 
4.935 
5.640 

.073 
.365 
1.095 
1.460 
1.825 
2.190 
2.555 
2.920 

.595 

1.190 
1.785 
2.380 
2.975 
3.570 
4.165 
4.760 
5.355 

.164 
.820 
2.460 
3.280 
4.100 
4.920 
5.740 
6.560 

.188 

.940 

2.820 



4.896 
5.712 
6.528 
7.344 



.109 
.545 
1.635 
2.180 
2.725 
3.270 
3.815 
4.360 

.068 
.340 
1.020 
1.360 
1.700 
2.040 
2.380 
2.720 

.166 
.830 
2.490 
3.320 
4.150 
4.980 
5.810 
6.640 

.079 
.395 
1.185 
1.580 
1.975 
2.370 
2.765 
2.160 

.686 

1.372 
2.058 
2.744 
2.430 
4.116 
4.802 
5.4S8 
6.174 

.175 
.875 
2.625 
3.500 
4.375 
5.250 
6.125 
7.000 

.195 

.975 

2.925 



COMPUTING BALANCED RATIONS 117 

Table LT. — Digestible Nutrients in the Stated Amounts op the More Common Feeding-stuffs, continued 



Kind and amount of feed 



Miscellaneous, concluded — 
Apples, 20 lbs 



25 
30 



Skim-milk, centrifugal, 1 lb. 
5 lbs. 



12 
15 
20 
25 
30 



Buttermilk, 



lib. 

5 lbs. 

8 " 
12 " 
15 " 
20 " 
25 " 
30 " 



Total dry 
matter 



3.90 
4.75 
5.70 

.094 
.470 
.752 
1.128 
1.410 
1.880 
2.350 
2.820 

.10 
.50 
.80 
1.20 
1.50 
2.00 
2.50 
3.00 



Pounds of digestible nutrients 



.140 
.175 
.210 

.029 
.145 
.232 
.348 
.435 
.580 
.725 
.870 

.039 
.195 
.312 
.468 
.585 
.780 
.975 
1.170 



Carbohy- 
drates-i- 
(fatX2.25) 



3.760 
4.700 
5.640 

.059 

.295 

.472 

.708 

.885 

1.180 

1.476 

1.770 

.065 

.325 

.520 

.7S0 

.975 

1.300 

1.625 

1.950 



Total 



3.900 
4.875 
5.850 

.088 
.440 
.704 
1.056 
1.320 
1.760 
2.200 
2.620 

.104 
.520 
.832 
1.248 
1.560 
2.080 
2.600 
3.120 



Nutritive 
ratio 



1:2 



1:1.7 



To illustrate how these tables may be used, we 
will examine a system of feeding which the writer 
observed recently in a certain section of New York, 
and which he was told is extensively practiced. 
The section referred to is devoted almost exclu- 
sively to dairying, and timothy hay constitutes the 
greater part of the coarse fodder during the feed- 
ing season. Oats are about the only grain grown. 
Corn is purchased and ground with the oats, in 
about equal weights, to make "chop" which is fed 
with the hay. The cows will not vary greatly from 
1,000 pounds live weight. While these cows are in 
full flow of milk in the spring before the pasture 
is ready, they are fed about twenty pounds of hay 
and eight pounds of chop per day. Turning to the 
tables, we find that twenty pounds of hay, four 
pounds of oats, and four pounds of corn contain 
digestible nutrients as follows : 



tive ratio of each of the three foods entering into 
the ration. They are: timothy hay, 1:16.6; oats, 
1:6.2; corn, 1:9.7. Neither of them is as narrow 
as the standard, and it is impossible to combine 
them into a ration that is approxi nately balanced. 
Just here is where farmers frequently fail to get 
best results in feeding. The fact that they are 
feeding some concentrates (in this case corn and 
oats) along with the hay misleads them into think- 
ing that the cows are getting a proper ration ; and 
if the cows lay on fat under this carbonaceous diet 
they are the further misled, when, as a matter of 
fact, maximum production is not being secured. 

In this case, as corn is a purchased product, the 
natural suggestion is that the corn should be 
replaced by some food having a high proportion of 
protein, or, in other words, a very narrow nutritive 
ratio. Consulting the table, it is found that among 





Dry matter 


Protein 


C. H. and fat 


Total 


Nutritive ratio 


20 lbs. hay 


17.40 
3.56 
3.56 


.560 

.368 
.316 


9.300 
2.772 
3.056 


9.860 
2.640 
3.372 


















24.52 
24.00 


1.244 
2.5 


14.628 
13.4 


15.872 
15.9 


1:11.7 
1: 5.4 







On comparison of the nutrients furnished by this 
ration with Wolffs standard as given in Table I, it 
is discovered that while the dry matter and total 
nutrients are not far out of the way, the protein is 
much too small, the carbohydrates and fat are 
somewhat too great, while the nutritive ratio is 
far too wide. This result might readily have been 
foreseen had we paused a moment to note the nutri- 



such are linseed meal, cottonseed meal, gluten feed, 
malt-sprouts, buckwheat middlings, and others. As 
buckwheat middlings is a New York state product, 
and can readily be put in stock during the winter, 
it is suggested to substitute it for the corn in the 
ration. Again taking the figures from the table, 
and substituting buckwheat middlings for corn, we 
have : 



118 



NOTES ON STOCK-POISONING 





Dry matter 


Protein 


C. H. and fat 


Total 




17.40 
3.56 
3.48 


.560 
.368 
.880 


9.300 

2.272 
1.824 


9.860 




2.640 
2.704 








24.44 


1.808 


13.396 


15.204 



Nutritive ratio 1:7.4 



While this ration is much improved over the 
previous one, and will produce a more abundant 
flow of milk, it is still too wide to produce the best 
results. 

If the timothy hay is reduced two pounds, and 
two pounds of cottonseed meal put in its place, 
we get : 



corn is used a more proteinaceous concentrate is 
needed than if green clover or alfalfa is used. 

Literature. 

This article is adapted from Bulletin No. 154, 
Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, 
prepared by the writer. 





Dry matter 


Protein 


C. H. and fat 


Total 




15.66 
3.56 
3.48 
1.84 


.504 
.368 
.880 
.744 


8.370 

2.272 

1.824 

.888 


8.874 




2.640 
2.704 




1.632 






Total 


24.54 


2.496 


13.354 


15.850 



Nutritive ratio 1:5.3 



This ration corresponds very closely to the stand- 
ard, and while the purchase of the cottonseed meal 
will add something to the expense, still it is the 
experience of careful feeders that the increased 
production will pay abundantly for thus securing 
a proper balance to the ration. The same result 
may be obtained by using other feeding-stuffs hav- 
ing a narrow nutritive ratio. 

The question is likely to be raised, which of the 
various feeding-stuffs offered in the market may 
be used most economically in supplementing the 
home-grown foods to produce a balanced ration? 
This question is best answered by formulating prop- 
erly balanced rations containing each of the foods 
under consideration, and by assigning the actual 
market value per pound to each of the constituents 
of the ration, its cost is readily ascertained, and 
the cheapest may be selected. 

Supplementing pasture with a balanced ration. 

Often it is necessary or desirable to supplement 
the food received by animals while running on pas- 
ture. Two somewhat different cases may arise. 
First, when the pasturage is fairly abundant but it 
's desired to force production to the highest possi- 
ole point. Since the herbage cropped from pastures 
usually is approximately balanced, in this case the 
supplementary food may consist of concentrates so 
combined as in themselves to have about the nutri- 
tive ration that would be appropriate for the entire 
ration. Second, when the herbage is markedly 
deficient in amount and probably in succulence also. 
In this case it is desirable to provide some bulky 
food as well as some concentrates. These should 
be selected with reference to one another so as in 
themselves to be fairly well balanced. If green 



STOCK -POISONING 

ByiV. S. Mayo 

Malicious poisoning of domestic animals, with 
the exception of dogs and cats, is very rare, but 
accidental poisoning of farm stock is not infre- 
quent. When a number of animals die without 
symptoms of disease, accidental poisoning is to be 
suspected, and a careful examination of the food, 
water, and surrounding conditions should be made, 
to determine the cause. A number of methods of 
poisoning must be considered. Throughout the 
western range country probably the commonest 
source is the eating of poisonous weeds by the 
stock. This phase of the subject is discussed sepa- 
rately in the succeeding article by Wilcox. 

Chemical-poisoning. 

Farm animals are sometimes poisoned by solu- 
tions used for spraying plants or by lead paints, 
and sometimes by nitrate of soda which cattle secure 
by chewing old fertilizer sacks. Sheep are some- 
times poisoned by eating excessive quantities of 
common salt when not accustomed to it. In arid 
regions, stock may be poisoned by drinking alkali 
water. City garbage, sometimes used as food for 
poultry and swine, frequently contains poisonous 
substances, particularly excessive quantities of 
soap, or soap powders in solution. 

When animals are poisoned by chemical sub- 
stances, there is usually severe abdominal pain and 
irritation of the bowels. As most farm animals can 
not vomit, it is advisable to give doses of raw lin- 
seed or castor-oil, followed by linseed-meal gruels, 
with a little fresh milk containing the beaten 
whites of eggs. 



NOTES ON STOCK-POISONING 



119 



Forage -poison ing. 

Conditions of the plants and animals play an im- 
portant part in forage-poisoning. Some plants are 
poisonous only in certain stages of their growth, 
and it is certain that climatic conditions, by check- 
ing the growth of plants, may cause the formation 
or deposition within the tissues of the plant of 
toxic substances that are not present in appreciable 
quantities under normal conditions. 

If an animal is thin in flesh, or hungry, poison- 
ous substances will affect it more seriously, while 
the presence of other foods in the digestive organs 
sometimes tends to modify the effect of the poisons. 
In some cases, the presence of a considerable 
amount of undigested food in the digestive organs 
seems to cause a paralysis of the digestive func- 
tions to such an extent that decomposition of the 
contents of the digestive organs follows, and poison- 
ous substances may be produced and cause death. 

More frequently farm animals suffer from forage- 
poisoning from eating either moldy or decompos- 
ing foods, or plants that contain poisonous sub- 
stances. Any decomposing or moldy food may be 
poisonous for stock, moldy silage, grain and hay 
particularly. Heavy losses of horses occur in some 
years in the middle West from inflammation of the 
brain (Cerebritis) or its coverings (Meningitis), 
commonly called "mad staggers." This disease is 
caused by eating corn that has been injured by the 
green corn-worm and attacked by a mold. Low- 
land hay that contains mold or other fungi may 
cause death, and hay that has been flooded may 
contain sand or other irritating materials that 
cause serious purging of animals. 

Corn-stalk disease. — When stalk-fields are pas- 
tured by cattle after the corn is harvested, fre- 
quent and heavy losses sometimes occur from what 
is called " corn-stalk disease." This disease seems 
to be a combination of acute indigestion and poi- 
soning. It occurs most frequently when cattle are 
first turned into a field or changed from one field 
to another. The disease appears suddenly. The 
animal shews symptoms of abdominal pain, fol- 
lowed by delirium and death usually within 
twenty-four hours. Medical treatment is of little 
value. 

The preventive is to give the cattle access to 
some laxative food, such as green rye, alfalfa or 
alfalfa hay, to give plenty of water and small 
quantities of salt frequently, and never to turn the 
stock into the stalk-fields hungry. 

Sorghum-poisoning. — Sorghum, and particularly 
second-growth sorghum, may contain, under condi- 
tions that are not entirely understood, sufficient 
prussic acid to kill cattle quickly when they pasture 
on it. The animals usually die so quickly that lit- 
tle can be done. If possible, give, as a drench, 
sixty to eighty grains of permanganate of potash 
dissolved in a quart of water. [See Vol. II, page 
581, for fuller notes.] 

Cottonseed meal. 

Cottonseed meal is a rich, easily digested and 
valuable food if fed judiciously. If fed to cattle 
in considerable quantities for more than three 



months it is liable to produce symptoms of poison- 
ing. It contains alkaloids, betain and cholin, and 
these or others seem to have a cumulative effect. 
There is a peculiar vacant stare, impaired vision 
and twitching or trembling of the voluntary mus- 
cles. As soon as the symptoms are noticed, the 
cottonseed meal should be withheld. 

Swine are more easily poisoned by cottonseed 
meal than cattle. The symptoms are drowsiness, 
labored breathing, feeble heart-action when exer- 
cised, congestion of the lungs and irritation of the 
bowels. Swine following cattle that are full-fed 
on cottonseed meal may get sufficient to cause 
poisoning. The amount required to affect animals 
varies with the amount and kind of other foods 
that they receive. Six pounds of cottonseed daily 
to cattle on full feed is nearly the limit, and even 
this may be injurious. 

Poisonous Weeds and Their Eradication 

By E. V. Wilcox 

The problems connected with plant-poisoning of 
stock have been brought to the farmers' attention 
in parts of the country by the loss of stock as a 
result of feeding these weeds. The variety and 
number of poisonous weeds are much greater in 
the western states than in the more thickly 
settled parts of the East. This obviously is due to 
the fact that in the eastern states land is more 
valuable and is more systematically cultivated. 
There is, therefore, a smaller proportion of native 
pasture land. Pastures are plowed ^ 

from time to time, cultivated to 
various crops, and allowed to run to 
pasture again. As a result, the for- 
age found in such pastures belongs to 
cultivated species of grasses and 
contains comparatively few weeds 
of a poisonous nature. 

In the western states, however, 
particularly in the range country, 
many wild species of poisonous 
plants are found and, for the most 
part, are enabled to persist for the 
reason that no cultivation is at- 
tempted on range lands. In favor- 
able seasons, the amount of grass 
and other valuable forage plants on 
range land is sufficient for the main- 
tenance of stock. In seasons of short 
grass, however, the amount of whole- 
some forage may be insufficient for 
the stock which grazes on range land, 
and the stock, therefore, may be 
forced by hunger to eat unpalatable 
or poisonous weeds that they other- 
wise would not touch. The extent of 
plant-poisoning, therefore, is an in- 
dication of the condition of the 
range. In the earlier days when the Death' camas 
range was not so badly overstocked, (Zynadenus 
cases of poisoning were of much less 
frequent occurrence. With the over-crowding of 
the range, however, and consequent destruction of 




120 



NOTES ON STOCK-POISONING 



the grass, plant-poisoning has become a more seri- 
ous problem. 

Death eamas. (Fig 104.) 

Among the important poisonous plants of the 
western states, death camas (Zygadenus venenosus) 
occupies a prominent place. This plant is distrib- 
uted from British Columbia to Nebraska and 
westward to California. It is known by various 
common names, such as crowfoot, lobelia and wild 
onion, in various parts of the country. It grows at 
altitudes from 1,500 to 8,000 feet. It is a smooth, 
single-stemmed, perennial plant with onion-like 
bulb, narrow leaves which appear early in the 
spring, spreading apart in such a manner as to 
suggest the name crowfoot. The leaves are some- 
what more succulent than grass and appear before 
most grasses have started in the spring. The plant 
therefore appears tempting and is frequently eaten, 
especially by sheep, with serious consequences. 
Throughout the western states losses are reported 
from eating this plant. In general, about 20 per 
cent of the cases appear to be fatal. The bulb is 
also poisonous to man. The symptoms of poisoning 
are uneasiness and irregularity in movement, 
accompanied soon by spasms and rapid breathing. 
Later the animals show almost complete paralysis 
and lie on their side with rapid respiration and 
frequent irregular pulse. In some cases death 
results within one or two hours, while in others 
the animal may lie on the side one to two days. 

The best means of counteracting the poisonous 
effects of this plant have been found in the use of 
permanganate of potash. As a drench, for sheep 
about five to ten grains, for horses fifteen to 
twenty grains, and for cattle thirty to fifty grains, 
are suitable doses. The permanganate of potash 
can be combined with an equal amount of sulfate 
of aluminum, and both should be dissolved before 
being administered. This antidote is not a physio- 
logical one but depends for its efficiency on a 
chemical action. Permanganate of potash is an 
active oxydizer and readily renders harmless poi- 
sonous substances with which it comes in contact in 
the stomach. They are thereby prevented being ab- 
sorbed in a poisonous condition. If the symptoms 
of poisoning are observed soon enough the animal 
may be saved in most cases by this remedy, and, 
since its action is chemical and not specifically 
physiological, it is obviously indicated as a remedy 
in the case of poisoning by other plants. 

Larkspur and aconite. (Fig. 105.) 

Another important group of plants that cause 
poisoning of live-stock includes the larkspurs and 
aconite. Some of the larkspurs are commonly called 
aconite by stockmen. Many of the species of lark- 
spur have been shown to be poisonous, particularly 
Delphinium bieolor and D. glaucum. The symptoms 
of poisoning from larkspur are a rapid respiration 
and pulse, slight lowering of the body tempera- 
ture, profuse sweating, and occasional bloat. The 
western species of aconite (Aconitum Columbianum) 
is not the same as the one that is commonly used 
in the preparation of the well-known drug, but it 



has been shown to contain poison in the leaves, 
stems, and roots. 

The antidotes that have proved successful in the 
treatment of such cases of poisoning are perman- 
ganate of potash, as mentioned for death camas 
poisoning, and physiological antidotes to counteract 
the effect of larkspur. These include atropin in 
doses of one-sixth to one-third grain, depending on 
the size of the sheep, and in corresponding doses in 




Fig. 105. Purple larkspur, young plant (Delphinium bieolor). 



larger animals. Atropin is a heart stimulant and 
exercises an immediate effect in counteracting the 
influence of the alkaloid of larkspur on the heart 
and respiration. In mild cases of poisoning by 
larkspur, the administration of a tablespoonful of 
ammonia, or a half-cupful of alcohol in water may 
give good results. The use of ammonia fumes in 
the nostrils is sometimes successful. Atropin should 
be administered in a solution of water as a hypo- 
dermic injection. 

Water hemlock. (Fig. 167, Vol. II). 

In the western range country, along moist places 
and waterways, various species of water hemlock 
are found, which are extremely poisonous in nearly 
all stages of growth. One of the most common 
species is Cicuta occidentalis. This is a smooth per- 
ennial, two to five feet high, with long, fleshy roots, 
large-branched leaves, and flat-topped clusters of 
greenish white flowers. It is commonly known 
among stockmen as wild parsnip. This plant has 
been shown to be very poisonous to sheep, cattle, 
and other domestic animals, as well as to man. 
The symptoms of poisoning are evidences of acute 
pain, frenzy, muscular spasms, irregular respira- 
tion, and a hard pulse. In some cases death takes 
place within fifteen minutes, and nearly always the 
symptoms are more violent than in other cases of 
plant-poisoning. As a rule, the symptoms develop 
so rapidly that permanganate of potash can not be 
used. Occasionally the administration of morphine 
or chloral hydrate gives relief, but these drugs can 
not be depended on. 



NOTES ON STOCK-POISONING 



121 



Loco-weed (Fig. 106). 

Since the earliest days of the range business the 
loco-weed has been referred to as the cause of the 
so-called loco condition in animals. Many attempts 
have been made to determine the poisonous prin- 
ciple which may be found in these plants, but with- 
out success. In Colorado it was supposed that loco 
acid was found in the common species of loco-weed 
of that state, but this has not been substantiated. 
In Colorado and Kansas the most common species 
of loco-weed is Astragalus mollissimus, while in 
Montana the name is usually applied to species of 
Aragallus, especially *4. spicatus. Nearly all stock- 
men of the western range have had experience with 
loco, and in some cases the raising of horses, sheep 
and cattle on certain tracts of range has been 
abandoned because of the persistence of this trouble. 
Notwithstanding the numerous investigations that 
have been made, however, the exact cause of the 
trouble still appears doubtful. Several diseases have 
been referred to by this name. In some instances, 
cases of gid in sheep have been called loco, in others 
a condition of anemia and malnutrition due to 
scarcity of forage is the cause of the trouble. 
Stomach worms and the common tapeworm of the 
sheep have also been supposed to cause loco disease. 
It is impossible, however, for this to be the main 
cause of loco, since stomach-worms are compara- 
tively rare in the region where loco most prevails, 
and very abundant in the eastern states where loco 
is unknown. It still appears to be probable that 



$% I 




Fig. 106. Wnite loco-weed (.Aragallus spicatus). 



some of the cases referred to as loco disease are due 
to eating the plants referred to above. 

No direct antidote or medicinal treatment has 
been worked out for this trouble. Numerous stock- 
men, however, have found that by confining the 
stock in corrals, preventing their feeding on loco- 



_ weeds, and giving them plenty of nutritious forage, 
such as alfalfa, grains, and root crops, the symp- 
toms of loco disappear and the animals may again 
become useful. In the case of horses, the affected 
animal may become apparently normal, but he is not 
strictly reliable and may show fright from time to 
time without apparent cause. In the case of sheep, 
however, the conditions are different, since these 
animals are not considered so good for breeding 
purposes after having once become locoed. They 
are therefore fattened as soon as possible and sold 
for mutton. No injurious properties attach to 
mutton of locoed sheep. 

Cockle-bur. 

The common cockle-bur (Xanthium Canadense), 
when very young and in the two-leaved stage of 
its growth, may be very 
poisonous for swine and 
sometimes for cattle. The 
animals seem greatly de- 
pressed and die quickly. 
The treatment is to give 
permanganate of potash 
followed by stimulants. 

Miscellaneous poisonous 
plants. 

Among the numerous 
other poisonous plants of 
less importance, mention 
should be made of lupines 
(Fig. 107), ergot, swamp 
camas, milk -weed, corn 
flower, nightshades, 
sneeze-weed, dogbane, 
bane-berry, laurels, and 
Wild cherry (Fig. 108). 
Hay containing the com- 
mon horsetail (Equisetum arvense) sometimes causes 
poisoning of horses. 

Protective measures. 

An important point to consider in connection 
with poisonous plants is that the poisonous princi- 
ples are not always present but may appear only 
at one stage of growth, and be absent at all other 
stages, or may be strictly localized in only one 
part of the plant, as for example in the root or 
seeds. This is strikingly the case in lupines, which 
are used extensively for grazing and for hay and 
which, under ordinary circumstances, are exceed- 
ingly valuable for this purpose. At times, how- 
ever, the poisonous principle appears particularly in 
the ripe seed and causes extensive losses, especially 
among sheep. In a few instances, 1,500 to 2,000 
sheep have been killed thus within a few hours. 
The farmer should bear in mind, therefore, that a 
plant is not shown to be harmless by feeding in 
one stage without bad results. Many sheepmen 
have learned this fact by sad experience. 

In order to prevent serious results from poison- 
ous plants, it is desirable to improve the grazing 
conditions for stock so that animals will not be 
forced to eat the poisonous plants. If such plants 




Fig. 107. 

Poison lupine {Impinus leuco- 

phyllus). 



122 



DISEASES AND MANAGEMENT OF ANIMALS 



are studied by the ranchmen and farmers it will 
be observed that they have different habitats and 
may be expected to occur under these conditions. 
It is possible, therefore, in many instances to 
eradicate a poisonous plant from a given range 
with little expense, since it may occur only in a 
few restricted localities. 
When such eradication 
is impossible, because of 
the general distribution 
of the plant, poisoning 
i, from this source may be 
glM! avoided by dividing the 
range so as to keep the 
stock away from the 
poisonous areas during 
the season of the year 
when the plant is poi- 
sonous. By this system 
it is unnecessary to lose 
the use of any part of 
the range, and the ranch- 
man is insured against 
losses from plant-poi- 
soning. Certain stock- 
men, particularly in the 
range states, have found 
that animals are especi- 
ally likely to eat poi- 
sonous plants along 
streams and marshy places. In such localities the 
poisonous plants may be eradicated by digging, or 
the danger may be greatly lessened by sowing 
grass seed so as to improve the quality of the 




Fig. 108. Western wild cheny 
(Primus demissa). A stock- 
poisouing shrub. 



forage in these places, thus minimizing the promi- 
nence and importance of the undesirable weeds. 

Literature. 

The following list of references contains some of 
the more important articles on poisonous plants in 
this country : V. A. Moore, Cornstalk Disease, Bul- 
letin No. 10, Bureau of Animal Industry; V. K. 
Chesnut and E. V. Wilcox, The Stock-Poisoning 
Plants of Montana, Division of Botany, Bulletin No. 
26 ; J. W. Blankinship, The Loco and Some Other 
Poisonous Plants in Montana, Montana Bulletin 
No. 45 ; E. V. Wilcox, Larkspur Poisoning of 
Sheep, Montana Bulletin No. 15 ; E. V. Wilcox, 
Lupines, etc., as Poisonous Plants, Montana Bulletin 
No. 22; N. S. Mayo, Poisoning of Stock, American 
Veterinary Medical Association, 1902; D. A. Brodie, 
Poison Parsnip in Western Washington, Washing- 
ton Bulletin, No. 45 ; U. P. Hedrick, Cicuta 
Vagans, Oregon Bulletin No. 46 ; N. S. Mayo, .Some 
Observations on Loco, Kansas Bulletin No. 35 ; H. 
B. Slade, Stock-Poisoning in Idaho, Idaho Bulletin, 
No. 37 ; C. E. Bessey, Poisonous Weeds, Nebraska 
Experiment Station Report, Pages 14-62 ; V. K. 
Chesnut, Principal Poisonous Plants of the United 
States, Division of Botany, Bulletin No. 20 ; F. A, 
Rich, The Common Horsetail, Vermont Bulletin No. 
95 ; F. W. Morse, Poisonous Properties of the Wild 
Cherry Leaves, New Hampshire Experiment Station, 
Bulletin No. 56 ; B. D. Halsted, The Poisonous 
Plants of New Jersey, New Jersey Experiment 
Station, Bulletin No. 135 ; L. Van Es and L. R. 
Waldron, Some Stock-Poisoning Plants of North 
Dakota, North Dakota Bulletin No. 58. 



CHAPTER V 



DISEASES AND MANAGEMENT OF ANIMALS 

By JAMES LAW 

ISEASES LARGELY DETERMINE the character and the 

profitableness of live-stock interests. These diseases are the 

special field of study of the veterinarian. The value of 

veterinary medicine to the United States may be inferred 

from the number of farm quadrupeds — over 200,000,000, — 

worth four and a half billions of dollars, and subject to all 

kinds of accidents and sporadic diseases. The saving of but 

one-half of one per cent of this stock would mean a yearly 

revenue of some twenty millions of dollars and could easily 

strike the balance between success and failure. If we consider further that the 

'""■ig-g^™ fertility of our soil depends in the final count on the number of live-stock 

and the quantity of their products that can be used as fertilizer, we enhance the value of any great 

increase in our flocks and herds almost beyond computation. 

A successful live-stock industry, and the soil fertility which comes from a dense aggregation of 
animals, depend far more on the prevention and exclusion of communicable diseases, than on the 
skilful dealing with the common every-day affections which are not transmissible. Formerly rinderpest 
ravaged Europe at frequent intervals, as soon as the few recovered and immune animals had been 




DISEASES AND MANAGEMENT OF ANIMALS 123 

replaced by susceptible ones. In the eighteenth century, rinderpest alone cost Europe 20,000,000 head 
of cattle worth $1,000,000,000. From 1843 to 1892 lung plague cost the United States, on exports 
alone, $2,000,000 per annum. Foot-and-mouth disease, wherever it penetrated, paralyzed the dairy 
industry, and, attacking all bisulcates and many other warm-blooded animals, caused incalculable losses. 

The two diseases — lung-plague and foot-and-mouth disease — are the only two animal plagues that, 
in America, have been placed in the hands of accomplished veterinary sanitarians with plenary power 
to extirpate them, and each has been exterminated and banished from the continent. This safe- 
guarding of the country from these alone abolished at once a yearly tax of many millions from which 
the nation had been suffering, and cut off the steadily increasing additions to this tax which would 
otherwise have been imposed by their inevitable progressive extension. 

Our remaining animal plagues present other problems in sanitary economy, but they are allowed 
to prevail and extend with no such effective control as gives promise of their extinction. At least 
three different febrile plagues of swine carry off tens of millions of dollars yearly ; contagious 
abortion of cows is now almost coextensive with the dairy interest, and in place of intelligent sani- 
tary control is made the occasion of the widespread sale of empirical nostrums which claim to 
prevent a repetition of abortion by the same animal, a work which unaided nature accomplishes. 
Contagious abortion can be in most cases exterminated, but this entails the most stringent measures 
against any transfer from a herd in which the disease exists or has existed. With this enforced, 
preventive treatment can be made successful in destroying the germ and eradicating the disease. 
But with free sales, and a disease progressing unseen for six or eight months, without manifest 
symptoms, in what appears to be a perfectly healthy animal, it will continue to be propagated with 
disastrous result. 

Texas fever has long dwarfed the cattle industry of the South. The coast states from Virginia 
to Texas, if stocked like Illinois, could easily sustain 40,000,000 head worth $1,500,000,000. The 
southern cattle industry is awaking to the truth that the systematic extermination of the cattle 
tick, the bearer of the germ, would be a most remunerative investment. 

The common shipping fevers of dealers' horses, strangles, influenza and contagious pneumonia, cause 
untold losses to the country every year, and it is a very risky speculation to buy a young horse that has 
just run the gauntlet of railway cars, feeding-stables, stock-yards and sale-stables. As in the case of 
other plagues, these could all be done away with under a system which required an official guarantee of 
the absence of infection from the district from which the shipment takes place ; the obligation of the 
carrying companies to carry no solipeds without this evidence, and to have all cars and stables thoroughly 
disinfected after each shipment ; also the obligation on dealers to admit only such guaranteed horses, 
and instantly to quarantine all sick horses, and such as have been exposed to them. 

At present, tuberculosis occupies the public mind more than any other contagious disease of animals. 
Its extension has been almost phenomenal in spite of the ineffective measures taken for its control. 
The great extension of the dairy industry has led to the demand for a herd in full milk all through the 
year. Failing cows are sold and replaced by fresh ones, and in many cases the whole herd is changed in 
the course of a year. Every such purchase is in the nature of a gamble, with the added risk that the 
former owner is anxious to get rid of his unthrifty or unhealthy cows, rather than the sound and thrifty. 
Some states have been especially unhappy in their trade in dairy cows. Adjacent states have refused 
dairy cows from outside sources, unless they have just successfully passed through the tuberculin 
test. Thus the sound cows have been selected out of the herds in the unprotected region, leaving 
the diseased ones huddled together in a concentrated infection. Under such a condition, tuberculosis 
makes more rapid progress. The latter state, on its part, may have required no tuberculin test, so 
that stock-owners in adjacent states could ship into it the still healthy-looking cows that had failed 
to pass the tuberculin test, thereby making tuberculosis still more concentrated. Again, shipments 
of cows into a large market, were there tested, and the healthy sent into adjoining states, with a 
certificate of soundness, while the tuberculous were left to be sold. As an illustration of the extent 
to which tuberculosis may spread, it may be stated that in fifteen years the percentage of cows found 
to be tuberculous in testing dairy herds in New York, rose from 11.6 per cent in 1892 to 36 per 
cent in 1904-7, in the herds that were tested. 

Aside from infectious diseases, there are endless varieties of animal parasitism, and an accurate 
knowledge of the habits of each species is imperative. Every stock-owner should secure this knowl- 
edge, while practicing veterinarians and veterinary sanitary officers, who have failed to master it, 
are themselves injurious parasites on the body politic. 



124 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 

By Veranus A. Moore 

The term "disease" is employed to indicate the 
existence of disturbances of the physiological 
activity of the organs. It is a deviation from the 
healthy or normal anatomical and chemical rela- 
tions of the body constituents. Diseases, therefore, 
are processes which are due to natural causes. 
The causes which disturb the normal conditions of 
the animal body are numerous but they may be 
summarized under the following headings : (1) 
Disturbances of nutrition, depending on improper 
kinds or quantities of food. (2) Lack of oxygen, 
resulting from poor ventilation or obstruction to 
respiration. (3) Functional disturbances, due to 
over-exercise or work, or to a lack of the neces- 
sary amount of body activity. (4) Thermic influ- 
ences, depending on too high or too low tempera- 
tures. (5) Electric agencies. (6) Mechanical 
injuries. (7) Poisons. (8) Infection. (9) Animal 
parasites. The diseased conditions produced in the 
animal body by malnutrition, over-work, poor 
hygiene and the injurious effects of electricity and 
thermal disturbances are known as general dis- 
eases ; those due to parasites are called parasitisms, 
and those caused by microorganisms are known as 
infectious diseases. The diseased conditions due to 
infection are known under two headings, namely, 
wound infection and specific infectious diseases. 

Infection. 

The term infection has come to be understood to 
mean the entrance into the animal body, from 
without, of living microorganisms, capable of 
multiplying within the living tissues and of pro- 
ducing, in consequence thereof, a local or a general 
diseased condition; and, possibly, the death of the 
individual. The invading microorganisms may be- 
long to any one of the three great groups of micro- 
scopic life, namely, bacteria, higher fungi, or 
protozoa. 

A diseased condition produced by substances not 
capable of reproducing themselves, as, for example, 
organic or inorganic chemical compounds, is an 
intoxicative process, or poisoning. In an infection, 
the immediate cause of the symptoms and morbid 
changes in the tissues is an intoxication due to the 
action of the metabolic products (toxins) of the 
invading microorganisms. 

If the invading organisms remain at the point 
of entrance and produce local tissue changes, such 
as inflammation or abscesses, the condition is spoken 
of as a wound infection. If the invading bacteria 
become widely distributed in the circulation and 
tissues, giving rise to a high temperature and other 
body disturbances, the condition is known as septi- 
cemia or bacterdemia. If the infecting bacteria 
remain at the point of entrance and multiply there, 
elaborating a toxin which is absorbed, and which 
causes symptoms and possibly death, the condition 
is a toxemia. If there is a febrile condition, result- 
ing from the absorption of the products of putre- 
faction caused by saprophytic bacteria, the condition 
is called sapremia. If the invading organism is one 



possessed of definite pathogenic properties, such as 
the bacterium of anthrax, giving rise to a definite 
series of symptoms and lesions, the affection is 
designated a specific infectious disease. 

Through the agency of metastasis, invading 
microorganisms may be carried from the point of 
introduction to other parts of the body, where they 
may become localized, multiply, and give rise to 
any one of many forms of disease. It may happen 
that the point of entrance is so obscure that the 
resulting morbid changes are not easily traced to 
an external infection. There are many illustrations 
of this, such, for example, as localized inflamma- 
tions or abscesses. As already stated, for conve- 
nience in discussion infections may be divided into 
two clinical groups, namely, wound infections and 
specific infectious diseases, although in certain 
instances they can not be separated. 

In the study of the various forms of infection in 
the lower animals, many lesions seem to be pro- 
duced by bacteria which are harbored normally on 
the skin. When these organisms are introduced by 
accident into the living tissues they multiply and 
acquire (if they did not already possess it) the 
power to produce tissue changes. Recent investi- 
gations point to the conclusion that domesticated 
animals frequently suffer as a result of the inva- 
sion of bacteria at present not listed among the 
pathogenic organisms, and what is true in this 
regard for bacteria may be hypothetically applied 
to fungi and to the protozoa. 

Channels of infection. 

There are a number of ways by which micro- 
organisms may be introduced into the living tissues 
of the animal body. The more common of these are 
as follows, namely : 

(1) Through the digestive tract. — Bacteria gain 
entrance into the tissues from the digestive tract 
where they have been brought with the food or 
water. It is not clear in all cases how the invading 
organisms get into the tissues from the intestine. 
It has been demonstrated that tubercle bacteria 
will pass through the mucosa with fat globules in 
the process of digestion and absorption. 

(2) Through the respiratory tract. — Bacteria are 
taken into the lungs, where they are brought with 
the inhaled atmosphere. Pulmonary tubercular 
affection is often brought about in this way. 

(3) Through abrasions of the skin or intestinal 
mucosa. — The wide distribution of bacteria in 
nature renders it highly probable that in all 
wounds of the integument microorganisms will 
reach the fresh tissues. They may come from the 
cutting or tearing implement, the particles of dirt 
which may fall into or on the cut surface, or from 
the ducts of the glands of the skin itself. It may 
happen that the fresh tissues thus exposed are 
infected with one or with several species of bacte- 
ria. It may be that one or more of these spe- 
cies may be destroyed by the living juices of the 
body, or by the leucocytes, or again it is possible 
that, from their saprophytic nature, they may not 
be able to multiply in this new environment ; in 
either case, the infection is of no significance, and 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 



125 



clinically would not be recognized. It may happen 
that only one species of the infecting bacteria mul- 
tiplies and produces the morbid changes. This 
would be a single infection. If, however, two or 
more species cooperate in the production of the 
lesions, it is called a mixed infection. This term 
is also used to designate the condition when one 
species may be responsible for the tissue changes, 
although other bacteria are present but only in an 
accidental or passive way. 

(4) Through the generative organs. — Infection of 
the reproductive organs takes place in certain 
instances when they are the seat of the disease. 
This is especially true in case of dourine. 

(5) Through the agency of insects. — Some insects 
carry the virus of certain diseases from the infected 
and introduce it into the susceptible individuals. 
Thus, the mosquito carries the Plasmodium of 
human malaria, the cattle tick the piroplasma of 
Texas cattle fever, and flies are often the intro- 
ducers of pathogenic bacteria, such as those of 
anthrax. In certain instances, as with malaria, a 
part of the life cycle of the microorganism takes 
place in the body of the carrying insect. 

(6) Transmission of the virus from the parent to 
the fetus. — Occasionally the young are born infected 
with the disease with which one or both of its 
parents were suffering. In these cases the specific 
bacteria were transmitted either from the sire at 
the time of coition, or later to the fetus in the 
uterus from the dam. It is important not to con- 
fuse these rare cases with those in which the off- 
spring are born uninfected, but subsequently con- 
tract the disease. Many of the so-called hereditary 
diseases are the result of post-natal infection. 

Wound infections. 

Many diseased conditions of animals result from 
the local effects of bacteria or fungi getting into 
the tissues through cuts or abrasions of the skin. 
These usually appear as acute or chronic inflam- 
mations, with or without suppurations. In wound 
infection, the invading organism is not always of 
the same species. It is because of the fact that 
wound infection lesions may be caused by a number 
of different bacteria that they cannot be classed 
among the specific infectious diseases. It is ob- 
served further, that in many of these lesions two or 
more species have been responsible for the results. 
There is no symptom or manifestation of tissue 
changes by which one can determine the specificity 
of the exciting cause. If this is done it requires a 
bacteriological examination. A large number of 
species of bacteria and a few fungi are included 
among the organisms which are known to produce 
wound infections in animals. Fungi and protozoa 
are rarely found in acute wound infection. Many of 
the specific pathogenic bacteria may be introduced 
through wounds. In addition to the usual disorders 
following wound infection, there are many lesions 
that develop in the animal body, which are the 
direct result of bacterial invasion. These are known 
by various names. 

(1) Botryomycosis. — This name has been given to 
a variety of lesions found more commonly on the 



horse but occurring also in cattle, swine and other 
animals. The thickened spermatic cord (scirrhous 
cord) which sometimes follows castration is the 
most common form of this disease. Practitioners 
often designate as botryomycosis certain closed 
abscesses occurring in the subcutaneous or inter- 
muscular tissue. Abscesses and nodules found in 
the internal organs have also been included under 
this caption. Several species of pus-producing bac- 
teria have been isolated from these lesions. In- 
vestigations which have been made into the bac- 
terial flora of the skin of the horse show that 
pyogenic bacteria are frequently present in the 
deeper layers of the epidermis, in ducts of glands 
and about the hair shafts. With the possibility of 
infection from the integument in addition to all the 
other chances of having bacteria introduced into 
the body, there seems to be abundant opportunity 
for infection. The source of infection in the cord 
is to be found in the unsterilized or non-disinfected 
skin, improperly sterilized instruments, dressings, 
or the hands of the operator. The fact is worthy 
of note in this connection that septicemia, peri- 
tonitis, and other more distantly localized lesions 
occasionally follow such infections. 

(2) Infectious suppurative cellulitis. — Cattle and 
sheep often suffer from inflammatory conditions of 
the subcutaneous tissues, especially of the lower 
extremities. Frequently the morbid process extends 
beneath the hoof, causing it to slough or to 
undergo resulting disintegration changes. When 
this condition exists, the affection is usually called 
"foot rot." If the inflammatory process attacks 
the skin also, the condition is often designated as 
erysipelas. If it becomes circumscribed, resulting 
in a local suppuration, an abscess or an ulcer is the 
result. The investigations which have been made 
concerning the cause of these lesions point to the 
conclusion that they result from an infection, 
usually with streptococci, through some slight 
abrasion of the skin. It frequently happens that a 
number of animals subjected to the same conditions 
are attacked at the same time, giving rise to a . 
condition resembling an epizootic. 

(3) Fistulous withers and poll-evil. — These con- 
ditions, which consist of inflammation leading to 
suppuration of the withers and poll, are due to in- 
fection. The mechanical injuries commonly attrib- 
uted as the primary cause consist usually of little 
more than skin irritation from ill-fitting harnesses, 
or saddles, or from blows. While these are mechanic- 
ally not extensive, they are sufficient to liberate 
into the juices of the subjacent tissues the bacteria 
deeply seated in the integument. The inflammatory 
process leading to suppuration, the formation of 
fistulas, the new formation of fibrous tissue in the 
affected parts, and even the bone necrosis occasion- 
ally seen, are all possible and rational results of 
the activities of the pyogenic bacteria found in the 
lesions. 

(4) Infectious mastitis. (Fig. 109.) — Cattle suf- 
fer frequently from an acute inflammation of the 
udder as the result of bacterial invasion. It seems 
likely that many cases are brought about primarily 
by mechanical injuries, which render possible the 



126 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 



entrance into the fresh tissues of the bacteria of 
the skin or of the milk ducts. Other cases may b3 
due to infection through the teat by bacteria capa- 
ble of producing the inflammatory condition with- 
out a distinct injury to the mucous membrane. The 
former view that there was a sphincter muscle near 
the base of the teat, which closed the duct suffi- 
ciently to prevent the entrance of bacteria to the 




% * 

Fig. 109. Streptococci from the udder of a cow suffering from 
infectious mastitis, showing also pus corpuscles and fat 
globules. 

secreting parts of the gland, was not well founded 
on anatomical facts. The acute and more chronic 
inflammatory affections of the udder fall very 
naturally into two groups, namely, (1) those in 
which the parenchyma is most affected and (2) 
those in which the stroma or fibrous tissue is invol- 
ved. The form more frequently encountered as an 
infectious (transmissible) disease is characterized 
by very marked changes in the milk, accompanied 
by the usual symptoms of parenchymatous inflam- 
mation of the gland itself. 

(5) Navel-ill or omphalophlebitis. — This disease 
consists of suppurative lesions in young animals, 
caused by bacteria. In the horse they are most 
often localized in the joints of the limbs (polyar- 
thritis). In certain other species the lesions are as 
likely to be situated elsewhere in the body. The 
infection takes place in the umbilicus. As the cord 
is severed in the field or stable, bacteria may gain 
access to the end of the exposed and freshly severed 
cord. In the colt, streptococci seem to be the most 
common species of bacteria capable of producing 
the joint abscesses. In lambs the colon bacillus is 
more frequently associated with the subcutaneous 
cellulitis. The prevention in these cases consists 
in the proper disinfection and dressing of the 
umbilicus at the time the cord is severed. It is the 
only preventive measure known. 

(6) White scours or diarrhea in calves. — This is 
a disease affecting calves from a few hours to as 
many days old, with a mortality ranging from 50 
to 90 per cent. The investigations which have 
been made in this country have revealed the pres- 
ence of colon bacilli. Nocard reported finding other 
species of bacteria. He found that the calves 
usually die during the first week. In more chronic 
cases, lung lesions were found. His inquiries tend 
to show that this is primarily due to a wound 
infection. He states in his report concerning the 



nature of this disease that it usually lasts 3 to 6 
days and is characterized by an intense intestinal 
discharge. The discharges are always of the nature 
of a diarrhea — white and frothy. The calves lose 
flesh rapidly, their flanks are hollow, abdomen 
retracted, back arched, eyes sunken, and hair dull. 
The lesions found at the autopsy vary. Usually 
the umbilicus is large and the umbilical blood ves- 
sels have indurated walls and contain blood clots 
which may be soft and purulent. Bloody extrava- 
sations are observed, sometimes very extensive, 
along the umbilical vessel and the urachus, extend- 
ing sometimes to the posterior third of the bladder. 
White scours is ordinarily the result of umbilical 
infection which takes place at the time of birth by 
way of the wound made by the rupture of the cord. 
Nocard found that this trouble could be prevented 
if the person in charge of the animals at the time 
of their delivery takes precautions to prevent 
infection. 

(7) Miscellaneous infections. — Attention should be 
called to the many morbid conditions resulting from 
infection that are encountered in different species 
of animals and are liable to be attributed to other 
agencies. Among these may be mentioned pericar- 
ditis, pleuritis, peritonitis, and abscess formation 
in different parts of the body. 

[Gay, A Bacteriological Study of Fistulous With- 
ers, Botryomycosis and Infected Wounds in the 
Horse, American Veterinary Review, Vol. XXIV, 
p. 877 (1901) ; Nocard, A New Pasteurellose : 
White Scours and Lung Diseases of Calves in Ire- 
land, American Veterinary Review, Vol. XXV, 
p. 326 (1901) ; Ward, The Invasion of the Udder by 
Bacteria, Bulletin No. 178, Cornell University 
Agricultural Experiment Station (1900).] 

Specific infectious diseases. 

A specific infectious disease is the result of the 
multiplication within the animal body of a single 
species of a disease-producing microorganism. The 
lesions may be local or general, but the cause pro- 
ducing them is always the same. Thus, Bacterium 
anthracis will produce a disease which is called 
anthrax ; no other cause will produce it, and no 
matter how much the lesions may vary in different 
individuals, if they are produced by this species of 
bacteria the disease is anthrax. It is clear, there- 
fore, that there is no hard and fast line between a 
simple (single) wound infection and a recognized 
infectious or epizootic disease, except in the nature 
of the invading organism. As a class the specific 
infectious diseases are differentiated from the 
lesions known clinically as wound infections in a 
number of ways, and there is usually a difference 
in the mode of infection. The virus of the epizo- 
otic disease is ordinarily introduced through the 
digestive or respiratory tract or by means of in- 
sects, while in wound infection the virus is intro- 
duced, as the term implies, through the injured 
skin or mucous membrane. 

It is very important not to mistake for an infec- 
tious disease some form of body disturbance due to 
a local cause or condition. Animals often suffer 
from improper food and the conditions of life under 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 



127 



which they are compelled to live. It frequently 
happens that as all of the animals in a given herd 
are subjected to like conditions, a number of them, 
perhaps all, will manifest very similar symptoms 
and more or less of them die. Such an occurrence 
often gives rise to the supposition that the cause 
of death is some form of infection. Deaths from 
such causes or under such conditions should be care- 
fully distinguished from an epizootic. In differen- 
tiating a non-infectious disorder from a specific 
disease, it is important, and usually sufficient, to 
take into account the appended characteristics of 
an infectious disease. 

(1) Cause. — An infectious disease is caused by a 
specific agent. This necessitates an exposure to 
and an infection with the specific organism. 

(2) Period of incubation. — The infection must be 
followed by a certain period of incubation before 
the development of symptoms. This is the time 
necessary for the invading microorganism to become 
established in the body, and to bring about the first 
symptoms of the disease. The incubation period 
varies in different diseases, and to a certain degree 
in the same disease, according to the mode of infec- 
tion and the resistance of the individual. Usually 
the incubation period of a given disease is practic- 
ally the same for all individuals of the same species 
when subjected to the same mode of infection. 
Exceptions, however, are not rare. 

(3) Lesions or tissue changes. — The morbid 
anatomy of an infectious disease is usually nearly 
the same in animals suffering in the same outbreak, 
especially when they were infected at or about the 
same time. It is more common for only a few indi- 
viduals in a herd to be infected in the beginning 
and from these first cases for other animals to con- 
tract the disease. In many epizootics, the disease 
appears in an acute form in the first animals at- 
tacked, while those infected later in the course of 
the outbreak suffer from a chronic form of the 
affection : in other outbreaks, the first cases are 
chronic in nature, and the later ones acute. 

(4) Duration. — In animals, as in man, most of the 
infectious diseases are self-limited, but as a rule 
the percentage of fatal cases is much larger among 
animals than in the human species. The period of 
convalescence is not so well marked in the lower 
species as in man. It frequently happens that the 
course of the disease is so changed that an acute 
case, which appears to recover, or at least to pass 
into the stage of convalescence, becomes chronic 
or subchronic in nature and eventually terminates 
in death. The lateness in the development of the 
modified lesions often causes the nature of the 
terminal disease to go unrecognized. 

(5) Transmission by inoculation. — Finally, it is 
necessary in making a positive diagnosis to find the 
specific organism, or to prove the transmissibility 
of the malady from the sick or dead to healthy 
animals. The extent of the spread of the virus of 
the disease through the available channels for its 
dissemination will also aid in determining the 
infectious or non-infectious nature of the malady 
in an outbreak among animals. 

In diagnosing an epizootic disease, investigations 



have shown that too much reliance can not be 
placed on the period of incubation, or the mor- 
bid anatomy. There are many possibilities, there- 
fore, that an erroneous diagnosis may be made 
when the clinical and post mortem evidences of the 
disease are alone considered. It ha3 also been 
determined that certain non-infectious disorders 
often assimilate, in their more general manifesta- 
tions, the characters of infectious maladies. This 
fact necessitates much care in the differentiation 
of outbreaks of animal diseases. The dietary and 
other non-infectious disorders do not exhibit defi- 
nite, uniform differential characters excepting 
perhaps in cases of those caused by a few mineral 
poisons, or by eating certain plants. As examples 
of these, lead-poisoning and the Pictou or Winton 
disease of horses and cattle caused by eating a rag- 
wort (Senecio Jacobea) may be mentioned. 

The essential problem for the animal-owner in 
the presence of infectious diseases is to restrict the 
number of cases to the individuals already infected. 
In order to do this, it is of much importance that 
modified or chronic cases of any infectious disease 
should not escape detection if there is danger of 
their spreading the virus or exposing susceptible 
animals. 

Means by which infectious diseases are spread. — 
It is important to consider the general ways and 
means by which the different vital causes of infec- 
tious diseases ate spread from an infected individual 
to a non-infected one in the same herd and from 
one herd to another. As we understand them at 
the present time, each virus is dependent for its 
perpetuation on its escape from one host (sick or 
dead) to another. As these microorganisms are 
without power of their own for such migration, 
they are dependent on other forces and carriers to 
take them. In finding the means by which they 
spread, we must consider first how they escape 
from the infected individual and secondly how they 
are carried to another. 

(1) Escape of virus from infected individuals. — 
The infecting organisms escape from the living 
body either with (a) the excreta, (b) the external 
discharge of ulcers and abscesses or both, and (c) 
the blood by sucking and possibly biting insects. 
After the death of the host they can escape only 
by the disintegration of the dead body or by its 
being consumed by other animals or birds. The 
bacteria of several diseases can pass through the 
digestive tract of such animals uninjured. 

(2) Dissemination of infecting organisms. — Patho- 
genic bacteria are spread after they escape from 
the body in many ways, the following being the 
most common : (a) By direct contact ; (6) they are 
carried on the hands, shoes or clothing of attend- 
ants and on^arm implements, such as shovels and 
hoes ; (c) they are carried in streams receiving the 
excreta or disintegrating bodies of the infected ; 
(d) they are scattered with the excreta of birds 
that feed on the dead carcasses ; other animals, 
such as dogs and foxes, are also charged with the 
scattering of the virus by the same method; (e) the 
virus is often carried from one herd to another by 
introducing chronic cases or those already infected 



128 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 



but before the symptoms have appeared; (/) ani- 
mals are often infected by shipping them in cars 
or crates that have previously contained diseased 
animals and that have not been thoroughly disin- 
fected; (g) the pathogenic protozoa are transferred 
from infected to non-infected individuals by means 

I of insects ; they are carried from place to place in 

I infected animals. 

Classification or grouping of the infectious diseases. 
— It will be found in the study of the morbid anatomy 
of the various specific maladies that the lesions in 
a given disease vary in different species and in in- 
dividuals of the same species to a marked degree. 
This is dependent on several factors, especially the 
virulence of the virus and the resistance of the 
animal due to more or less natural or acquired 
immunity. This fact precludes the possibility of 
classifying or arranging them after their morbid 
anatomy, if the idea of a specific etiology is to be 
adhered to. If the infectious diseases are to be 
considered as parasitisms, as they appear to be, 
the only logical method of classifying them is the 
one suggested by their etiology, namely, that they 
shall be placed in groups corresponding to their 
causes. Thus, a single lesion found in the glands of 
the head, in the lungs, in the liver, in the mesen- 
teric glands, in the joints, or in the generative 
organs, would be called tubercular if the bacteria 
of tuberculosis could be demonstrated to be its 
cause. The same conclusion would be maintained 
regardless of the lesion. These facts are enough 
to suggest that the most direct method of arrang- 
ing these diseases for purposes of study is in groups 
composed of like generic etiological factors. Most 
of the known specific causes of the infectious dis- 
eases of animals are bacteria. It is necessary, 
therefore, in carrying out this plan to choose from 
among the numerous classifications of bacteria one 
to be followed in grouping the diseases according 
to the genera producing them. Of the various sys- 
tems, the one by Migula (Fig. 110) seems to be the 
simplest and most natural, and consequently it is 
selected. In following this, the diseases caused by 
the bacteria in the different families and genera 
are classed together. Those due to fungi, and those 
resulting from protozoa are similarly grouped. 

Diseases caused by streptococci. 

Streptococci are the cause of many wound infec- 
tions, as already stated, and certain species of them 
are the cause of strangles and infectious pneumonia 
in horses, and a specific septicemia in fowls. 

Strangles. — Strangles is an infectious disease of 
horses, asses and their hybrids, occurring sporadi- 
cally and in epizootics. It is characterized princi- 
pally by a fever, followed by an acute catarrh of 
the mucous membrane of the upper air-passages, 
especially of the nares, and a suppurative inflam- 
mation of the submaxillary and pharyngeal regions. 
The lesions, however, are not restricted to these 
parts. It is a disease of young animals. It appears 
to stand in equine pathology very much as measles 
do in human medicine, — a disease of early life, and 
consequently more prevalent where there are more 
young. It seems to exist in all countries where the 



horse kind are raised, and to be more prevalent in 
breeding districts than elsewhere. It is caused by 
Streptococcus equi, first described by Schiitz, in 1888. 
With pure cultures of this organism Schiitz was 
able to produce the disease in healthy horses. Its 
period of incubation varies from four to eight days. 
The first symptom is a rise of temperature; there 
is loss of appetite, depression, and often great 
weakness. The general symptoms may continue for 
a few days before the localization of the lesions is 
apparent. The first local manifestation is usually a 
catarrh of the nasal mucosa, or a swelling of the 
submaxillary and pharyngeal lymphatic glands. 

MIGULAS CLASSIFICATION 

COCCACEAC 

Streptococcus 

Micrococcus 

Sarcina. 

Planococcus 

P/anosai-c 

BACT 
Bacterium 
Bacillus 




ina ^%^y? 
*f:TrRiAr:FAr / 




■p — ■ — nn - > ) > > ' j— j 

SP/RILLACrAE 
Spirosoma 
Microspira 
Spirillum 
Spirochaeta 

Fig. 110. Migula's classification of the lower bacteria. 

The lesions in most cases are characterized by an 
acute inflammatory process followed by suppu- 
ration, the pus discharging either externally or into 
the oral cavity. Small abscesses may occur under 
the pharyngeal mucosa. The inflammation may 
extend to the superficial lymph vessels of the skin, 
especially of the head, resulting in the formation 
of a large number of small abscesses. Strangles 
may become chronic, especially when the nasal 
catarrh extends into the sinuses of the head, the 
guttural pouches, or pharyngeal cavity. 

The duration of the disease varies according to 
its severity and the localization of the lesions. In 
mild cases convalescence begins in a few days, but 
in other cases restoration may require weeks and 
even months. The mortality, according to available 
statistics, does not exceed 3 per cent. 

Equine contagious pleuro-pneumonia. — This dis- 
ease is characterized by a high temperature, rapid 
pulse, but occasionally without definite lung 
disturbances. Like strangles, the symptoms and 
the lesions vary to such a degree that it is difficult 
to single out diagnostic features. It is widely dis- 
tributed. It appears in epizootic form, although in 






INFECTIOUS DISEASES OP ANIMALS 



129 



certain places it is reported to be almost endemic. 
It prevails most extensively where large numbers 
of horses are congregated. It is common in the 
East among horses shipped from the West, when 
it is designated as "western" or "stable" fever. 
The streptococcus of Schiitz seems to be the cause. 
However, there are opinions to the contrary based 
on observations. The symptoms vary to a marked 
degree. When pneumonia develops early in its 
course, the disease may appear suddenly, and in 
addition to the elevation of temperature, there is a 
cough, difficult breathing, and the pulse is increased. 
There is general depression, usually loss of appe- 
tite and muscular weakness ; the visible mucous 
membranes become reddened. 

The duration of the disease depends almost 
entirely on its course ; in the more typical cases 
the fever lasts five to eight days. The period of 
convalescence is two to three weeks, Many symptoms 
may be exhibited, corresponding to the variations 
in the morbid processes. If the heart, digestive 
tract, liver, kidneys or brain become the localized 
seat of disease, symptoms referable to impaired 
functions of these organs are in evidence. The 
septicemic form has been described as being fol- 
lowed by localized suppurative lesions. The mor- 
tality is often high, in some epizootics reaching 30 
per cent. It frequently leaves animals practically 
worthless because of pleural adhesions and other 
complications. Isolation and disinfection are the 
important factors in checking its spread. To pre- 
vent the introduction of this malady, all horses 
brought from a distance should be kept isolated for 
at least a week before allowing them to come in 
contact with the home animals. 

Apoplectiform septicemia in chickens. — This is a 
rapidly fatal septicemia in chickens caused by a 
streptococcus. The onset of the disease is very 
sudden and it usually terminates in death. It has 
been observed in but two or three localities. The 
prevention consists in the separation of the well 
from the diseased fowls and placing them in unin- 
fected houses or yards. 

Streptococcus mastitis. — This term has been given 
to an infectious disease of the udder of cows 
caused by a streptococcus. It is characterized by 
hard infiltrated areas in the gland. The diagnosis 
is made by finding the streptococcus in pure cul- 
ture. It is to be differentiated from the sporadic 
cases of mastitis caused primarily by some injury, 
and the infectious mastitis caused by other bac- 
teria, largely micrococci. Its spread can be stopped 
by disinfecting (washing in a disinfectant) the 
hands of the milker after each animal. The 
affected animal should be isolated from the others. 
It is one of the easiest infections to control. 

Diseases caused by micrococci. 

The micrococci or spherical bacteria cause many 
wound infections, although there is but one specific 
disease of animals caused by this genus of bacteria. 

Takosis. — Takosis, meaning to waste, is a de- 
structive, infectious disease of Angora goats. It is 
3haracterized by great emaciation and weak- 
ness, with symptoms of diarrhea and pneumonia. 

C9 



Takosis has been reported from a number of locali- 
ties in this country, more especially in the north- 
ern states. According to Mohler and Washburn it 
is caused by M. caprinus. It is pathogenic for 
goats, chickens, rabbits, guinea pigs and white 
mice, but not for sheep, dogs or rats. 

The first observable symptom is a listless appear- 
ance ; frequently there is drooping of the ears and 
a drowsy appearance of the e'yes, with a slight 
elevation of temperature in the beginning; but 
later in the course of the disease it becomes sub- 
normal. Rumination is seldom impaired, the appe- 
tite is usually good but capricious. The exposed 
mucous membranes are pale. The young are 
reported to be more susceptible to the disease than 
the older animals. The lesions vary, but emaciation 
and anemia are the most striking. The most de- 
structive outbreaks have occurred among goats that 
had recently been shipped from a southern locality 
to a northern latitude. Sudden climatic changes 
should be avoided. Hobson states that the natives 
of Asia Minor assert that the goat cannot be 
transported from one village to another of higher 
altitude without suffering some deterioration. 
Angora goats should be provided with stables that 
are perfectly dry. These should be accessible at 
all times, as rains are very injurious. When the 
disease appears, all well animals should be removed 
from the sick ones. 

[Hobson, Angora Goat Farming, Agricultural 
Journal, Cape Colony, Vol. VIII, p. 81 (1894) ; 
Mohler and Washburn, Takosis, A Contagious Dis- 
ease of Goats, Bulletin No. 45, Bureau of Animal 
Industrv, United States Department of Agriculture, 
Washington, D. C. (1903).] 

Diseases caused by bacteria belonging to the genus 
Bacterium. 

The genus Bacterium includes the non-motile 
rod-shaped bacteria. 

Anthrax. (Figs. Ill, 112.) — Anthrax is an infec- 
tious disease occurring sporadically and in epi- 
zootics in herbivora and omnivora, and communi- 
cable to nearly all warm-blooded animals and to 
man. It is characterized by the presence in the 
diseased tissues and liquids of large numbers of 
Bacterium anthracis, an enlarged spleen, blood 
extravasations and local gangrene. It is a widely 
disseminated disease. The continent of Europe, 
perhaps, has suffered most from its ravages. In 
the United States it has been reported from at 
least fifteen states and territories. The bacterium 
of anthrax itself is not an especially hardy organ- 
ism, but its spores are among the most resistant 
of bacterial life to chemical and thermal agents. 
They resist drying for months or years ; and boil- 
ing for a half hour does not always destroy them. 
For this reason it is very difficult to eliminate the 
virus from infected pasture lands, especially if 
they are wet or marshy. As the spores may 
remain in the soil for many years, the disease may 
not appear until long after the introduction of the 
virus. Anthrax has been known to break out 
among cattle grazing on a field in which the car- 
casses of affected animals were buried several 



130 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 



years before. The period of incubation is very- 
short ; in inoculated animals it ranges from one to 
five days. 

Nearly all species of animals suifer from anthrax. 
The herbivora and rodents are most susceptible. 



o 




Fig. 111. A drawing of anthrax bacteria showing spores 
and granules. 

Horses and mules are frequently attacked. The 
channels of infection are through the digestive 
tract, wounds in the skin and by the lung. In 
cattle the infection seems to be largely through 
the alimentary canal ; in horses and sheep by the 
skin or digestive tract; in men through wounds of 
the skin and the respiratory tract. Although these 
are the usual methods there are many exceptions. 

Anthrax has been classified according to its 
course as peracute, acute and subacute. The pera- 
cute or apoplectic anthrax gives rise to symptoms 
of cerebral apoplexy. The animal becomes suddenly 
ill, staggers about for a brief period and falls. 
There may be a bloody discharge from the mouth, 
nostril and anus. Death usually ensues in a few 
minutes to an hour. In the acute form, the disease 
runs a somewhat slower course, lasting usually not 
to exceed twenty-four hours. The temperature 
rises rapidly to 105° to 108° Fahr. With this there 
are signs either of congestion of the brain or of 
the lungs. If the brain is affected the animal 
becomes restless, excited, stamps the ground, rears 
in the air, bellows, runs to and fro, and finally goes 
into convulsions followed by stupor and death. The 
subacute form is known as anthrax fever or inter- 
mittent anthrax. The disease lasts one to several 
days, the average being about forty-eight hours. 
Anthrax resulting from infection of the skin and 
mucous membranes usually gives rise to local 
lesions which are spoken of as carbuncles. In man 
it is known as malignant pustule. The nature and 
extent of the tissue changes depend on the course 
of the disease. 

It is important not to confuse anthrax with a 
number of non-specific disorders and accidental 
causes of death. The suddenness of the attack, 
and, in very virulent cases, the short duration of 
the disease, may tend to the mistaking of it for 
poisoning, cerebral apoplexy, pulmonary conges- 
tion, death from lightning, or acute gastrointes- 



tinal inflammation. The affection known as " corn- 
stalk" disease is not infrequently taken for anthrax; 
and vice versa. 

Pasteur's method of protective inoculation con- 
sists in inoculating the animal with a small quan- 
tity of culture which has been grown at a 
high temperature — 42° to 43° C. — for several 
days. This deprives the bacteria of their 
virulence. To strengthen the resistance, the 
animals are again inoculated with a stronger 
virus. After the two inoculations, they are 
said to be protected against the most virulent 
anthrax virus ; but the immunity is of short 
duration. The injection of anthrax antitoxin 
or serum together with a small quantity of 
virulent anthrax bacteria has proved to be 
very satisfactory. It has the advantage of 
being administered at one time. This method 
of protection against anthrax was first pro- 
posed by Sobernheim in 1899. It is known as 
the simultaneous method. 

To prevent the spread of anthrax the well 
animals should be removed from the barns or 
yards containing the sick ones and from pas- 
ture lands on which the sick became infected. 
All infected stables and yards should be thoroughly 
disinfected. By careful isolation and safe disposi- 
tion of the dead animals the spread of the disease 
can be checked. Animals, as a rule, do not spread 
the virus when the first symptom (rise of tempera- 
ture) appears. The disposition of animals dead of 
anthrax is a matter of much importance. They 
should be burned if possible; if not, they should be 
buried deeply and covered with quicklime before 
the dirt is replaced. The ground over them should 
be fenced to prevent other animals grazing over 




Fig. 112. A picture of anthrax bacteria from a preparation 
made from a gelatine plate. 

it, and the surface should be burned annually for 
some years to destroy spores should they be 
brought to the surface. 
[Chester, Anthrax, Bacteriological Work, Report 






INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 



131 



of Delaware Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 
64 (1895); Chester, Protective Inoculation Against 
Anthrax, Proceedings of the Society for the Pro- 
motion of Agricultural Science, p. 52 (1896); 
Dalrymple, Anthrax and Protective Inoculation in 
Louisiana, Proceedings of the American Veterinary 
Medical Association, p. 147 (1901); M'Fadyean, 
Extraneous Sources of Infection in Outbreaks of 
Anthrax, Journal of Comparative Pathology and 
Therapeutics, Vol. XVI, p. 346 (1905); Moore, 
Report of an Outbreak of Anthrax, Annual Report, 
Commissioner of Agriculture of the State of New 
York (1897); Russell, Outbreak of Anthrax Fever 
Traceable to Tannery Refuse, The Seventeenth 
Annual Report of the Wisconsin Agricultural 
Experiment Station (1889).] 

Asthenia in fowls and pigeons. — This is a disease 
especially of chickens and pigeons, in which there 
is marked emaciation and a failure to take on flesh 
even when fed on the most nourishing food. 
Because of this, the disease has received-the popu- 
lar name of "going light." Dawson gives a brief 
account of the symptoms, morbid anatomy, etiol- 
ogy, and a somewhat extended description of the 
specific organism (Bacterium asthenia) which he 
isolated from the diseased chickens. The writer 
did not succeed in finding this organism in pigeons. 
The most conspicuous lesion is extreme emaciation. 
fDawson, Asthenia (going light) in Fowls, Annual 
Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry, United 
States Department of Agriculture, p. 329 (1898).] 

Fowl cholera. — This is an infectious disease of 
fowls, transmissible by cohabitation and inocula- 
tion. It is determined by a high fever, great weak- 
ness and prostration, and usually terminates in the 
death of the infected bird. It is reported that it 
attacks all varieties of domesticated poultry (chick- 
ens, ducks, geese, pigeons, turkeys) and caged 
birds, such as parrots and canaries. It also attacks 
some species of wild birds. It is communicable by 
inoculation to rabbits and mice ; guinea pigs are 
less susceptible. Salmon investigated it in South 
Carolina in 1879-80. Higgins in 1898 reported it 
from Canada, and in 1904 Ward found it in Cali- 
fornia. 

Fowl cholera is caused by a specific bacterium 
which is closely related to that of swine plague 
and septicemia hemorrhagica. The period of incu- 
bation is placed by European writers at 18 to 48 
hours. In the case of 40 fowls inoculated by Sal- 
mon, it varied from 4 to 20 days, the average 
period being 8 days. Ward fed viscera of dead 
fowls to 10 healthy ones ; they died in 24 hours to 
6 days. The symptoms vary. Usually the appetite 
is lessened, but occasionally they continue to eat 
almost to the time of death. The earliest indication 
of the disease is a yellow coloration of the urates. 
The feathers are roughened, the wings droop, the 
head is drawn down towards the body and the gen- 
eral outline of the bird becomes spherical or ball- 
shaped. The liver is usually enlarged, softened, 
and the blood-vessels engorged. The gall-bladder is 
distended with thick, dark bile. Its duration varies 
from a few hours to several days. The prognosis 
is unfavorable. The mortality is very high, often 



100 per cent. This disease may run rapidly through 
a flock, destroying the greater part of the birds in 
a week, or it may assume a more chronic form, 
spreading slowly, and remain on the premises for 
several weeks or months. A positive diagnosis is 
to be made in the findings of a bacteriological 
examination. 

Prevention consists in good sanitary conditions, 
isolation of the well from the sick fowls and 
thorough disinfection. It is important not to intro- 
duce the disease with newly purchased fowls or to 
expose healthy ones to the disease, either at, or in 
transportation to, various poultry exhibits. 

[Salmon, Annual Reports of the United States 
Commissioner of Agriculture (1880-82) ; Ward, 
Fowl Cholera, Bulletin No. 156, California Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station, Berkeley, California 
(1904).] 

Fowl typhoid. — This disease was described by 
Moore as an infectious leukemia. It is caused by 
Bacterium sanguinarium. Little can be positively 
stated concerning the early symptoms. There is a 
pronounced anemia of the mucosa of the head. 
There is also a marked diminution in the number 
of red corpuscles and an increase in the number of 
white ones. There is an elevation of one to four 
degrees in temperature. The only constant lesions 
are in the liver and blood. The liver is somewhat 
enlarged and dark-colored; a close inspection shows 
it to be sprinkled with minute grayish necrotic 
areas. 

Intestinal disturbances, especially diarrhea and 
fowl cholera, are the diseases to be mistaken for 
fowl typhoid. Prompt isolation of the well from 
the sick fowls and thorough disinfection of the 
houses and yards is the only preventive measure 
known. 

[Curtice, Fowl Typhoid, Bulletin No. 87, Rhode 
Island Agricultural Experiment Station (1902); 
Moore, Infectious Leukemia in Fowls, A Bacterial 
Disease Frequently Mistaken for Fowl Cholera, An- 
nual Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry, 
1895-96.] 

Glanders. — Glanders is one of the most impor- 
tant diseases of horses, asses and mules, and when 
transmitted to man, one of the most fatal diseases. 
It runs an acute or chronic course, attacking the 
lymphatic system more especially in the upper air- 
passages, lungs or skin. It is characterized by a 
strong tendency to the formation of small nodules, 
which are likely to degenerate into ulcers, from 
which exudes a peculiar sticky discharge. In the 
very acute cases a considerable rise of temperature 
and general debility may accompany the formation 
of the lesions. Glanders of the skin is known as 
farcy. Cattle, white mice, rats and domestic fowls 
seem to be immune. 

Glanders exists in the greater part of the civil- 
ized world. It is more common in the temperate 
zones, probably because traffic in horses is more 
active. In the United States it was largely confined 
to the North before 1861, but it spread over the 
South in connection with the Civil war. 

Its specific cause is Bacterium mallei. (Fig. 113.) 
It is found in recent nodules, in discharge from the 



132 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 



nostrils, in pus from the specific ulcers, and occa- 
sionally in the blood of animals affected with glan- 
ders. The period of incubation is not known; it evi- 
dently varies from a few to many days. The acute 
form is common in the ass and mule ; in the horse 
the chronic form is more usual. It may begin with 
a chill, but usually the onset is very insidious. In 
chronic glanders, the most frequent locations of the 
ulcers and nodules are on 
t'ttp'-'r^ , i the respiratory mucous 
\ I •-: Vy^-G) I '/I membrane, especially on 
\ %'i-r- . - ■ ' J? the nasal septum, in the 
■ /"?■-'.,-''. ">' '•qV- ( ^ lungs, lvmph glands and 



:Cy : ' fS skin. Occasionally glan- 

A / ^' ; / :*Cil'' ders man if es ts itself as a 

q. \J I I £ /jQs*' diffuse catarrh of the 

...y\ ^ fC-'-v-l mucous membrane of the 

* f&'?~ ■'... T'OI nasal and neighboring 

'%•-: '^,-.;--\-u?. : ; " cavities, with superficial 

„ '„; '1\ • * ulceration, thrombosis of 

Fig. 113. The bacteria of ., . i ■ n 

danders lying between the velns - and mflamma- 

masses of ceUs. tory infiltration of the 

sub - mucosa. Both the 
nodular and infiltrated forms are found in the 
lungs. In glanders of the skin (farcy), the nod- 
ules are found in the papillary layer, in the cutis, 
and in the subcutaneous and superficial inter- 
muscular tissue. The cutaneous nodules vary in 
size from a hemp seed up to that of a pea. They 
suppurate rapidly and form small abscesses which 
discharge. 

Glanders may be positively diagnosed by inocu- 
lating guinea pigs with the discharge from the 
ulcer, by the application of mallein, or by the effect 
of the blood serum of the suspected horse on the 
bacteria of glanders in a properly prepared test 
fluid. This last is known as the agglutination 
method of diagnosis. The prevention consists in 
isolation of the healthy animals from the infected 
ones and thorough disinfection of the stables. It is 
also desirable not to bring strange horses in close 
contact with home animals until their freedom from 
this disease is determined. If it develops in one 
animal in a stable, it is important that all horses 
which have been exposed, should be carefully 
watched and tested in order to be able to eliminate 
all infected animals before they are able to spread 
the disease. 

[M'Fadyean, Glanders, Journal Comparative Path- 
ology and Therapeutics, Vol. XVII, p. 295 (1904); 
Nocard, The Value of Mallein as a Means of Diagno- 
sis in Doubtfnl Cases of Glanders, Journal Com- 
parative Pathology and Therapeutics, Vol. VIII, 
p. 227 (1895); Schiitz, A Contribution to the Sub- 
ject of Glanders, Journal Comparative Pathology 
and Therapeutics, Vol. XI, p. 1 (1898); Williams, 
Glanders, Bulletin No. 4, Montana Agricultural 
Experiment Station (1894).] 

Goose septicemia. — This is an acute septicemia of 
geese. It is caused by a bacterium belonging to the 
septicemia hemorrhagica group. It is not a common 
disease. The prevention consists in the isolation of 
the well from the sick, repeating the separations 
as often as new cases appear. The infected pens 
should be thoroughly disinfected before being re- 



occupied. [Curtice, Goose Septicemia, Bulletin No. 
86, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station 
(1902).] 

Hemorrhagica septicemia, — This disease consists 
largely of hemorrhagic areas more or less widely 
distributed throughout the body and due to the 
presence of a specific microorganism. It usually 
runs a rapid course, terminating fatally. It is 
thought to be identical with the disease described 
by Bollinger under the name of Wildund Hinder- 
seuche, an epizootic disease which killed a large 
number of wild boars and deer in the royal game 
preserves of Munich. He reports it to be sudden 
in its onset and rapidly fatal in its course, with a 
mortality of 90 per cent. Death occurred in twelve 
hours to a few days after the first appearance of 
symptoms. In this country it seems to affect cat- 
tle more than other species. It is a wide-spread 
malady. It appears to be rather prevalent in the 
western and northern parts of the Mississippi val- 
ley. The period of incubation is supposed to be 
very short. The method of infection is not known 
and its duration is very short. The prognosis is 
unfavorable. The mortality is 80 to 100 per cent 
of all the animals affected. The characteristic 
lesions, especially in cattle, are widely distributed 
areas of hemorrhage, varying in size from a pin 
point to several centimeters in diameter; and they 
vary in color from light red to almost black. The 
other morbid changes found in cattle are numerous. 

Septicemia hemorrhagica in cattle must be dif- 
ferentiated from anthrax, symptomatic anthrax, 
and the affection known as " corn-stalk disease." 
Deaths from this disease must also be distinguished 
from those due to certain accidental causes, poi- 
soning, or the effect of over-eating of grain or 
green fodder. The suddenness with which the ani- 
mals may die renders the symptoms of little value 
in making a diagnosis. For this purpose it is 
necessary that a careful post mortem and bacterio- 
logical examination should be made. 

The carcasses of animals that die should be 
burned or buried deeply with a good covering of a 
disinfectant. Should death occur in a stable, all 
contaminated litter should be burned and the 
floors, mangers and walls thoroughly disinfected. 

[Reynolds, Hsemorrhagica Septicemia, Bulletin 
No. 82, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion (1903) ; Wilson and Brimhall, Sixty Cases of 
Hemorrhagica Septicemia in Cattle Due to Bacillus 
Bovisepticus, Report of State Board of Health of 
Minnesota (1901). Latter contains very full 
bibliography.] 

Ovine caseous lymph-adenitis (pseudo-tubereuhisis 
in shetp). — Caseous lymph-adenitis is a disease of 
adult sheep which until recently was designated 
as pseudo-tuberculosis. It is characterized by an 
enlargement of one or more lymphatic glands, 
which contain foci of a greenish yellow, caseous 
or purulent substance. It is rarely found in young 
animals. The mortality is very low. It does not 
occur in epizootic form although it is more preva- 
lent in certain localities than in others. It is 
caused by a specific microorganism known as the 
bacterium of Preisz. [Norgaard and Mohler, The 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 



133 



Nature, Cause and Economic Importance of Ovine 
Caseous Lymph-Adenitis, Sixteenth Annual Report, 
Bureau of Animal Industry, p. 638 (1899). (Full 
bibliography).] 

Swine erysipelas. — This is an infectious disease 
peculiar to swine. It is determined by a rise in 
temperature, cerebral disturbances and pronounced 
reddening of areas of the skin. It is a disease of adult 
life. It is stated that pigs are rarely attacked under 
three months or over three years of age. Lydtin 
and Schottelius found some differences in the degree 
of susceptibility of certain breeds of swine ; the 
common country pig was least susceptible. It 
occurs enzootically and in epizootics in most of the 
countries of Europe. It is caused by a very slender 
bacterium. The period of incubation is stated to 
be at least three days, although it is apparently 
longer than that in many cases. Jensen describes 
five distinct forms of this malady, namely, true 
erysipelas, swine urticaria, erysipelas without red- 
ness of the skin, diffuse necrotic erysipelas of the 
skin, and endocarditis of erysipelas. Its duration 
varies from one to ten days; in types of moderate 
severity it runs three to four weeks. The prognosis 
is unfavorable. There is 20 to 80 per cent mortality. 
Swine plague. — Swine plague is an infectious 
disease of swine occurring sporadically and in epi- 
zootics. It appears usually as a septicemia or a 
pneumonia in which there is marked consolidation 
of the ventral and cephalic lobes and the cephalic 
part of the principal lobe of one or both lungs. 
There may or may not be pleuritis. There may be 
marked changes in the intestine, consisting of 
superficial necrosis of the mucosa, especially in the 
ileum and coecum. For this reason it has been con- 
sidered by some writers as an infectious pneumo- 
enteritis. It is a wide-spread disease in this coun- 
try, occurring more or less frequently in every 
state. 

Swine plague is caused by a non- motile, oval 
bacterium, described by Smith in 1886 (Fig. 114). 
It is identical with the bacillus of Schweineseuche 
described by Loeffler in 1885. 
This organism is very closely 
related to a large number of 
so-called species producing 
certain diseases in cattle, 
fowls and rabbits, also to 
one frequently found in the 
upper air-passages of healthy 
swine, cattle, horses, cats and 
dogs. It is often difficult to 
recognize symptoms distinct- 
ive of swine plague. Some 
animals die quickly of septicemia, others live a few 
days to a week or longer. Swine affected with the 
more chronic form eat very little or refuse food 
altogether ; they cough considerably, especially 
when forced to run ; the back is usually arched 
and the groins sunken ; the whites of the eyes are 
reddened ; the skin over the ventral surface of the 
body, nose and ears is frequently flushed or of a 
reddish color. The cough is the most reliable indi- 
cation. There are many known variations in the 
appearance of the internal organs. The character- 




Fig. 114. 
The bacteria of swine 
plague or Septicemia 
hemorrhagica. 



istic lesions are to be found in the lungs. Fre- 
quently the abdominal viscera appear to be normal, 
although a careful examination will usually reveal 
slight changes. In brief, the lesions of swine 
plague, as they appear in various outbreaks, may 
be summarized in four classes, namely : (1) The 
acute septicemic form in which the lesions are 
characterized by a general hyperemic condition of 
the serous membrane and organs. Not infrequently 
hemorrhages, especially the punctiform variety, 
occur. (2) Cases of pneumonia with or without 
pleuritis. The other organs remain normal in ap- 
pearance. This is the more usual form. (3) Cases 
when either in addition to, or in the absence of 
the lung lesions there are marked changes in the 
mucosa of the digestive tract and perhaps in the 
lymphatic glands. (4) Cases of mixed infection, 
especially with hog cholera, when in addition to 
the swine plague lesions there are those, especially 
of the digestive tract, characteristic of the accom- 
panying disease. 

The duration of the disease varies in acute cases 
from a few days to several weeks. In chronic or 
complicated cases it is indefinite. The prognosis is 
very unfavorable. Most of the affected animals die, 
and those that recover are usually not thrifty. In 
sporadic cases swine plague is to be differentiated 
from broncho-pneumonia, due to other causes than 
the swine-plague bacterium. Pneumonia of a non- 
specific nature is often associated with deaths due 
to dietary or other causes. In epizootics it is to be 
distinguished from hog cholera when there is 
accompanying catarrhal pneumonia. To make a 
positive diagnosis it is usually necessary to depend 
on the results of a bacteriological examination. If 
the disease appears, the well animals should be 
promptly separated from the sick and placed in 
suitable pens or yards, protected against subse- 
quent infection and given an abundance of whole- 
some food and water. The thorough disinfection 
of the infected pens should be insisted on before 
they are again occupied. 

[Moore, Pathogenic and Toxigenic Bacteria in 
the Upper Air Passages of Domesticated Animals, 
Bulletin No. 3, Bureau of Animal Industry, United 
States Department of Agriculture (1893); Smith, 
Special Report on Swine Plague, Bureau of Animal 
Industry, United States Department of Agriculture 
(1891).] 

Tuberculosis (Figs. 115-119). — Tuberculosis is an 
infectious disease from which the human species, 
cattle and swine suffer very extensively, and which, 
under favorable conditions, attacks nearly if not 
all species of animals, including fish. It is a dis- 
ease of slow development, involving either prima- 
rily, or in association with other organs, the lym- 
phatic system. It is characterized by the forma- 
tion of nodules, or tubercles, in consequence of the 
activities of Bacterium tuberculosis. It destoys life 
by a chronic and long-continued systemic poison- 
ing and by the morbid changes brought about 
through the localization of these lesions in organs 
necessary to life. It is known as consumption, 
pearl disease, phthisis, scrofula, tabes, and in man 
as "the great white plague." Tuberculosis was 



134 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 



known to the Jewish people during their Egyptian 
captivity, and the ecclesiastical laws for many cen- 
turies contained numerous enactments against the 
consumption of flesh from tuberculous animals. In 
1783, the Berlin Board of Health declared the 
flesh of affected animals to be fit for food. In 
1865, Villemin showed that tuberculosis was due 
to a specific infection. He produced the disease in 
rabbits by inoculating them with tuberculous 
material from human subjects ; he also produced 
the disease by feeding experimental animals and 
by causing them to inhale tuberculous material. 
In 1882, Koch discovered the specific bacterium of 
the disease. The bacterium of tuberculosis (Fig. 
115) is readily cultivated on artificial media such 
as blood serum or glycerinated agar after it has 
been adapted to such artificial conditions. How- 
ever, it is not easy to cultivate it directly from 
ordinary tuberculous tissues. 

Although at the time of their discovery the 
tubercle bacteria from man and from animals were 
thought to be identical, they have been found to 
possess slightly different characters and properties. 
Those from cattle are shorter and thicker than 
those from man, their growth is slightly different 
on blood serum, and they are more virulent for 
cattle and other animals. We must look on the 
tubercle bacteria coming from different species of 
animals as races or varieties which, perhaps, are 
the result of their different conditions of life. 
The tubercle bacteria from fowls exhibit greater 
differences morphologically and have very little if 
any virulence for other animals. Those from fish 
are more widely separated. 

As tuberculosis is a disease resulting largely from 
the destruction of tissue, the symptoms and duration 




Fig. 115. A drawing of tuberc'e bacilli. 

of its course vary largely according to the loca- 
tion of the lesions. When they are situated deeply 
and are not of great extent, they may not exhibit 
visible evidence of their presence. In such cases, 
the infected animal may present the picture of 
perfect health and show no disturbance of func- 
tion. Some animals are slaughtered for beef with- 
out a suspicion of the presence of tuberculosis 




Fig. 116. 



Tubercular nodules on the pleura of the chest 
wall of a cow. 



until they are examined post-mortem. There are 
no distinctive symptoms but a cough, rough coat, 
tight, harsh skin, loud respiratory sounds ; and 
enlargement of the glands in the neck, in the 
groin or above the udder are very suspicious. 

The symptoms of acute miliary tuberculosis, 
" galloping consumption," are rapid loss of flesh, 
depression, poor appetite, cough, weakness, rapid 
breathing, harsh respiratory sounds, some eleva- 
tion in temperature, increased pulse rate and, 
sometimes, enlarged lymphatic glands. The course 
of this form of tuberculosis is always rapid and 
terminates in death. It occurs when large num- 
bers of tubercle bacteria are discharged into the 
blood or lymph currents. They are then carried to 
other parts of the body, filtered out in the capil- 
laries of the lungs, liver, spleen, kidneys and else- 
where, causing tubercular lesions in each of these 
localities (Fig. 116). The lesion from which the 
infectious material entered the circulation may 
have been a comparatively small nodule. This 
form of the disease is more likely to appear in 
young animals than in adults, and is more com- 
mon among swine than in cattle. 

The usual direct anatomical changes following 
the invasion of tubercle bacteria are the formation 
of nodules or tubercles. A tubercle is "a small 
nonvascular nodule composed of cells, varying in 
form and size, with some basement substance 
between them, and with an inherent tendency to 
undergo central necrosis." In a large number of 
cases, the individual tubercles are distinct and eas- 
ily recognizable, while in others they are coalesced, 
forming a mass of necrotic tissue. The lesions 
vary, therefore, from well-isolated minute or larger 
nodules to masses or cavities containing a puru- 
lent, caseous, or calcified substance. The primary 
lesions are largely located in one of the five follow- 
ing organs : (1) in the lungs or the lymphatic glands 
draining them (Figs. 117, 118), (2) in the lymphatic 
glands about the head, (3) in the intestines and 
mesenteric glands, (4) in the portal glands or liver 
itself, and (5) in the generative organs and udder. 
In fatal cases of tuberculosis one may find with 
varying modifications one or more of the following 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 



135 




Fig. 117. Section of tuberculous lung of a cow. The light colored 
points are areas of calcification; the remainder is the cheese-like 
tuberculous material. 

conditions : (1) The primary lesions may be found 
in any one of the organs or membranes. Its com- 
parative age is determined by the character of the 
anatomical changes. It may be entirely encysted, 
caseous or calcareous and dead. In addition to the 
primary focus, there may be a succession of tuber- 
cles of various ages distributed in one or more 
organs. (2) The lesions may be restricted to one 
organ, as the liver, in which the primary focus has 
spread by continuity, due to its infiltrating nature, 
until the destruction of the tissues of the organ has 
become so extensive that death results. Such cases 
are not common. (3) The primary lesion may be 
well marked and accompanied by miliary tubercles 
sprinkled extensively throughout the organs and 
tissues of the entire body. (4) The lesions through- 
out the body may resemble each other very closely, 
so that difficulty may be experienced in determining 
the primary focus. When the primary infection is 
restricted to a single focus, the disease is said to 
be localized. When the specific bacteria are spread 
from the primary lesion through the agency of the 
lymph and blood streams, infecting other organs 
with the tubercle bacteria, each of which becomes 
the starting point for a new tubercle, the disease 
has become generalized. 

Tuberculosis in swine. — Tuberculosis in swine is 
often generalized. Swine are usually infected 
through the food. If pigs are fed on the refuse from 
dairies and cheese manufactories in districts where 
there is much tuberculosis in cattle, or on tuber- 
culous viscera, they readily become infected. In 
most cases, tuberculosis of the pig is first recognized 
at the abattoir ; sometimes, however, it causes local 
and general troubles, which vary according to the 
organ attacked. The so-called scrofula of swine is 
tuberculosis of the glands of the head and neck. The 
manifestations of tuberculosis in swine are exceed- 
ingly interesting. Nocard found the lesions to con- 
sist, of miliary granulations, which rapidly become 
caseous, as in cattle, but which more rarely contain 
calcareous salts. Generalization is common, in 
which case the viscera are thickly sprinkled with 



gray granulations, which are translucent 
throughout, or opaque in their centers, quite 
analogous to those found in tubercular 
lesions in other animals. 

Avian tuberculosis. — In America, tubercu- 
losis in fowls has been described by several 
workers. It was recognized by the owners 
as "spotted liver," going light, and rheuma- 
tism. The general symptoms are emaciation 
and anemia. The comb, the skin, and the 
visible mucosa about the head are usually 
pale. As the course of the disease advances, 
the feathers become ruffled and the fowls are 
weak, dumpish, and move about very little ; 
the appetite is usually good ; the tempera- 
ture is in most cases within the normal 
limits, but rarely it is subnormal ; the blood 
is pale. Tubercular fowls are often lame ; 
this is due to joint lesions in some cases ; in 
others it appears to be due to extensive 
lesions in the viscera. The liver is most fre- 
quently involved. The spleen, intestines, 
mesentery, kidneys, lungs and skin are affected in 
the order mentioned. The structure of the tubercle' 
is the same as in other animals. 

Tuberculosis in cattle and swine is to be differ- 
entiated from actinomycosis, and various parasit- 
isms resulting in nodules largely in the walls of 
the intestine, due to CEsophagostoma. In sheep the 
nodules are caused by CE. Columbianum, Curtice. In 
chickens a nodular taeniasis of the intestine is not 
infrequently mistaken for tuberculosis. Abscesses 




Fig. 118. Trachea, bronchi and glands of the bovine lung. A, 
B, D are glands frequently involved in tuberculosis. C is 
the gland of the supernumerary branches. It is often 
affected. (Smith.) 



136 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 



and necrotic foci due to various agencies must also 
be distinguished from tubercular lesions. The posi- 
tive diagnosis of tuberculosis rests in : (1) Finding 
the tubercle bacteria in a microscopic examination 
of the lesions. (2) The production of tuberculosis 
in experimental animals by inoculating them with 
the suspected tuberculous material. (3) Securing a 
typical reaction after the injection of tuberculin. 

Tuberculin test. — The tuberculin test, in a large 
majority of tuberculous cases among animals and 
in man, is the only means of detecting positively 
the disease in the living individual. Tuberculin 
is the concentrated liquid, usually glycerinated 
bouillon, on which tubercle bacteria have grown 
until the products resulting from their multipli- 
cation have become imparted to the medium in 
sufficient quantity to inhibit their further devel- 
opment. In its preparation the liquid is heated on 





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Fig. 119. Temperature curves. The dotted line A represents the temperature of 
a cow for tweuty-four hours hefore the injection of tuherculin. The solid line 
represents the temperature for t<venty-four hours after the injection of tuber- 
culin, showing the tuberculiu reaction between 4 p. M. and 7 A. H. 

Iwo occasions to a temperature and for a length of 
time far in excess of tnat required to destroy the 
organisms, besides being passed through a filter 
capable of removing all bacteria. Tuberculin in 
the dose necessary to bring out its diagnostic effect 
is harmless for healthy animals. In the tuberculous 
animal it produces a rise of temperature which, 
within certain limits, follows a definite course, 
usually terminating in eighteen to twenty-four 
hours after the injection. (Fig. 119.) Occasionally 
the temperature remains above the normal for a 
longer time. The temperature usually begins to 
rise in about eight hours, giving a steady but rapid 
elevation for one to three hours, a continuous high 
e'evation for two to six hours, possibly longer, and 
a gradual decline. This is practically constant, be 
the rise moderate or extreme. In addition to the 
elevation in temperature there is sometimes a 
marked nervous chill. It does not injure the 
diseased animal. 

Tuberculosis prevention. — Tuberculosis can be pre- 
vented. To accomplish this it is necessary to keep 
tuberculous animals from entering the healthy 



herds. If they are admitted and later the fact is 
discovered, it is necessary to remove them and 
to thoroughly disinfect the stable. In eliminating 
the disease from a herd by means of the tuberculin 
test, it is necessary to retest the non-reacting ani- 
mals after six months or a year have passed in order 
to find any case that might have been infected, but 
in which the lesions had not begun to develop at 
the time of the first test. Of the methods for the 
control of tuberculosis in cattle, the one introduced 
by Prof. Bang, of Copenhagen, Denmark, and gen- 
erally known as the " Bang method," has proved to 
be the most successful. It consists in the slaughter 
of the advanced cases and the isolation of the 
reacting animals which show no evidence of dis- 
ease, and keeping them for breeding purposes. The 
calves are separated from their dams immediately 
after birth and fed on the milk of healthy cows or 
the sterilized milk of the reacting 
ones. The vaccination of cattle 
against turberculosis has been 
proposed as a prophylactic meas- 
ure. Von Behring has produced a 
vaccine, known as bovovaccine, 
for immunizing young cattle. The 
method is still in the experimental 
stage, and its effectiveness can 
not be predicted at this time. 

[Koch, The Combating of Tuber- 
culosis in the Light of the Experi- 
ence That Has Been Gained in the 
Successful Combating of Other In- 
fectious Diseases, American Veter- 
inary Review, Vol. XXV, p. 441 
(1901); Moore, A Report on Bovine 
Tuberculosis, New York State De- 
partment of Agriculture (1903); 
Moore, The Morbid Anatomy and 
Etiology of Avian Tuberculosis, 
Journal of Medical Research, Vol. 
XI, p. 512 (Bibliography) (1904); 
Pearson, The Repression of Tuber- 
culosis in Cattle by Sanitation, Bulletin No. 74, 
Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture (1901); 
Ravenel, The Dissemination of Tubercle Bacilli by 
Cows in Coughing a Possible Source of Contagion, 
University of Pennsylvania Medical Magazine, No- 
vember (1900); Smith, Investigations Concerning 
Bovine Tuberculosis with Special Reference to Di- 
agnosis and Prevention (Pathological part), Bulletin 
No. 7, Bureau of Animal Industry, United States 
Department of Agriculture (1894); Smith, The 
Thermal Death Point of Tubercle Bacilli in Milk and 
Some Other Fluids, Journal Experimental Medicine, 
Vol. IV, p. 217 (1899); Pernot, Investigations of 
Diseases of Poultry, Bulletin No. 64, Oregon Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station (1900); Sibley, Tuber- 
culosis in Birds, Journal Comparative Medicine and 
Veterinary Archives, Vol. XI, p. 317 (1890); Ward, 
Tuberculosis in Fowls, Bulletin No. 161, California 
Agricultural Experiment Station (1904).] 

Diseases caused by bacteria, genus Bacillus. 

The genus Bacillus in Migula's classification 
includes all rod-shaped motile bacteria. In the 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 



137 



older classification it includes both non-motile and 
motile forms. The fixing on motility as an essen- 
tial generic character, and thus restricting the 
genus Bacillus to motile forms, is the occasion of 
some confusion between the genera Bacterium and 
Bacillus as applied to a number of important 
disease-producing bacteria. It is customary to 
speak of the bacillus of anthrax, of tuberculosis 
and of glanders, rather than of the bacterium of 
these affections. 

Black leg or black quarter. — Black quarter is an 
acute infectious disease of cattle characterized by 
the development of an emphysematous swelling of 
the subcutaneous tissues and muscles. The lesions 
are usually located on and ordinarily extend over 
the greater part of a hind quarter of a shoulder. 
The disease does not spread from animal to ani- 
mal by simple contact but the infection takes 
place apparently from a common source, — the soil. 
The virus seems to exist in the soil in certain 
localities only. Like tetanus, it is a disease follow- 
ing a wound infection. "Black quarter" is a 
disease of cattle, sheep and goats, although the 
two latter species are rarely attacked. Guinea 
pigs are very susceptible to inoculation but other 
animals seem to be immune. In cattle, it rarely 
occurs under the age of six months, and in adults 
after the fourth year. Black quarter exists to 
some extent in nearly every country in the world. 
The states and territories which suffer most from 
it are Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, Colo- 
rado, North and South Dakota and Indian Terri- 
tory ; but a number of the other western states 
are badly infected. 

Black quarter is caused by Bacillus chauvai, an 
inhabitant of the soil in certain localities. The 
period of incubation is short. A general symptom 
is elevation of temperature, reaching in some cases 
107°Fahr. It usually falls to the normal or even 
subnormal before death. The local symptoms may 
appear on different parts of the body except below 
the knee or hock joints and on the tail. They usu- 
ally appear on the thighs, neck, shoulders and 
lower regions of the chest. After death the sub- 
cutaneous distension with gas is especially marked 
in the region of the swellings ; the skin covering 
it is often gangrenous. The subcutaneous connect- 
ive tissue is yellow, gelatinous, infiltrated with 
blood and bubbles of gas which escape if the skin 
is incised. The muscles underneath the tumors are 
of a dirty brown or of a blackish color. Its dura- 
tion is one to three days, occasionally longer. The 
prognosis is grave. 

In checking the spread of the black quarter it is 
very important to remove the well animals from 
the infected field and to restrict the sick ones to a 
small area. The swellings should not be opened 
and the discharge scattered over the field. The 
dead animals should be burned, if possible, other- 
wise buried deeply and covered well with lime as 
soon as possible after death. The most effective 
preventive measure is vaccination. 

[NSrgaard, Blackleg in the United States and 
the Distribution of Vaccine by the Bureau of Ani- 
mal Industry, Annual Report of the Bureau of 



Animal Industry, United States Department of 
Agriculture (1898) ; Salmon, Black Quarter, Annual 
Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry, United 
States Department of Agriculture (1893-4).] 

Foot-rot in sheep. — Foot-rot in sheep is an infec- 
tious disease characterized by a specific inflamma- 
tion of the tissues just above the horny part of 
the cleft of the foot, which extends downward, 
undermining the horny part. It appears in epi- 
zootic and enzootic forms. The cause, according to 
Mohler and Washburn, is an anaerobic organism, 
Bacillus necrophorus. The period of incubation is 
short. Its duration varies from a few weeks to 
several months. Usually it does not terminate 
fatally. 

Hog cholera. — The distinguishing features of this 
disease are a continuous fever, ulceration of the 
intestines, and more or less discoloration of the 
skin, especially over the ventral surface. It is 
widely disseminated throughout the central part of 
the United States. It exists, however, to a certain 
degree in every state in the union and in Canada. 
In Great Britain it is known as swine fever. It 
prevails to a greater or less extent on the conti- 
nent of Europe. It is caused by Bacillus cholera; 
suis. The period of incubation varies from seven 
to fourteen days, and perhaps longer. The symp- 
toms are not constant. They are the acute and the 
chronic or mild forms. In the acute disease, the 
animals die very suddenly after a few hours, or at 
most a few days of sickness ; in the other form the 
disease runs a longer course. The animals act dump- 
ish and spiritless, and lie quietly in a corner or hud- 
dle together ; they refuse to move when disturbed, 
and are more or less oblivious to their suffering. 
The appetite varies ; there may or may not be 
diarrhea ; frequently the bowels are costive ; there 
is rarely any cough. Usually there is considerable 
reddening of the skin on the nose, ears, abdomen, 
and on the inside of the thighs and pubic region, 
and occasionally this reddening is very marked. 
Hogs suffering from various intestinal troubles fre- 
quently exhibit symptoms which closely resemble 
those of this disease. The lesions in the acute form 
are hemorrhagic or septicemic in nature. In the 
chronic form, which is more common, the lesions 
may be limited to the large intestines, although 
the spleen is usually enlarged and dark colored, and 
the liver, kidneys, and lymphatic glands are more 
or less affected. The duration of the disease varies, 
from a few hours in the acute septicemia type to 
one or more weeks in the chronic form. The prog- 
nosis is not good. 

Hog cholera is to be differentiated from a great 
variety of dietary disorders and poisoning from 
alkalies and possibly from other chemicals, which 
may get into their food. Powdered soap has been 
found to produce a series of symptoms very similar 
to those of hog cholera. Hog cholera must also be 
differentiated from a new disease recently described 
by de Schweinitz, which resembles acute hog cholera 
symptomatically, but which is caused by an unknown 
organism that passes through a Chamberland filter. 
The differentiation of hog cholera from swine plague 
depends on the specific bacteria. 



138 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 



[Salmon and Smith, Annual Reports of the Bureau 
of Animal Industry (1885-1895) ; Smith, Hog 
Cholera Group of Bacteria, Bulletin No. 6, Bureau 
of Animal Industry, United States Department of 
Agriculture, p. 9 (1894) ; Smith and Moore, Experi- 
ments on the Production of Immunity in Rabbits 
and Guinea Pigs With Reference to Hog Cholera 
and Swine Plague Bacteria, Ibid., p. 41 ; Welch, 
Report of Investigations Concerning the Causation 
of Hog Cholera, Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin 
No. 1 (1889).] 

Tetanus. — Tetanus, or lockjaw, is an infectious 
disease (toxemia) in which the specific organism 
remains at the place of inoculation. It is charac- 
terized by spasmodic contraction of the muscles, 
referable to the nervous system, and by the absence 
of obvious tissue changes. It is the result of the 
absorption of the toxin produced by the tetanus 
bacillus. All mammalia, including man, are sus- 
ceptible. It occurs most frequently in horses, asses 
and mules ; next to them, in the smaller ruminants, 
such as the sheep and goat ; it appears least often 
in the dog. It is reported to occur rarely in birds, 
and fowls are supposed to be immune. The human 
species is very susceptible. Tetanus is reported to 
be more prevalent in hot climates than in temper- 
ate ones, while in the very cold 
latitudes it is rarely if ever en- 
countered. It is more frequently 
met with in some districts than 
in others. It is, however, a wide- 
""*• . i spread disease. The tetanus ba- 
* 1 f? \\ cillus forms spores which are at 
W /' • the end of the organism. (Fig. 
120.) It is found in the soil. 
Mold rich in horse-manure seems 
to be the most favorable abode 
for it. The tetanus bacillus is 
very resistant, especially in its spore form, to 
destructive agents, such as drying and the ordinary 
disinfectants. Kitasato found that a 5 per cent 
solution of carbolic acid applied for ten hours 
failed to kill the spores. The period of incubation 
in horses is usually four to twenty days ; after 
inoculation with pure cultures it is four to five 
days, and in sheep two to four days. 

The most common modes of infection are punc- 
tures, scratches, and pricks made by splinters, nails 
or infected instruments (traumatic tetanus). It 
may follow slight abrasions of the skin where 
infected earth comes in contact with the lacerated 
epidermis. Infection often occurs in young foals 
and lambs through the freshly broken umbilical 
cord (Tetanus neonatorum). The symptoms are often 
obscure and may be overlooked for several days or 
they may be ushered in suddenly with violent and 
extensive tonic spasms. The tetanic spasms usually 
begin in the muscles of the head and neck, extend- 
ing from these to those of the throat, trunk and 
extremities. The muscles at the site of inoculation 
are frequently the first to show spasms and, if the 
disease is of a mild type, they may be the only ones 
to exhibit change. Besides the spasms the animal 
shows an increased reflex irritability and height- 
ened sensibility. In fatal cases the temperature is 



Yt> 



Fig. 120. The bacilli 
of tetanus, some 
with spores , 
others without. 



usually constantly high toward the last. The pri- 
mary tissue changes are in the motor ganglia cells 
of the anterior horns of the spinal cord due to a 
specific affinity between those cells and the tetanus 
toxin. A considerable number of lesions may be 
found elsewhere in the body, which are secondary 
to the tonic contractions. 

The duration of the disease varies in different 
species and in different individuals of the same 
species. In the horse it may last for two or three 
days only, or it may continue for several weeks. 
In cattle the course is less rapid, but it rarely runs 
longer than two weeks. In sheep it may terminate 
fatally within a week and often in two or three 
days. Tetanus may be mistaken for cerebro-spinal 
meningitis, rabies and poisoning with strychnine. 

Owing to the wide distribution of tetanus bacilli, 
precautions consist only in careful and thorough 
disinfection of all wounds. With animals at pas- 
ture, it is often impossible to know of the wounds 
until it is too late to apply this measure. In stables 
where the disease becomes prevalent, the floors and 
siding should be thoroughly disinfected and special 
watchfulness exercised to find at the earliest 
moment any injury by which infection could occur. 
Tetanus antitoxin is of value as a prophylactic. 

[Moschcowitz, Tetanus, a study of the nature, 
excitant, lesions, symptomatology, and treatment 
of the disease, with a critical summary of the 
results of serum therapy, Studies from the Depart- 
ment of Pathology of the College of Physicians and 
Surgeons, Columbia University, Vol. VII (1899- 
1900) (M. gives pathology and antitoxin treatment, 
summary of cases and full bibliography.); McFar- 
land, Tetanus and Vaccination, Journal of Medical 
Research, Vol. VII, p. 474 (1902).] 

Diseases caused by fungi. 

Actinomycosis. — Actinomycosis, also known as 
"lumpy jaw," "wooden tongue" and "big head," 
is a chronic disease determined by the presence of 
a specific cause, — 
the ray fungus, - ~ 

Cladothrix actino- 
myces (Fig. 121) — 
which by irritation 
stimulates the for- 
mation of new 
growths consisting 
of round cells, 
epithelioid cells, 
giant cells and 
fibrous tissue. The 
new growths ap- 
pear as tumors hav- 
ing either a ten- 
dency to develop 
into large and hard masses or to suppurate. Cat- 
tle (genus Bos) are most often attacked. Horses, 
dogs, pigs, sheep and elephants are slightly suscep- 
tible. It is rarely found in man. 

Actinomycosis in cattle is widely distributed 
throughout North and South America and Europe. 
It is manifested by a firm swelling or tumor, usu- 
ally situated in the region of the head or throat. 




Fig. 121. A ray fungus, showing a 
rosette, branching and the inva- 
sion of ceUs. 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 



139 



(Fig. 122.) The enlargement gradually increases in 
size. It is ordinarily sharply defined from the sur- 
rounding tissues. Upon manipulation the tumor 
feels hard and dense. In the region of the throat 
it may be fluctuating. After a variable length of 
time, the tumor-like mass may soften in one or 
more places, rupture and discharge a rather thick, 
yellowish and more or less sticky, purulent Sub- 




Fig. 122. Head of a steer showing actinomycosis of the jaw. 



stance. The discharge may continue or, as often 
happens, the opening heals temporarily only to 
rupture again. Animals rarely die from its imme- 
diate effects. Mayo reports cases in which the 
disease was watched for several years. In cattle, 
it usually appears in one or more of the following 
locations : the maxillary bones, the tongue, the 
pharynx, the skin and subcutaneous tissue, the 
lymph glands and the lungs. It seldom attacks 
other organs. Rarely it becomes generalized. 
Investigations have proved the specific, curative 
effect of the administration of iodid of potassium. 

[Salmon, Treatment of Lumpy jaw or Actinomy- 
cosis in Cattle, Bulletin No. 2, Bureau of Animal 
Industry, United States Department of Agriculture 
(1893); Wright, The Biology of the Microorganism 
of Actinomycosis, Journal of Medical Research, 
Vol. XIII, p. 349 (1905).] 

Epizootic lymphangitis. — Epizootic lymphangitis 
is described as a virulent infectious disease charac- 
terized by suppuration of the superficial lymphatic 
vessels, due to the presence of a specific organism. 
It is a disease of the solipeds, although Tokishige 
reports finding it in cattle in Japan. It is caused 
by an organism described by Rivolta as Saccharo- 
mycosis farciminosus. According to Pallin, it is 
found in large numbers in the diseased tissues, 
partly free and partly enclosed in pus corpuscles, 
which often contain ten to thirty or more of them. 
The period of incubation is placed at three weeks 



to three months. The lesions consist of swelling 
and suppuration of the lymph vessels and glands. 
This affection may be mistaken for glanders. 
[Pallin, A Treatise on Epizootic Lymphangitis, 
London (1904).] 

Leeches. — "Leeches" or "leeching" is an infec- 
tious disease prevalent among the horse kind, with 
lesions localized on the skin or the mucosa of the 
head. It is more prevalent in the warm latitudes 
but it occurs further north. Its specific cause is 
not positively known but it is supposed to be a 
fungus. 

Mycotic stomatitis in cattle. — Cattle sometimes 
suffer from stomatitis caused by fungi. The exact 
species that are involved in this form of infection 
are not clearly determined. The symptoms are 
inability to eat, suspension of rumination, frequent 
movements of the lips, and, in some cases, dribbling 
of saliva. The ulcers in the mouth are hemorrhagic 
at the borders, while the central necrotic parts 
soon slough. The prognosis is good. 

Diseases caused by protozoa. 

Protozoa are the smallest of known animal life. 
There are great numbers of them in nature but a 
very few species have become parasitic to the 
higher animals. A few species cause disease. 

Canine malaria. — This is known as piroplasma 
of dogs, "malignant malarial jaundice" and "ma- 
lignant jaundice." It is characterized by a high 
temperature, rapid course, jaundice and anemia. 
These are due to the invasion of the blood with 
Piroplasma canis. It has been found in several 
places in Africa, in Italy and in France. [Hutcheon, 
Malignant Malarial Fever of the Dog, The Veter- 
inary Journal, Vol. XLIX, p. 398 (1899).] 

Dourine. — This is a contagious affection of soli- 
peds, transmitted by copulation and attended by 
specific lesions of the generative organs and nerv- 
ous system, such as local swellings, dementia and 
paralysis. The disease is essentially an equine one. 
While the horse shows the greatest susceptibility, 
the ass is comparatively resistant to the infection. 
It is caused by a trypanosome. (Fig. 123.) In the 
active stages, the parasite is usually found abun- 
dantly in the blood, semen, milk, vaginal secretions 
and the erosions of the 
vaginal mucosa and 
penis. During intermis- 
sions, however, and in 
the absence of local le- 
sions, the parasites are 
not found in the blood on 
microscopic examination, 
yet the inoculation of 
the blood into a dog will 
usually produce the dis- 
ease. The parasite dis- 
appears from the blood 
and tissues very rapidly 
after death, so that, to 
prove successful, inoculations should be made from 
an infected individual before or immediately after 
death. 

The first symptoms are local changes in the gen- 




Fig. 123. A drawing of Try- 
panosoma erjuiperdum, the 
cause of dourine, in the 
blood of a rat eight days af- 
ter inoculation. (Dorlein.) 



140 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 



ital organs, which appear after a period of incuba- 
tion of eight days to two months. General symp- 
toms develop only after weeks or even months ; 
their appearance is often delayed until the local 
symptoms have disappeared. The animals are 
depressed aud weak, knuckle on their fetlock joints 
and lose control over the movements of their hind 
legs while walking. The temperature is not so 
high as in other forms of trypanosoraa infection. 
Later in its course, a progressive paralysis of the 
hind quarters combines with excessive emaciation. 
Its duration is from three months to as many years. 
The prognosis is unfavorable. Dourine is to be 
differentiated from "Benign venereal disease." 

Equine malaria. — This disease is characterized 
by a high temperature, and a yellowish tint of the 
mucous membranes. It is caused by Piroplasma 
equi, which is closely related to P. bigeminum. 

Ictero-hematuria in sheep. — This is an enzootic 
disease determined by a rise of temperature with 
a chill and later icterus and marked changes in 
the blood. It is due to Piroplasma ovis, which 
invades the red blood corpuscles. It has been 
described in Europe and in Montana. 

Infectious entero-hepatitis in turkeys. — This is 
popularly called blackhead. It is characterized by 
thickening of areas or of the entire walls of the . 
ceca and areas of tissue degeneration and necrosis 
in the liver. The New England states, particularly 
Rhode Island, and certain districts in the middle 
and western states, are affected. It is caused by 
a protozoan, Ameba meleagridis, discovered by T. 
Smith in 1895. As the disease progresses the tur- 
keys become less active, lag behind their flock or 
do not go out with it. Later the comb, wattles 
and even the skin of the head become dark colored. 
Turkeys are attacked young. 

The primary seat of the disease is the ceca. 
From these the liver is secondarily invaded. (Fig. 
124.) The surface of the liver shows areas of a 
grayish, brownish or a more brilliant greenish 
yellow color. The present 
knowledge of this disease 
shows that the parasite is 
transmitted directly from 
diseased to healthy turkeys. 
This suggests that the first 
precaution is to avoid the 
entrance of diseased or 
seemingly hea'lthy turkeys 
from a diseased flock into 
a healthy one. If the dis- 
ease exists, the best al- 
though most radical method 
is the total destruction of 
the affected flock, thorough 
disinfection of the roosts and droppings under the 
same, and the introduction of healthy turkeys. 

[Cushman, Nature of Blackhead in Turkeys, Re- 
port Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, 
p. 199 (1894); Moore, The Direct Transmission of 
Infectious Entero-hepatitis in Turkeys, Circular 
No. 5, Bureau of Animal Industry, United States 
Department of Agriculture (1896) ; Smith, Infec- 
tious Entero-hepatitis in Turkeys, Bulletin No. 8, 




Fig. 124. Liver of turkey 
suffering from infec- 
tious entero-hepatitis. 
showing the grayish 
areas, characteristic of 
this disease. 



Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture (1895).] 

Mai de caderas. — Mai de caderas (disease of the 
rump) is characterized by an intermittent fever, a 
progressive paralysis of the posterior parts, rapid 
emaciation and death. It is a "wet weather" dis- 
ease. Horses, mules and asses are said to suffer 
from it. It is a disease of tropical South America 
caused by Trypanosoma equinum. The parasites 
are most numerous in the circulating blood during 
the rise of temperature. It has been proved that 
the virus is disseminated and animals are infected 
with it by means of certain insects. The first 
symptom is an elevation of temperature, which 
rises slowly, but suddenly falls to normal. Emacia- ' 
tion is rapid. The urine is dark colored and usually 
contains albumin and perhaps blood. The most 
obvious symptom is a symmetrical or asymmetrical 
paresis of the hind legs. The duration of the dis- 
ease varies from a month to a year, or longer. 

Nagana. — Nagana is a disease characterized by 
anemia and rapid emaciation, caused by a trypano- 
some. It attacks horses, mules, zebras, cattle and 
sheep. A number of the smaller animals are sus- 
ceptible. It is known to all dialects as the tsetse- 
fly disease. It is found in the central and southern 
parts of Africa. There seems to be some doubt 
about its identity with the disease of a similar 
nature in the Transvaal. Livingston discovered it 
in Central Africa. The trypanosoma are transmit- 
ted from the diseased to the healthy animals by 
means of the tsetse-fly (Glossina morsitans, which 
exists in certain parts of Africa. It appears that 
this is the only species of insect responsible for its 
transmission. The affection is extended into unin- 
fected areas by the introduction of diseased ani- 
mals. .In cattle the symptoms are not usually so 
acute as in the horse. Its duration is said to vary 
from a week to six months or more. The appetite 
remains good until the end. [Plimmer and Bradford, 
A Preliminary Note on the Morphology and Distri- 
bution of the Organism Found in the Tsetse-fly 
Disease, The Veterinarian, Volume LXXII, p. 648 
(1899).] 

Surra. — Surra is an infectious disease of soli- 
peds and camels caused by a flagellate protozoa, 
Trypanosoma Evansi. It is determined by a con- 
tinuous fever with alternate paroxysms and inter- 
missions, with a generalized or local eruption of 
the skin, petechias of the mucous membranes and 
more or less subcutaneous edema. There is rapid 
emaciation and great weakness. It is usually 
fatal. It attacks horses, asses, mules, goats, dogs, 
and rats. It can be inoculated into other animals 
such as rabbits and guinea pigs. From an eco- 
nomic point of view it is essentially a disease of 
horses. It occurs in Asia and Africa. It does not 
exist in the United States, but because of its 
prevalence and long standing in the Philippines it 
is liable to be introduced into this country. The 
specific trypanosome is invariably found during 
the paroxysms in the blood of the infected ani- 
mals. Although the blood during an intermission 
may appear under the microscope to be absolutely 
free from the parasites, its inoculation into sus- 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 



141 



ceptible animals, as a rule, will produce the dis- 
ease. The period of incubation may be put at six to 
eight days after inoculation or ingestion of blood 
taken from an animal suffering from surra. 

The most common demonstrated natural method 
of transferring the virus from infected to non- 
infected animals is by means of insects, especially 
the biting flies. The disease is spread from one 
locality to another by the introduction of animals 
carrying the parasite. 

The chief symptoms are the occasional appear- 
ance of an urticarial eruption, closely following 
the first rise of temperature, but which may make 
its appearance at any time during the course of 
the disease. There is extreme pallor of the visible 
mucous membranes. From first to last there is 
progressive anemia ; the blood at first presents a 
normal character, but after a varying period of 
time it undergoes marked changes. The white 
corpuscles are increased in number and the red 
corpuscles usually cease to form normal rouleaux, 
lose their individuality and run together, forming 
irregular masses. Its duration, according to Gunn, 
is about fifty-two days. In the Philippine islands 
the duration in horses is fourteen days to three 
months. The prognosis is always unfavorable, the 
mortality in most species of animals being 100 
per cent. 

Surra is to be differentiated from anthrax and 
the other trypanosoma diseases. It may be com- 
plicated with broncho-pneumonia, rinderpest and 
foot-and-mouth disease. One attack does not pro- 
tect a horse from a subsequent one. The importa- 
tion of animals from infected countries should be 
prohibited. If the disease gains entrance, the 
infected animals should be destroyed. 

[Musgrave and Clegg, Trypanosoma and Try- 
panosomiasis, with Special Reference to Surra in 
the Philippine Islands, Bulletin No. 5, Bureau of 
Government Laboratories, Manila (1903) ; Salmon 
and Stiles, Emergency Report on Surra, Bulletin 
No. 42, Bureau of Animal Industry, United States 
Department of Agriculture (1892).] 

Texas fever. — Texas fever is an infectious blood 
disease of cattle, characterized by a rise of tem- 
perature, hemoglobinuria, destruction of the red 
blood corpuscles and the presence in the blood of a 
protozoan parasite which is transmitted from 
animal to animal by means of the cattle tick. It 
is thought to be identical with the hemoglobinuria 
in Roumania, tick fever in Australia, and "La 
Tristeza" in South America. It has been named 
Malaria bovine by Lignieres. Although it differs 
in many ways from human malaria, the analogy is 
so close respecting the specific cause, wide distri- 
bution and means of transmission, that bovine 
malaria seems to be a very suitable name for this 
affection. The peculiar and interesting feature of 
this affection is the fact that cattle raised in the 
infected districts become immunized so that they 
do not suffer from the disease, but they carry its 
specific organism in their blood. When imported 
into non-infected districts, they transmit the virus 
by means of the cattle tick to susceptible animals, 
but themselves remain perfectly well. In the 



<3 



g» 




Fig. 125. A drawing from a smear 
preparation showing Piroplasma 
bigeminum in the red corpuscles, 
from the kidney of an animal 
suffering from Texas fever. 



United States the distribution of Texas fever cor- 
responds with that of the cattle tick (Boophilus 
annulatus). 

Texas fever is caused by Piroplasma bigeminum 
(Fig. 125), which is found in the blood of affected 
cattle. The life history of this parasite is not 
determined. In the blood of the diseased animal 
the organisms appear 
in the unstained,f resh 
preparation as mi- 
nute or larger bright 
bodies. One end of 
each is broad and 
rounded, the other 
tapering and pointed. 
Usually there are two 
of these bodies, both 
of the same size, in a 
corpuscle. More 
rarely there is but 
one, although four 
are occasionally observed. In the capillaries of the 
congested organs, the blood corpuscles contain 
many more parasites. Although practical stock- 
men had long looked on the tick as the source of 
infection, it remained for Smith and Kilborne 
experimentally to demonstrate that so far as known 
the cattle tick is the sole carrier of the parasite. 

The life cycle of the tick will explain the varia- 
tion in the time elapsing between the exposure of 
northern to southern cattle and the appearance of 
the disease. Starting with tick-infested animals 
placed with native cattle in a northern pasture, 
the adult female tick drops to the ground almost 
daily, so that the following life cycle may be 
assumed to begin at once : Adult ticks drop to the 
ground in one to three days after the infested 
cattle are placed in the field ; adult ticks lay their 
eggs in about seven days after dropping to the 
ground ; eggs are hatched in about twenty days 
after they are laid ; young ticks crawl on cattle in 
one to several days after they are hatched ; in 
about ten days from the time the young ticks 
crawl on the susceptible cattle the rise of tempera- 
ture appears. Small quantities of the blood from 
immunized cattle in the tick-infected district, 
when injected into susceptible animals either 
intravenously or beneath the skin, will produce 
the disease. Usually the spleen is much enlarged. 
The liver is extensively affected, enlarged, con- 
gested, edges rounded, the bile ducts more or less 
distended and the cells usually in a state of fatty 
degeneration. 

The preventive measures consist in the elimi- 
nation of the tick. It has been shown that immun- 
ity against a fatal attack of Texas fever can be 
conferred on susceptible cattle by inoculation with 
the blood of a native Southern animal or one 
which has recently been rendered immune. Louisi- 
ana offers to immunize (free of charge) northern 
cattle, if they are shipped to the state for its stock- 
raisers. 

[Dalrymple, Morgan and Dodson, Texas or South- 
ern Cattle Fever, Bulletin No. 51, Louisiana Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station (1898); Mohler, Texas 



142 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 



Fever, Bulletin No. 78, Bureau of Animal Industry 
(1905) ; Norgaard, Dipping Cattle for the Destruc- 
tion of Ticks, Annual Report, Bureau of Animal 
Industry, p. 109 (1895-6); Smith and Kilborne, 
Texas Fever, Bulletin No. 1, Bureau of Animal 
Industry (1893).] 

Infectious diseases for which the specific cause is 
not yet determined. 

Contagious pleuro-pneumonia in cattle. — This is 
a specific epizootic disease which affects bovine 
animals and from which other species are exempt. 
When the disease results from exposure in the 
usual manner, it is characterized by an inflamma- 
tion of the lungs and pleura. The disease has been 
brought to the United States several different 
times. Probably its first introduction was in a 
diseased cow sold in Brooklyn, N. Y., in 1843. In 
1886, it was discovered in some of the large 
distillery stables of Chicago and among cows on 
neighboring lots. Its eradication was successful. 

The specific cause of contagious pleuro - pneu- 
monia has not been demonstrated. The infection 
may be introduced either by diseased cattle or, 
less commonly, by cattle-dealers, attendants, uten- 
sils, fodder, dogs and other means. The sheds in 
cattle markets are very dangerous centers for the 
dissemination of the disease. All cattle are not 
equally susceptible. 

Anatomically, contagious pleuro-pneumonia is 
a progressive interstitial pneumonia with second- 
ary hepatization of the lungs and exudative pleu- 
ritis. The anatomical changes vary according to 
its duration. It has frequently been mistaken 
for an interlobular pneumonia of cattle, which is 
more or less common in this country. 

[Salmon, Annual Reports of the Bureau of Animal 
Industry, United States Department of Agriculture 
(1884-1892); Smith, Annual Report of the Bureau 
of Animal Industry, p. 143 (1895-6).] 

Diphtheria in foicls. — Diphtheria of birds, also 
known as " roup," first appears on the mucous 
membrane of the head (nasal passages, the eyes, 
the mouth, the pharynx and larynx or sinuses). 
Avian diphtheria is quite distinct from human 
diphtheria. The lesions may extend to the tra- 
chea, bronchi, the air-sacs, the intestines and, pos- 
sibly, to other abdominal organs. The disease is 
determined by a grayish yellow, fibrinous exudate 
which forms on the mucous surface of one or more 
of the parts mentioned. The exudate may be so 
abundant as to obstruct the passages. In some out- 
breaks, it progresses with great rapidity and des- 
troys most of the birds attacked. Fowls (genus 
Callus) and pigeons (genus Columba) are most com- 
monly attacked. The cause is not known. It is usu- 
ally introduced into a flock by the exposure of the 
fowls to sick ones at shows or by bringing affected 
ones on the premises. The contagion may be car- 
ried by birds which have the disease in so mild a 
form that they show no symptoms of it. There is 
a general belief that the disease may be developed 
by exposure to draughts of air or by keeping the 
fowls in damp, filthy and badly ventilated houses. 
The first symptoms are a watery secretion from the 



nostrils and from the eyes, with general weakness 
and prostration greater than would be expected 
from simple catarrh. There is a rise of temperature. 

Three stages or varieties of lesions, which repre- 
sent the types of this disease as encountered in this 
country, are as follows: (1) An exudate of a serous 
or muco-purulent character in the conjunctiva and 
nasal cavities. The mucosa in these cases is appar- 
ently but slightly altered. (2) The mucosa over a 
small or larger area is covered with a spreading ex- 
udate of a grayish or yellowish color. It is firmly 
attached to the mucous membrane, and when 
removed leaves a raw, bleeding surface. (3) The 
mucosa is covered with a thick mass of exudate, 
varying in color from a milky white to a lemon- 
yellow or brown. It is easily removed, leaving a 
more or less granular and healed surface. This 
sloughed mass is frequently dried at its margins 
to the adjacent tissue. It emits a strong putrid 
odor, due to decomposition. The drying of the 
margins prevents the fowl expelling the exudate 
after it becomes separated from the underlying 
tissue. 

To prevent this disease the following rules, in 
addition to general sanitary methods, should be 
observed : (1) Fowls which have an exudate on any 
of the mucous membranes of the head, or which 
have come from flocks in which such a disease 
exists, or has recently existed, should not be placed 
among healthy poultry. (2) If the disease appears 
in one or more fowls of a flock, they should be sepa- 
rated immediately from the well ones. (3) The 
common practice of allowing fowls from different 
flocks to run together during the day should be dis- 
couraged. (4) Care should be taken to avoid the 
possibility of bringing the virus of the disease from 
affected flocks in the dirt or excrement, which 
naturally adheres to the shoes in walking through 
an infected chicken-yard. The same care is neces- 
sary in the interchange of working implements, 
such as shovels, hoes and the like. Ward has found 
that this disease can be prevented by keeping 
infected fowls away. The most certain of the 
known methods of treatment is the local application 
of disinfectants. The dipping of the heads of fowls 
in a solution of 1 to 2 per cent of permanganate of 
potash, or a 3 per cent solution of creolin, is 
reported to be very effective in cases in which the 
lesions are external and in the early stages. 

[Harrison and Streit, Roup : An Experimental 
Study, Bulletin No. 132, Ontario Agricultural Col- 
lege and Experimental Farm (1903) ; Mack, The 
Etiology and Morbid Anatomy of Diphtheria in 
Chickens, American Veterinary Review (January 
1905) ; Ward, Poultry Diseases in California, 
Proceedings of the American Veterinary Medical 
Association, p. 164 (1904).] 

Dog distemper. — This is an infectious disease 
appearing in sporadic cases or in epizootics. It is 
usually determined by a rise of temperature, loss 
of appetite and lassitude, followed by a catarrh of 
the conjunctiva, respiratory passages and digestive 
tract. Frequently there are serious disturbances of 
the nervous system. It is the most important canine 
disease. It is reported that cats, wolves, foxes, 






INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 



143 



jackals, hyenas and monkeys suffer from it. Its 
specific cause has not been demonstrated. 

Epithelioma contagiosa. — Epithelioma contagiosa, 
or chicken-pox, as it is more often called in this 
country, is characterized by the development of 
nodular-like growths on the mucosa and skin of the 
head and neck. It is readily transmitted among 
fowls. 

Foot-and-mouth disease. — Foot-and-mouth disease 
is a highly infectious disease of animals. It is deter- 
mined by the eruption of vesicles in the mouth, 
around the coronet of the foot, on the udder and 
between the toes. It is said to be more common 
among cattle, but swine are susceptible ; sheep, 
goats, horses, and dogs are sometimes attacked. 
People may be infected by drinking the unboiled 
milk of animals suffering from the disease. The 
mortality is not high. This disease is very largely 
restricted to Europe, although it has been intro- 
duced into almost every cattle-raising country. In 
1870, it was brought to the United States from 
Canada. In 1884, and again in 1902, it invaded 
this country. In 1902, it appeared in New England. 
A total of 4,712 cattle were affected. The com- 
parative freedom of the United States from this 
disease is attributed to the enforcement of rigid 
quarantine measures. 

The specific cause is not known. The virus is 
contained in the eruptions, causing its wide distri- 
bution. Loeffler and Frosch have shown that the 
cause passes through a Berkefeld filter. The period 
of incubation is short. The first evidence of the dis- 
ease is a rise of temperature, which in cattle rarely 
exceeds 104° Fahr. The mucous membrane of the 
mouth becomes reddened, the appetite is diminished, 
and rumination ceases. The mouth is usually kept 
closed and the quantity of saliva is increased. In 
addition to the changes in the mouth, one or more 
feet may become diseased. The udder, more par- 
ticularly the teats, may be the seat of lesions. 

The duration of the disease in uncomplicated 
cases varies from ten to twenty days. The mortality 
varies with the severity of the attacks, the age and 
condition of the animals and the treatment. Ordi- 
narily it is not high, excepting in very young ani- 
mals. It must be differentiated from various forms 
of stomatitis caused by injuries and by different 
fungi, from actinomycosis of the tongue, and from 
variola. 

[Peters, Foot and Mouth Disease, Second Semi- 
annual Report of the Chief of the Cattle Bureau, 
Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, p. 321 
(1903); Salmon, Foot and Mouth Disease, Yearbook, 
United States Department of Agriculture, p. 643 
(1902); Ibid., Annual Report of the Bureau of 
Animal Industry, p. 391 (1902).] 

Fowl pest. — This is a very acute and rapidly 
fatal disease of fowls caused by an ultra-micro- 
scopic organism that passes through the Berkefeld 
and Chamberland filters. Pigeons succumb to inocu- 
lation. Guinea pigs and mice are not susceptible. 

Infectious abortion. — The disease or condition 
known as infectious abortion consists in the expul- 
sion of the immature fetus, usually before it has 
sufficiently developed to live after birth, by a large 



proportion of pregnant animals that are kept 
together. Usually the abortion occurs in cattle 
between the fifth and eighth months of gestation. 
The disease as described by European writers is 
characterized by certain morbid changes in the 
uterine mucosa and fetal membranes. American 
observers have not described these changes. In 
cattle it usually affects the young cows. After 
two or three consecutive abortions, as a rule, cows 
become immune to it. Cows suffer most from this 
condition, although mares, ewes, and other species 
are occasionally reported to be affected. 

Dairymen have found that if they keep animals 
that abort away from their sound cattle the trou- 
ble does not appear. As it affects young cows, it 
is the practice in some places to keep the young 
animals separated from the others until they have 
become free from the disease or at least until they 
have passed the period when it is likely to occur, 
after which they are admitted to the herd of older 
cows with impunity. When the trouble has entered 
a herd, the best prophylactic is thorough disinfec- 
tion of the stable and frequent washing with a dis- 
infectant of the vagina and external genetalia of 
the cows that have been exposed. All new cows 
that are purchased should be isolated from the 
herd until after parturition has occurred at full 
term. The disinfectants that have been used with 
success for external application are 5 per cent car- 
bolic acid, 4 per cent creolin, 1 to 1,000 corrosive 
sublimate, and a solution of copper sulfate con- 
taining forty grams per liter of water. The last 
two may be used for vaginal douches. 

[Bang, The Etiology of Epizootic Abortion, Jour- 
nal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics, 
Vol. X, p. 125 (1897); Dalrymple, Bulletin No. 10, 
2d Series, Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion (1891) ; Law, Contagious Abortion in Cows, 
Report of the New York State Commissioner of 
Agriculture (1897).] 

Infectious cerebrospinal meningitis in horses. — 
This is a disease that seems to be infectious in its 
nature, exhibiting symptoms referable to a dis- 
turbance in the central nervous system. It is 
called epizootic cerebro-spinal meningitis because 
it often attacks a number of animals in the same 
locality. Although the literature contains numer- 
ous accounts of its seemingly contagious nature, 
an analysis of the facts fails to bring forth conclu- 
sive evidence that it is ever transmitted directly 
from one horse to another. In nearly all outbreaks, 
the animals affected have been subjected to like 
conditions of life. This disease, at the present 
time, is peculiar in that its cause is not known, 
that obvious tissue changes are usually absent, and 
that it has a very high mortality. The mildest 
attacks are manifested by loss of control of the 
limbs, loss of power over the tail, impairment of 
appetite and some difficulty in swallowing. In the 
more favorable cases, improvement may begin on 
the third or fourth day. [Martin, Cerebro-spinal 
Meningitis, American Veterinary Review, Vol. XXI, 
p. 289.] 

Influenza. — Influenza is an acute infectious dis- 
ease characterized by a rise of temperature and a 



144 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 



catarrhal condition of one or more of the mucous 
membranes, more especially of the head. It usually 
appears in epizootic form. It is a disease of horses, 
although asses and mules are susceptible. It is 
known as "epizootic catarrhal fever," "horse dis- 
temper," "pink eye," "mountain fever "and "ship- 
ping fever." Influenza is a generic term employed 
to designate a large variety of symptoms. It seems 
to be produced by some specific infection. It 
spreads rapidly among horses. The virus appears 
to lose its virulence quickly outside of the animal 
body, but within the body it seems to be preserved 
for a long time. In many cases one attack confers 
immunity, but a second infection or a relapse fre- 
quently occurs. The period of incubation and its 
duration vary from six to ten days. The mortality 
varies from 5 to 7 per cent. Without a definite, 



A 



bm 



®< 



£'%& 



£7— 



•>-c 



,^ 



1 



. 






Fig. 126. Nerve ceUs showing Negri bodies, a. Nerve cells; 6, nuclei; 
c. Negri bodies. 

recognizable etiological factor or other exact tests, 
a positive diagnosis in doubtful cases can not be 
made. 

[M'Fadyean, Influenza of the Horse — What Is It? 
Journal of Comparative Pathology and Thera- 
peutics, Vol. II, p. 105 (1889); Marsden, Influenza, 
The Veterinary Journal, New Series, Vol. II, p. 315 
(1900) (M. describes three forms : (1) catarrhal 
fever, (2) bilious fever, (3) epizootic cellulitis); 
Nelson, Influenza, State Agricultural Experiment 
Station, Pullman, Washington (1896).] 

Rabies. — Rabies, or hydrophobia, is an acute 
infectious disease, transmitted from animal to ani- 
mal or from animal to man by the bite of the rabid 
individual or by direct inoculation. It is not known 
to be contracted or transmitted in any other man- 
ner. It is characterized by a long and variable 
period of incubation, followed by symptoms refer- 
able to the nervous system, lasting one to ten days 
and ending in paralysis and death. There are no 
recognizable gross tissue changes. The dog is the 
animal most commonly affected, although all of the 
canine and feline races suffer from it more than 
other species, and cattle, sheep, hogs and horses 
are often attacked. An explanation for its greater 



frequency among dogs is found in their tendency 
to bite each other. 

Rabies was first described by Aristotle. It is 
known to exist in almost every country on the 
globe. Australia is the largest area which is said 
to be absolutely free from it. This exemption is 
the gratifying result of a rigid quarantine enforced 
against dogs imported on that island. It is known 
that its cause exists in the brain, spinal cord and 
saliva of the affected animal. It 1903, Negri, of 
the University of Pavia, described small bodies or 
cell inclusions, since called Negri bodies (Fig. 12G), 
which he found in the Purkingie cells of the cere- 
bellum and in the large ganglion cells of the 
Ammons horn. Negri held these bodies to be the 
cause. They are of great value in diagnosis. 
The period of incubation is variable, depending 
on the site of the wound, which is almost 
_.,., always a bite, the amount of virus intro- 
duced and its virulence. In general, it may 
be said for all animals that the period of 
incubation seldom exceeds sixty days, al- 
though there are cases in which it has been 
much longer. The average period as given 
by Ravenel, is as follows: in man, 40; dogs, 
21 to 40; horses, 28 to 56 ; cats, 14 to 28; 
pigs, 14 to 21; goats and sheep, 21 to 28; 
and in birds, 14 to 40 days. In rabbits 
inoculated subdurally with the brain from 
rabid animals, the writer has found the 
period of incubation to vary from twelve 
to sixty-two days and the duration of the 
disease to range from a few hours to three 
days. 

The somewhat popular opinion that most 
of the cases of rabies occur in the sum- 
mer, especially in "dog days," is not founded 
on facts. Rabid dogs are nearly, if not 
quite, as numerous in winter and early 
spring as in summer. 
Rabies is generally divided into two forms, furi- 
ous and dumb. In the first the animal is irritable 
and aggressive and bites nearly every object which 
comes in its way ; in the second the muscles of its 
jaw are paralyzed almost from the beginning, and, 
being unable to bite, the animal remains more 
quiet and tranquil. The duration of the disease 
varies from two to ten days. 

The prevention of rabies resolves itself into two 
procedures : (1) The destruction of all ownerless 
and vagrant dogs and (2) the muzzling of all dogs 
that appear on the streets or in public places. In 
thus preventing the propagation of the virus, as 
shown by the results obtained in Germany and 
Great Britain, the disease will be practically exter- 
minated. There is no treatment. The preventive 
inoculation known as the Pasteur treatment is 
effective when applied immediately after being 
bitten. Rabies causes heavy losses in the United 
States. 

[Moore and Fish, A Report on Rabies in Wash- 
ington, D. C, Annual Report, Bureau of Animal 
Industry (1895-6); Salmon, Rabies: Its Cause, 
Frequency and Treatment, Yearbook, Department 
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. (1900); Way, 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF ANIMALS 



145 



The Negri Bodies and the Diagnosis of Rabies, 
American Veterinary Review, Vol. XXIX, p. 937 
(1905).] 

Rinderpest. — Rinderpest is the most fatal dis- 
ease affecting cattle. It is a specific eruptive fever, 
occurring both sporadically and in epizootics. It 
is characterized by a more or less typhoid condi- 
tion, with lesions largely located in the mucosa of 
the digestive tract and skin, and by the infectious 
nature of all the tissues, secreta and excreta. It 
is a disease peculiar to cattle, although other 
ruminants are susceptible to it. Rinderpest is a 
well-known plague in Russia and the steppes of 
central Asia. It has extended from time to time 
from its home in Russia and Asia to nearly every 
country in Continental Europe and Asia. More 
recently it has occurred in southern Africa. It has 
been introduced into the Philippines. It has not 
been introduced into the United States or other 
American countries. 

[Jobling, Report of the Director of the Serum 
Laboratory, Fourth Annual Report of the Philip- 
pine Islands (1903); also Ibid., Bulletin No. 4, Bu- 
reau of Government Laboratories, Manila (1903); 
Koch, Report, The Veterinary Journal, Vol. XLV, 
p. 204 (1897); also Centralbl. f. Bakter., Bd. 
XXI, S. 526 (1897).] 

Variola in animals. — The disease in animals 
known as variola is characterized by a rise of tem- 
perature followed by a skin eruption consisting first 
of papules, then of vesicles and finally of pustules. 
It is common to horses, cattle and man. Sheep suf- 
fer from a like or similar disease. Other species 
are said to be attacked occasionally. The symp- 
toms vary somewhat in the different species, but 
the essential ones are a rise of temperature and 
the appearance of a definite eruption on the skin 
or mucous membranes. It is rarely a dangerous 
affection in animals and often it is very mild. In 
sheep and goats it is known as clavelee. 

Immunity and protective inoculation. 

Immunity. — In a broad sense, immunity is 
" resistance to disease." The term, however, is 
usually restricted to the infectious maladies and 
signifies a condition of the individual which enables 
it successfully to defend itself against the invasion 
of its tissues and organs with the infecting micro- 
organisms or to resist the toxic effects of the 
invading organisms should they gain entrance and 
multiply within the body. While it usually applies 
to the action of pathogenic bacteria, the protozoa 
are not excluded. It will be seen that immunity is 
only relative ; it is neither permanent nor con- 
stant, but varies with natural and artificial condi- 
tions. According to the process by which it is 
established in the individual, immunity is recog- 
nized as natural or artificial. 

Natural immunity has been applied to that con- 
dition or ability possessed by some races or species 
of animals that enables them to resist the natural 
invasion of infecting organisms which attack 
other species or varieties of animals. In so far as 
we know, it is a condition inherent in the very 
nature of the individual, born with it and trans- 

C10 



mitted to its offspring. Thus, the Algerian race of 
sheep are immune to natural infection of anthrax, 
whereas other sheep are very susceptible to it. 
Natural immunity usually persists under ordinary 
conditions throughout life and in that respect it is 
much more permanent than artificial immunity. 

Artificial immunity is brought about in the indi- 
vidual after birth. The most common form is 
found in individuals who have survived an attack 
of an infectious disease, such as smallpox and yel- 
low fever in man and Texas fever in cattle. In 
some infectious diseases, as tuberculosis, there 
seems to be very little if any increased power of 
resistance imparted to a patient who has recovered 
from the first attack. There is great variation in 
the period of its duration. Artificial immunity is 
produced : (1) By inoculating the individual with 
a non-lethal dose of a strong virus. This is prac- 
ticed in immunizing cattle against Texas fever, 
sheep-pox and contagious pleuro- pneumonia. (2) 
By inoculating the individual with attenuated 
virus. This is practiced in anthrax, black leg, 
chicken cholera, rouget, and rabies and bubonic 
plague in man. (3) By inoculating the individual 
with a vaccine consisting of the virus of the dis- 
ease modified by continual passage through another 
species of animal, as vaccine for smallpox. (4) 
By the injection of toxins. This is used for immu- 
nizing animals, such as horses, against the virus 
of the diseases for the purpose of procuring anti- 
toxin from their blood, as in diphtheria and tetanus. 
(5) By the injection of antitoxins. These are 
used to immunize animals against toxins, and chil- 
dren against natural infection, as in diphtheria. 
This is called passive immunity. Active immunity 
is produced by the injection of a living virus or 
its toxin. 

Difficulties and dangers to be considered in vacci- 
nating or immunizing animals. — The results of the 
efforts that have been put forth during the last 
twenty years to secure control over the infectious 
diseases of animals show that for a few diseases 
there is a well-established natural basis for vacci- 
nation, but with others such a foundation does not 
appear to exist. The reasons for occasional failures 
in vaccination are not difficult to find. The analysis 
of the principles underlying vaccination shows that 
it means the establishing of immunity by the intro- 
duction into the body of non-lethal doses of viru- 
lent virus or the use of a virus that has been atten- 
uated. It is not always easy or even possible to 
know the exact degree of virulence possessed by 
the vaccine, and again the resisting force of ani- 
mals varies even in different individuals of the 
species. If the virulence is too great, or the resist- 
ance below the supposed normal, the vaccine may 
produce disease in excess of the amount required 
to establish immunity, and perhaps it may kill the 
animals it was intended to protect. This is a result 
that has been experienced. As vaccination rests on 
the production of artificial immunity, the extent to 
which it can be applied depends on the efficiency of 
methods to produce immunity in different diseases. 

In deciding on the action to be taken in the pres- 
ence of an infectious disease, the selection of a 



146 



SOME DETAILS OF STOCK MANAGEMENT 



vaccine should be guided by the fullest knowledge 
possible of the nature of the disease itself and the 
extent to which natural and acquired immunity 
against it exists or is made possible. The dangers 
in vaccination as applied especially to animals at 
large may be summarized as follows : (1) The vac- 
cine may be too much attenuated, resulting in the 
failure to establish immunity. (2) The vaccine 
may be too strong (virulent) so that it will pro- 
duce more disease than is desired, possibly causing 
fatal results. (3) The attenuated virus of which 
the vaccine consists may regain its virulence. The 
distribution of living pathogenic microorganisms 
among animals is of itself not to be recommended. 
They may be the starting point of subsequent out- 
breaks. (4) In using non-lethal doses of virulent 
virus, the danger of producing fatal results because 
of the susceptibility of the individual treated is 
always present. Prevention, or the keeping of 
these diseases away from healthy animals, is oy 
far the most effective method of protecting our 
herds. 

Disinfection. 

By disinfection is meant the destruction of dis- 
ease-producing microorganisms. For this purpose, 
nature has provided very important agents, such as 
sunlight and drying, but these are not available or 
sufficient to destroy all infecting bacteria in all in- 
fected places within the necessary time limits. To 
supplement these natural forces, a large number of 
chemical substances have been brought into service. 
In the effort to destroy the microorganisms in such 
places as yards, stables, cattle cars and the like, it 
is necessary to consider before applying a disin- 
fectant, the following conditions : (1) The resistance 
of the particular organism to be destroyed. (2) 
The medium or material in which it exists. (3) The 
nature of the place containing the organisms to be 
destroyed. (4) The chemical action of the material 
surrounding the Microorganisms on the disinfectant 
itself. For the disinfection of pens, stables, floors 
and the like, the following solutions have been 
recommended, and with careful and intelligent use 
will be effective : (1) Corrosive sublimate (mercuric 
chlorid), one ounce in eight gallons of water (one- 
tenth of 1 per cent). The water should be put into 
wooden tubs or barrels, and the powdered sublimate 
added to it. The whole must be allowed to stand 
for twenty-four hours, so as to give the sublimate 
an opportunity to become entirely dissolved. Since 
this solution is poisonous, it should be kept covered 
and well guarded. It may be applied with a broom 
or mop, and should be used freely on all woodwork. 
Since it loses its virtue in proportion to the amount 
of dirt present, all manure and other dirt should be 
removed before applying it. The manure should be 
covered with lime or burned. Its very poisonous 
nature for man and animals renders it less desirable 
for general use than some other solutions. (2) Car- 
bolic acid. A 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid is 
one of the best disinfectants for mangers, feed 
boxes and fixed watering basins. It should be ap- 
plied in quantity sufficient thoroughly to wet all 
parts, and soak deep into the cracks and crevices, 



if there are any. (3) Chlorinated lime. Five ounces 
of chlorid of lime to a gallon of water (4 percent). 
This should be applied in the same way as the cor- 
rosive sublimate. (4) Formalin. Formalin is being 
recommended highly as a disinfectant when used in 
a 5 per cent solution. The floors and walls should 
be thoroughly wet with it. (5) Ordinary slaked 
lime. Although it does not possess the disinfecting 
power of the substances given above, slaked lime 
is nevertheless very useful. It is well adapted for 
disinfecting the surface of yards and pens. It is 
very useful to apply to the ceilings and walls of 
stables. There are a number of other substances 
that may be used. In disinfecting stables and pens, 
all litter which has accumulated should be removed 
before applying the disinfectant. As the litter 
itself is infected, it should be burned. 



SOME DETAILS OF STOCK MAN- 
AGEMENT 

By N. S. Mayo and H. TV. Mumford 

Success or failure in breeding or handling farm 
stock depends very largely on the care and atten- 
tion that is given to the animals to keep them in 
a healthy condition. Farm animals are kept under 
conditions more or less artificial, and these condi- 
tions are largely under the control of man. 'When- 
ever large numbers of animals are gathered to- 
gether, the danger of loss from disease is increased 
and extra hygienic precautions must be taken for 
their protection. The laws of hygiene for domestic 
animals follow closely those of the human race, 
and in case of doubt, it is always well to " put 
yourself in the animal's place." 

Increased traffic in farm stock also tends to 
increase the danger of loss from disease, not only 
because of the greater liability to infection from 
contagious disease, but the change in food and 
surroundings, together with the increased physical 
strain on animals incident to shipping, is likely to 
predispose them to disease. 

When animals are exhausted from severe work 
or shipping they should always be allowed to rest 
before receiving the usual amount of food or 
water. The best practice is to give a little fresh 
water and a small quantity of easily digested food. 
Horses should be rubbed down, and all animals 
should be allowed to rest for a few hours, if pos- 
sible, and then fed sparingly. Before shipping 
animals or subjecting them to severe work they 
should also be fed sparingly. It is mistaken kind- 
ness to feed animals heavily just before or during 
temporary severe work. 

Quarantine. 

All stock-farms should be provided with suitable 
quarantine quarters where recently arrived stock 
may be cared for until the danger of introducing 
contagious diseases by this means is passed. This 
is particularly important with swine and on stock- 
farms from which animals are exhibited at public 
fairs or shows. Quarantine quarters should be at 
a safe distance from other animals and so con- 



SOME DETAILS OF STOCK MANAGEMENT 



147 



structed that they can easily be cleaned and 
disinfected. 

The stable. 

Barns or stables are usually needed to protect 
animals against rigors of climate. They should be 
on well-drained soil, never over manure pits, of 
simple construction, that they may be easily kept 
clean, well lighted and well ventilated. Animals that 
are confined in stables should have plenty of room. 
Avoid placing a large number of animals together, 
as they do not do so well as when separated in 
smaller numbers. This is particuarly true of swine 
and chickens. For these animals it is better to use 
small portable houses that can be moved to new 
locations, and to keep only a small number in each. 

Cement is now used extensively in stable con- 
struction. For horse-stable floors it is too slippery 
and too hard for the horses to stand on when they 
are kept much of the time in stables. Animals 
should always have clean, dry floors. 

Stables should be cleaned carefully daily, and 
disinfected thoroughly at least twice during the 
winter season, and always after a case of disease 
among the animals in the stable. For disinfecting, 
a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid (poisonous) 
in water is good (one part of acid mixed with 
twenty parts of water). 

Bedding. — Animals confined in stables at night 
should have sufficient bedding to make them com- 
fortable and to keep them clean and dry. Horses 
that are not well bedded are likely to develop 
" shoe-boils " from lying on their front feet, which 
they double under themselves to protect their 
bodies from the floor. Clean straw, coarse hay, 
shavings, peat-moss, and tan-bark make good bed- 
ding. The bedding should be free from chemical 
substances that will injure the skin or feet. The 
bedding should be removed from the stalls every 
morning and exposed to the sunlight and air during 
the day. 

The bedding should be evenly distributed in the 
stall the last thing at night. Sufficient bedding 
should be used to make the animal comfortable, but 
an excess is to be avoided as the animal is liable to 
get in a bunch of it and become "cast," or una- 
ble to rise without assistance. When animals are 
required to stand on hard floors of brick or cement, 
their feet can be protected by using bedding in 
the stall during the day. 

Lighting stables. — Stables should be well lighted 
and so arranged that the light will not strike the 
animals directly in the eyes. Light is best admit- 
ted from above and behind the animal. An excel- 
lent method of admitting light is by means of the 
Sherringham window shown in Fig. 127. This win- 
dow is hinged at the bottom and opens inward at 
the top, and serves for ventilation as well as light. 
Abundance of light for stables is important hygi- 
enically, as direct sunlight destroys many germs, is 
a strong drying agent, and adds a cheerfulness that 
is greatly to be desired. 

Ventilation. — Ventilation of stables is important. 
It consists in supplying fresh air to the animals, 
and at the same time removing air that has been 



breathed, and other gases and waste material that 
may be thrown off by the animal body or arise 
from the surroundings. Stables for horses and cat- 
tle should be so constructed that each animal may 
have 1000 cubic feet of air space if possible. Fresh 
air should be supplied and the impure air removed 
at the rate of 5000 cubic feet per hour. The more 
air space and fresh air that can be supplied the 
better, provided the animal does not suffer from 
draughts or cold. 

There are two general methods of ventilation : 
(1) artificial, in which mechanical blowers or arti- 
ficial heat is applied, and (2) natural, in which only 
tubes or openings are provided to supply the pure 
and carry away the impure air. (Fig. 128.) What- 
ever method is employed, no draughts should be 
allowed to strike the animals. 

There are several methods of natural ventilation 
desirable for stables. In general, the fresh air is 
admitted through tubes between the studding, 
beneath the floor, or by means of the Sherringham 
window before described. The impure air is con- 
ducted through shafts to cupolas or cowls on the 
roof. Air shafts should be of good size, as straight 
as possible, and without right angles, and arranged 
so that they can be partially closed in severe 
weather. They should be kept free from cobwebs 




Fig. 127. Sherringham window from outside. 

and other impediments. [See discussion in Chapter 
VII, Vol. I.] 

In the winter season, during the warm part of 
the day, it is good practice to remove the animals 
from the stable while it is being cleaned, opening 
all the doors, windows and ventilators that the 
dust and impurities may be removed and the 
stables well aired. 

Water for animals. — Individual drinking basins 
in stalls are likely to become filled with food and 
water. The water soon becomes stale and unat- 
tractive. It is generally more satisfactory to have 
the watering tank outside the individual stalls. 
The water should be pure and fresh and the tank 



148 



SOME DETAILS OF STOCK MANAGEMENT 



cleaned frequently. Ailing animals should be iso- 
lated and watered from individual pails. Public 
drinking fountains should be avoided as far as pos- 
sible, as some diseases, such as glanders and dis- 



_--^i^¥ | - 




Fig. 128. System of stable ventilation. After King. 

temper of horses and tuberculosis of cattle, are 
transmitted by this medium. 

Exercise. 

Exercise is essential to the healthy development 
and maintenance of animals. It stimulates and 
strengthens the different organs and this tends to 
keep the animals in vigorous condition, and to pre- 
vent disease. Stables should be provided with yards, 
protected from the cold winds of winter and the 
hot sun of summer, where animals can be exercised. 
Animals that are being fattened for market should 
have only sufficient exercise to keep the bodily 
functions regular. 

Blanketing. 

If a horse is allowed to stand on the street in 
cold or windy weather, he should be covered with 
a heavy blanket immediately on stopping, although 
he may be sweating. If he is brought to the stable 
in a sweaty condition, he should not be blanketed 
until he has ceased to steam, provided he is pro- 
tected, otherwise the blanket and hair will remain 
damp. The substitution of a dry blanket two hours 
later will partly obviate this difficulty. Steaming 
should cease in fifteen to twenty minutes. 

The stable blanket should be lighter and smaller 
than the street blanket. In hot weather, stable 
blankets are not needed except as a protection from 
flies. The early fall use of stable blankets may obviate 



the need of clipping the horse. After clipping, for 
a time both stable and street blankets should be 
warmer and heavier. Blankets should be securely 
fastened about the animal. 

Handling. (H. W. Mumford.) 

The quietness of manner of the attendant is an 
important consideration in the handling of ani- 
mals. The even-tempered attendant who is quiet 
in manner and movement invariably proves more 
satisfactory than the erratic, bustling, noisy one. 
Domestic animals soon learn to have confidence in 
the former and welcome his coming among them, 
while they are always suspicious of the latter, 
never feeling quite at ease while he is in sight. 
This is especially noticeable in fattening cattle. 
Under the management of the former, the cattle 
become tame and quiet, even though more or less 
wild at the outset ; while under the latter, wild 
cattle become wilder and tame cattle become timid. 

The writer has observed a wide difference in 
practice among feeders as to their manner of 
approaching fattening steers. Some are brusque in 
manner, rushing up to the steers and scaring them 
up quickly, while others (and the more successful 
feeders) approach the cattle with the greatest care 
and consideration, getting the cattle up, if at all, 
as quietly as possible. Pastures for cattle in quiet, 
secluded places are more valuable for fattening 
animals than are those adjacent to public roads 
or adjoining pastures where horses or breeding 
cattle run. 

Grooming. 

Horses and cattle that are stabled should be 
groomed frequently, as grooming removes the dirt, 
increases the circulation of blood in the skin and 
favors the removal of waste matter from the body, 
improves the coat, and promotes the general health 
of the animal. Grooming is best accomplished by 
using a comb lightly to remove the attached dirt 
and afterwards brushing vigorously with a stiff 
bristle brush, then wiping the loose dust with a 
cloth. There is no one thing that adds more to the 
appearance of horses and cattle than thorough 
grooming. 

Clipping horses. 

If horses are protected by light stable blankets 
while in the stable and by street blankets when 
out in severe weather, clipping is desirable. It 
improves the appearance of the horse and his coat 
is more easily kept clean. Horses with long thick 
coats should be clipped, as the heavy coats hold the 
sweat and the animal may take cold when stand- 
ing. It should be done soon after the full coat is 
grown, so that the hair may grow a little before 
severe weather comes on ; and a second clipping 
should be given in the spring when the weather 
begins to get warm and the coat begins to be shed. 
When horses cannot be protected from the cold, 
either in the stable or outside, they should not be 
clipped in the fall ; but the long hair on the legs, 
as far as the knee and hock, may be removed, as 
this will prevent those diseases of irritation of 



SOME DETAILS OF STOCK MANAGEMENT 



149 



horses that work in muddy places, due to irritation 
from mud and dirt. 

Care of feet, and shoeing horses. 

The feet of horses should be examined every 
day, and all dirt removed and the sole of the foot 
carefully examined for nails or other foreign 
bodies that may lodge there. In cases of sudden 
lameness, always examine the foot thoroughly for 
such objects. The hoofs of animals should be kept 
level by using a rasp. When horses are shod, this 
is done by the blacksmith. If the hoofs are becom- 
ing hard and brittle they should be softened by 
applications of oil or hoof ointment. If they are 
ragged or tend to split, they should be rasped on 
the edges and trimmed smooth. The hoofs of animals 
standing much in the stall frequently become of 
an excessive length and must be carefully trimmed. 
Attention must be given to the hoofs of young 
animals to see that they develop symmetrically. 

Shoes are applied to the feet of animals to pre- 
vent too rapid wearing away of the hoof and injury 
to the sensitive tissues beneath. They are also 
applied to afford a grip on slippery streets, to 
impart action to roadsters, to change the gait, or to 
remedy diseased conditions. It is not necessary to 
shoe horses doing farm work on soft ground. When- 
ever horses show tenderness when driven on hard 
roads they should be shod. 

Horses that are kept shod most of the year 
should have the shoes removed for a month or six 
weeks, if possible, and be placed on moderately soft 
ground in order to allow the hoof to expand arid 
assume its natural condition. 

For ordinary wear, a plain "plate" shoe without 
calks and just heavy enough to carry the animal's 
weight is sufficient. For slippery work or icy 
weather, calks are a necessity. Shoes should be re- 
set every four to six weeks. In shoeing horses, the 
sole or frog should not be pared away, only the loose 
pieces of horn being removed. 

Customary surgical practices. 

Castration. — Castration consists in the destruc- 
tion or removal of the testicles, the essential 
organs of generation in males. When male birds 
are castrated the operation is called caponizing, 
and the castrated bird is called a capon. When male 
domestic animals are castrated at an early age, as 
is customary, the following names are commonly 
applied to them. Castrated horses are geldings ; 
cattle, steers; sheep, wethers; 
swine, barrows. When a ma- 
ture animal is castrated he is 
sometimes called a "stag," 
because the masculine charac- 
teristics are often pronounced. 
A "ridgling" is a colt or 
horse in which only one tes- 
ticle has descended into the scrotum, the other 
being retained in the abdominal cavity or inguinal 
ring. An expert veterinary surgeon should be em- 
ployed to castrate ridglings, and also for colts or 
pigs that are suffering from inguinal hernias, as a 
special operation is required. 



Animals are castrated to prevent their breeding, 
to make them quieter and easier to handle. Cas- 
trated animals as a rule fatten easier, and the 
meat is of better quality. Domestic animals, gen- 
erally, should be castrated while young, as young 
animals do not suffer so severely from the operation. 
As a rule, calves, lambs and pigs should be castrated 
when about three months old. Colts are gener- 
ally castrated either as yearlings or two-year-olds. 
If a colt is not well developed it is best to wait 
until the spring it is two years old. There is more 
risk in castrating colts than other animals because 
of the greater susceptibility of colts to wound in- 
fection. Animals that are suffering from any 
debilitating disease should not be castrated until 
they have recovered their normal condition. Avoid 
castrating animals during severe weather, either 
hot or cold, or when flies are annoying. An excel- 
lent time is in spring, when grass is good. Before 
attempting to castrate an animal it should be care- 
fully examined to be sure that it is in normal con- 
dition. Select a clean place for the operation, as 
free as possible from dirt and dust. 

Colts and bulls may be castrated in a standing 
position by an expert, but under ordinary conditions 
the animal should be cast and securely tied, or, in 
case of small animals, securely held by an assistant. 
In all cases, the hind feet are drawn forward, and 
as high up on the shoulders as possible. In castrat- 
ing colts, the hands, instruments and parts near 
the operation should be cleaned and disinfected. 
The scrotum should be washed with soap and water 
and afterward disinfected with a 5 per cent solu- 
tion of carbolic acid. The operator grasps the 
scrotum firmly below the testicles, pressing them 
against the skin. If one is smaller than the other, 
remove it first. The incision should be made about 
one-half inch from, and parallel to the median 
line (raphe) that divides the scrotum, and well for- 
ward. The incision should be made of good size to 
admit of free drainage. Do not try to squeeze the 
testicles out through a small opening. There are 
three layers to be cut through — the skin, some 
white fibrous tissue, and the inner thin transparent 




Fig. 129. Emasculator for castrating. 



sack that covers the testicle. When the latter is 
cut through, a little watery fluid usually escapes. 
Avoid cutting the testicle if possible. The testicle 
is drawn out and removed, and the " cord " severed 
at least five inches from the testicle by an instru- 
ment called an emasculator. (Fig. 129.) 



150 



SOME DETAILS OF STOCK MANAGEMENT 



This is the best and quickest method for ordinary 
castration. The immediate danger in severing the 
"cord" is severe bleeding from the large artery 
it contains, and for this reason it is necessary to 
use some method to prevent it. The instrument 
mentioned crushes the artery so that it does not 
bleed. Another good instrument is an 

Oecraseur (Fig. 130). Or the cord can be 
twisted off, seared with a hot iron, or 
scraped in two with a dull knife. The old 
method of using clamps on the cord is 
not to be recommended except in special 
cases. 

In castrating calves and lambs, in- 
stead of making two separate incisions 
the whole end of the scrotum may be 
cut off, and the testicles drawn well 
down and cut off, as there is little dan- 
ger of bleeding in small animals. After 
the operation the animal should rest for 
a time and then have some exercise, as 
this assists in removing blood-clots that 
may collect in the scrotum. 
Ecraseur The important points to be noted in 
for castrating are cleanliness, a free incision 
izfng." close to the median line and well for- 
ward, removing the testicles well up, and 
keeping the wound clean and free from blood- 
clots. After the operation all animals should be 
watched carefully to avoid the collection of 
blood or pus in the scrotum and the attacks of 
screw flies or common "blow" flies. Should pus 
collect in the scrotum, it should be carefully washed 
out with boiled warm water, and afterwards disin- 
fected with a 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid 
in water, using a syringe for the purpose. 

In colts there is often considerable swelling of 
the sheath and adjacent parts. The animal should 
have exercise, and once daily for two or three days 
should be given a heaping teaspoonful of saltpeter 
dissolved in water and applied as a drench. 

Sometimes in colts and pigs, when the "cord" is 
left too long, it becomes attached to the tissues of 
the scrotum and a tumor forms, commonly called 
" Shrirrons' cord." This must be removed surgically 
in the same way as castration. It is best to employ 
an expert veterinary surgeon for this work. Teta- 
nus or " lockjaw," peritonitis and " blood poison- 
ing" sometimes follow castration. 

Caponizing. — Capons, as a rule, weigh about one- 
third more than cockerels, fatten more readily, and 
the flesh is of better quality. The best age to 
caponize is when the bird is six to eight weeks old. 
[See Capons and Caponizing, under Poultry.] 

Spaying. — The castration of females consists in 
the removal of the ovaries. The operation is called 
spaying and the animal after the operation is said to 
be spayed. In spaying animals it is necessary to 
make an opening into the abdominal cavity and 
remove the ovaries. In cows and mares that have 
borne young the operation can be performed through 
the vagina, but in heifers, sows and bitches an in- 
cision has to be made through the abdominal walls 
in the region of the flank or abdomen. An expert 
veterinary surgeon should be employed. 



Docking lambs. — The tails are usually cut off 
when lambs are about two weeks old. The sooner 
lambs are docked after birth the better. They 
should not be docked, however, before they are 
strong, or until they are at least two weeks of age. 
A strong knife should be used. The skin of the tail 
should be drawn towards the body and the tail 
severed at a joint, if possible, about one inch from 
the body. It is well to have a hot iron convenient, 
and touch the end of the artery when there is mu> li 
bleeding, but as a rule it is not necessary. A 
small amount of pine tar may be daubed on the 
stump. The lambs should be examined frequently 
to see that larva? of flies do not get into the wound. 
Should this occur, some chloroform should be 
applied, which kills the larva? at once, and the 
wound should be treated with antiseptics. 

Docking horses. — Docking horses by cutting off 
the tail, except for disease or to overcome a vice, 
is a useless and cruel practice, and is not to be 
recommended. It is a fashion that at best is but 
temporary. 

Dehorning. — Cattle are dehorned to prevent 
their injuring persons or other animals ; they are 
then more tractable and feed better. There are 
two general methods of dehorning : (1) By de- 
stroying the budding horn in calves. This is 
usually done by applying caustic to the "button" 
as soon as it can be felt beneath the skin of the 
head. Clip the hair away over the budding horn 
and moisten an area as large as a cent. With a 
stick of caustic potash wrapped in paper to protect 
the fingers, rub the moistened area thoroughly over 
the whole button. Care should be exercised that 
the part is not too wet so that the caustic will run 
over the skin. In a week a thick scab will drop off. 
If the operation was done properly the horns will 
not grow. It is not practicable to remove with 
caustic budding horns that have pushed through 
the skin. The budding horns of calves may also be 
removed by using a gouge, a special instrument 
being made for this purpose. 

(2) Range cattle are usually dehorned when they 
are put in the feed-yards to fatten. It is best not to 
dehorn them when they are first brought to the 
feed-yards, as it makes them very timid, but to wait 
until they are started on feed and accustomed to 
their surroundings. The adult animal is confined 
in a chute made for the purpose, although a strong 
stanchion can be used. A halter is put on and the 
animal's head is drawn far toward the side. The 
horns are removed either with a dehorning saw or 
with clippers made for the purpose. A good ring of 
hair should be taken off with the base of the horn 
as the wound heals better, there is less bleeding 
and no stub horn grows out again. A dehorning 
saw does better work surgically, but it is slower 
and more painful to the animal. 

After removing the horn some pine .tar may be 
daubed over the wound and a small piece of absorb- 
ent cotton stuck on to keep out the dirt. Dehorned 
cattle should not be allowed about stacks until the 
wounds have healed, as they are likely to get chaff 
and dirt in the wounds. 

Cattle suffer little from dehorning, and it is 



SOME DETAILS OF STOCK MANAGEMENT 



151 



seiaom tnat an animal misses a meal. Milch 
cows fall off in their milk flow, a little for a day 
or two. 

Branding and marking stock (W. T. McDonald). 

On the ranges, the calves and colts are branded 
in the fall of the year. Each owner has a partic- 
ular brand ; ng-iron, usually representing one or 
more letters. This branding- iron is generally 
heated in an open wood fire. The animals are roped 
or held in a frame, and the brand is burned on 
the side. Each owner brands in a particular 
place ;-for example, on the right or left shoulder, 
or on the right or left thigh. Horses are some- 
times branded on the cheek by a small-sized brand- 
ing-iron. 

When stock-raising is practiced on a smaller 
scale, cattle, hogs and sheep are marked by metal 
ear-tags or by notching the ears. In this way each 
animal has a number of its own, which facilitates 
the keeping of individual records. When the ears 
are notched the following method, or a modification 
of it, gives excellent satisfaction: Each notch on 
the lower side of the left ear counts 1; each notch 
in the upper side of the left ear counts 3; one 
notch in the tip of the left ear counts 100; one 
hole punched near the tip of the left ear counts 
400 ; one hole punched near the lower side of the 
left ear counts 1,000; each notch in the lower side 
of the right ear counts 10 ; each notch in the upper 
side of the right ear counts 30 ; one notch in the 
tip of the right ear counts 200 ; one hole punched 
near the tip of the right ear counts 500. By this 
method, each animal may be given an individual 
number. The greatest objection to it is that it 
disfigures the ear somewhat. 

Sometimes horses are numbered individually by 
branding a number on the front of one of the fore 
hoofs. For this purpose, a brand-holder in which 
the desired number is placed, is used, the iron 
figures being one-half or three-quarters of an inch 
in height. This number has to be renewed as the 
hoof grows out. 

Sheep are frequently marked n the fleece by 
paint or keel. 

Preparing cattle for shipment (H. W. Mumford). 

There are shippers who, by divers practices, 
have secured an abnormal "fill" at the market, or, 
in other words, have been successful in making 
their cattle weigh more than they should by induc- 
ing them to drink an unusual amount of water 
when they reach the market. It should not be 
forgotten that there are past masters of the "fill- 
ing" process at all our leading markets, and many 
of them operate outside the fat cattle division, too. 
The trained eye for fat cattle is always on the 
lookout for cattle that have "filled" unusually 
well, and whence sets the price on such he is sure 
to discriminate against them in value per hundred- 
weight, as he knows there will be a heavy shrinkage 
when slaughtered. Any practice which tends toward 
securing an abnormal " fill " on cattle at the yards 
is neither a legitimate practice nor is it likely, in 
the long run, to prove a paying proposition for the 



shipper. On the other hand, it is well known that 
unless some precautions are taken before shipment, 
the cattle are likely to scour and shrink abnor- 
mally. The shipper is justified, thei - efore, in using 
legitimate methods of preventing scours, not only 
to avoid an abnormal shrinkage, but also to pre- 
vent the cattle arriving at the market in a filthy 
condition, which would not add to their attract- 
iveness. 

It may have been inferred from what has been 
said that the principal point to be observed in ship- 
ping cattle without too much shrinkage is to follow 
some peculiar method of feeding ; but the writer 
thinks that the largest factor is the management of 
the cattle. They should be so quietly handled that 
they do not become excited or heated. If possible, 
driving should be done in the cool of the morning 
or evening. There are some feeds, which, if the 
cattle have access to them prior to shipment, will 
be more likely to cause scours than others. These 
are shelled corn, corn meal, oil meal, silage, clover 
hay, alfalfa, cowpea hay and grass. Cattle that 
are fattened on grass and grain during the early 
part of the season may well be yardeM for a day or 
two before shipment and fed timothy hay and a 
considerably reduced grain ration. Fat cattle 
shipped from the dry lot, if receiving clover or 
alfalfa for roughage, should be changed to timothy 
hay at least twenty-four hours before shipment. 
No full grain ration should be given after twelve 
hours before shipment, although it is advisable at 
times, and especially if the cattle have been fat- 
tened on shelled corn or meal, to add a liberal 
amount of oats or bran to the feed. Water should 
be withheld for six hours before shipment. 

If, in addition to the above precautions, care is 
taken to bed the car well and not overload, the 
cattle should arrive on the market fresh and clean 
and will fill normally, which should be the object 
of the shipper. Cattle so shipped should make 
honest weights for the producer and buyer and 
healthy meat for the consumer. 

It is obvious that the management of cattle 
before shipment will necessarily vary considerably 
not only because of differences in their condition, 
and the rations on which they have been fed, but 
also the distance from market and the time they 
will be on the road, and whether it is necessary to 
unload and feed enroute. Some of the suggestions 
offered will apply only to the preparation of cattle 
for shipment when they are not to be on the road 
to exceed twelve hours. [For additional notes, see 
Marketing Farm Stock, pp. 158-162.] 

Literature. 

Liautard, Animal Castration ; Hunting, Art of 
Horse Shoeing ; Mayo, Care of Animals ; Dollar, 
Hand Book of Horse Shoeing ; Fitzwygram, Horses 
and Stables ; Practical Suggestions for Farm Build- 
ings, Farmers' Bulletin No. 126, United States 
Department of Agriculture ; Stable Ventilation, 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 190, United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture ; Stable Ventilation, Ontario 
Experimental Farms Report, 1901 ; Smith, Veter- 
inary Hygiene. 



CHAPTER VI 



THE EXHIBITING OF ANIMALS 




IXHIBITIONS HAVE A POWERFUL INFLUENCE on the domestic animals 
of any region. They set standards, and persons attempt to attain to these 
standards. The nature of the standards established at the shows, therefore, 
becomes a subject of the first importance to any agricultural people. 

Exhibition standards are of two kinds, — those based on " show " points, 
and those based on "utility" points. The show points consider the "looks" 
of the animal. They are likely to be arbitrary and to be subject to changes 
in taste and fashion. For some years, for example, it has been the fashion 
to require that prize-winning Shropshire sheep shall have the face covered 
with wool. The wattles and combs of fowls are prominent subjects of 
"fancy" points in judging. Such classes of ideals may not only have no 
significance, but they may even be in opposition to the real value of the 
animal ; yet, they determine the line of breeding of the persons who may 
be regarded as the leaders in the development of the breed. Some of the 
arbitrary points, however, are distinctive features or marks of breeds, as color, and shape of indi- 
vidual parts. The utility points are those that represent efficiency — the form and size of the " leg 
of mutton" in a sheep, the milk-producing power in a cow, the egg-laying ability in a fowl, the 
"constitution" in any animal. Sometimes the show points coincide with the utility points, or they 
correlate with them. Thus the general form or looks of a sheep may indicate his constitution and 
hardihood. In the past, the exhibitions have no doubt often over-emphasized the formal and unrelated 
points ; we are now giving more attention to the marks and conformation that indicate what the 
animal can do, and this is likely to have considerable influence in the future development of breeds. 

Another fault of the exhibitions, particularly in America, is the lack of a real educational impulse. 
The show is conducted for the benefit of the exhibitor rather than for the benefit of the public. An 
exhibitor usually is allowed to keep his cows or other animals all together, even though they are of very 
different classes, and he is not obliged to adopt any system of labeling and cataloguing that will interest 
and instruct the spectator. The shows of Great Britain excel in the educational features, and they are 
better organized and conducted than ours. They are more careful to eliminate mediocre animals ; they 
group each breed or class by itself, irrespective of exhibitor, thus encouraging comparison and study ; 
entries are carefully catalogued and numbered, and they are admitted far enough in advance to allow 
this to be done with care ; visitors are excluded from the ring when the judging is in progress ; the 
stalls are usually better arranged to allow of examining the animals, being commodious and well lighted, 
and strict stable rules are enforced. 

The leading American shows are noted for their bigness. The first-class animals are probably as 
good as those to be seen anywhere in the world ; but indifferent or even inferior animals may also be 
shown, thus reducing the average standard of excellence. The judges are likely to be annoyed by 
bystanders and interested persons. The money prizes are often large in the American shows ; this 
feature attracts many small exhibitors, who have meritorious animals, but who might not otherwise 
be able to show, thus encouraging a wide-spread effort. On the other hand, there is a marked tendency 
to offer such classes of premiums, in many of the fairs, as to attract traveling professional exhibitors to 
the exclusion of individual agricultural growers. There is a certain professionalism in American 
shows that should be eliminated. This is produced of the desire to win. The professional exhibitor 
scours the country for a string of winners. When the small breeder finds that he cannot win against 
a man who buys animals for the sole purpose of exhibiting them, he loses interest in exhibitions 
and leaves his stock at home. This can be remedied by not catering to this class of persons in the 
premium lists, and by requiring that all exhibitors shall have bred their animals or else have owned 
them and had them in possession for six months or more preceding the exhibition. 

(152) 



FITTING AND EXHIBITING LIVE-STOCK 



153 



The American show is likely to contain many extraneous amusement and entertainment features, 
and therefore to lack the serious aim and effect that makes for a real admiration of excellence in 
superior animals. We must establish ideals. It is one thing merely to mate animals, and then feed 
them for the production of meat or milk or wool ; it is another thing to produce animals of more 
perfect function, utility, form or symmetry than those with which one started. 

The American live-stock shows can no doubt be much improved, speaking broadly, by some or 
all of the following means: (1) By subordinating the exhibitor to the animals; (2) by preventing 
the exhibiting of all inferior animals ; (3) by providing better stall or stable facilities, and making 
and enforcing uniform stabling regulations ; (4) by placing together all animals of similar classes ; 
(5) by numbering the stalls, and printing a catalogue with corresponding numbers, and with infor- 
mation as to breed, class, age, weight, ownership, sire and dam, and the like ; (6) by excluding 
all onlookers and interested parties, if need be, until the judging is completed ; (7) by designating 
every prize-winning animal, and arranging the animals in the order of their standing, so that the 
visitor may know at once the rating of the animals on exhibition ; (8) by an effort to make the animals 
the chief attraction of the show. All this means that the purpose of the show should be broadly 
educational ; and this is really the primary reason for making any exhibition that is not frankly a 
market emporium. 

A recent feature of American stock-shows is the judging by competing groups of students from 
the agricultural colleges. This innovation is commendable, and it is likely to give definiteness to the 
educational purpose of an exhibition. 



FITTING AND EXHIBITING LIVE-STOCK 

By C. S. Plumb 

In general, two classes of persons make a practice 
of exhibiting live-stock: One shows pure -bred 
breeding-stock ; another, butcher's stock, such as 
steers, wethers or barrows, or grade market horses. 
Most growers exhibit, appreciating the opportunity 
as a valuable advertising medium. Others have a 
keen enjoyment in following the show circuit and 
participating in its excitements and inspirations. 
In the show ring the true stockman draws many 
comparisons to his own advantage and learns many 
lessons from others to help him to still greater 
achievements. Numerous conditions play essential 
parts in successfully exhibiting live-stock. Some 
of the more important of these may be considered 
in the following paragraphs. 

The type of stock to be shown. 

Each person engaged in the exhibiting of animals 
in public competition must possess a fair knowledge 
of animal conformation. Without that, intelligent 
effort is impossible. With this knowledge one must 
plan to exhibit animals of uniform type and excel- 
lence. It is rather generally recognized today that 
our domestic animals, somewhat irrespective of 
breed, may be grouped into types of distinct char- 
acter. Thus, we have the heavy harness and the 
draft types ef horse ; the beef and dairy types of 
cattle ; the mutton and wool types of sheep ; and 
the bacon and lard types of swine. There are also 
other types. Even within the breeds one will recog- 
nize types descending from certain blood lines 
organized or created by noted breeders. To exhibit 
stock successfully one must select his show animals 
to conform to the recognized approved type 
demanded in modern high-class competition. If 
one exhibits a herd, the same type should prevail 
among all the animals. This gives great strength 
in competition. Not only type as applied to form, 



should be emphasized, but a careful consideration 
of quality and color will be very desirable. 

Fitting animals for exhibition. (Figs. 131-134.) 

Each great group of animals requires special con- 
sideration in methods of fitting and preparing for 
show. There are certain things, however, that have 
a general application to all kinds of stock. 

Feeding. — A variety of the best of food is essen- 
tial. The standard grains, — corn, oats, barley and 
wheat, — and various by-products, such as bran, 
middlings, shorts, oil meal or oil cake, and ground 
flaxseed, are much relished. Bright hay (free of 
dust), green grass, roots, silage, cabbage, rape, and 
the like, are adapted to one class of stock or another. 
Horses require the least variety, but the food must 
be of a superior quality. A limited amount of oil 
meal or ground flaxseed is suited to all classes of 
stock and imparts a finish to the coat of hair and 
skin. Roots and green stuff may be fed with some 
liberality to cattle and sheep, and with much more 
discretion to horses and swine. Rape and cabbage 
are especially suited to sheep. New milk is invalu- 
able in fitting young cattle up to twelve or fifteen 
months of age, while pigs at any age will rapidly 
respond in gain and quality on a partial milk diet. 
In recent years, digester tankage and blood meal 
have been found to be valuable aids in fitting show 
swine. Salt should be fed regularly to all stock. 
Many stockmen mix a small amount of salt in the 
feed. Tonics of various kinds, as eggs, sugar, 
molasses, and the like, are used under varying con- 
ditions "and kinds of stock. These may or may not 
be used profitably. When forcing is desired, these 
unusual foods are supplied in small amount to in- 
crease the appetite and the food consumption. 

The mechanical condition of the food is impor- 
tant. Chaffed hay mixed with grain and dampened 
is very palatable. Sliced roots or silage mixed with 
this chaffed material is very appetizing for cattle 
and sheep. 



154 



FITTING AND EXHIBITING LIVE-STOCK 



Regularity of feeding is important. Fattening 
animals may be finished off more rapidly if the 
feeding period is more frequent than usual, as for 
example, four times daily instead of twice. Feed- 
boxes and mangers should be kept sweet and clean, 
and scalded out at frequent intervals. All food left 
in the manger should be cast aside at the next 
feeding and only fresh food given. Animals in 
proper digestion should clean up the manger in good 
shape some time previous to the next feeding. 
Watering should be regular and only clean, pure 
water provided. 

Skin and hair treatment. — A mellow skin and a 
silky, fine coat of hair is very desirable. Occasional 
massage of a thick and tight hide of an animal will 
cause it to become more elastic. Sweet-oil rubbed 
into the skin will help. Flaxseed meal in the feed 
will improve both skin and hair. Black hogs at 
show time are often colored with a mixture of 
lampblack and oil. It is objectionable, however, to 
make this application excepting in a very moder- 
ate way. Too deep a bla^k on a Berkshire gives it 
an unnatural coloring. Grooming of horses and 
cattle should always be done with brush and cloth. 
The skin should not be scratched. For swine, a 



curves about the head, neck, breast and hind quar- 
ters. It is a general practice to trim the fleece so 
that it will accord with an ideal mutton form 



Fig. 131. • Dairy cow in show pose. Kate Spray 4th. 
First prize in class at Ohio State Fair. Holstein. 

reed or rush brush is most excellent. In the later 
stages of fitting, horses, cattle and swine may be 
occasionally washed with water of ordinary tempera- 
ture, and the skin cleaned of dirt and dandruff. It 
is undesirable, however, to remove the natural 
oily secretion of the skin. 

Cattle are shown in some instances with a smooth 
coat of hair (Fig. 131), while with other cases 
it is rough and long, as with the Galloway. An 
animal with a long, thick, silky coat may be shown 
rough to great advantage. In recent years, in the 
fall shows, the hair of cattle in some breeds is 
soaped to make it stick together, after which a 
comb is used to give the coat a wavy or fluted 
appearance of a fancy character (Fig. 132). 

The wool of sheep is given a final trimming just 
prior to showing. (Fig. 133.) The wool of the 
Merino is not trimmed with the shears, but that of 
the middle wool is blocked out, trimming to secure 
level true lines on back and sides, with graceful 





Fig. 132. A well-trained calf in perfect show pose. 
Matchless Theodore. (C. A. Stannard.) Hereford. 

beneath. Care should be taken to keep the fleece 
as close together in its locks as possible, especially 
over the back ; and care is required in feeding 
roughage and scattering bedding, so as to get 
no foreign matter in the wool. Some men use a 
slight amount of yellow coloring in the wool, 
but this is undesirable. A custom which once 
prevailed, but which is now rarely followed in 
America, is to apply a light dressing of reddish 
or brownish ocher and oil to the exterior of the 
fleece. This was done to give uniformity of 
appearance to the wool of the flock shown. 
Blanketing of show stock is coming into less 
and less favor. All classes of stock intended for 
show may be blanketed to some advantage during 
fly season. In general, however, most exhibitors now 
prefer a coat of hair free from the heating effect 
of the blanket. Cattle with rough, long hair have 
the real rugged, artistic show of coat injured by 
blanketing. Animals exposed to drafts in the 
cooler days while on the circuit, may be blanketed 
as a protection from colds. Sheep are often blank- 
eted to protect the fleece from foreign matter, to 
compact the locks, and to keep persons from stick- 
ing their fingers into it. Blankets may be pur- 
chased ready made, or may be made of white duck, 




Fig. 133. A beautifully Mocked out fleece. Hampshire ram. 

bed ticking, or burlap. The points of tying, by 
sewed-on tape or string, are below the neck and 
about the belly as a surcingle. With sheep and 



FITTING AND EXHIBITING LIVE-STOCK 



155 



cattle, ties are made about the thighs. Such fast- 
enings keep the blankets in place. 

Horns and hoofs should be shaped and polished. 
A half-round file, moderately coarse, will reduce 
the rough surface bone, while emery paper and 
some form of polishing paste and oil will result in 
a fine polish. Horns not taking on good form may 
be assisted in shaping by scraping the inner side, 
making the shell thinner. The hoofs of all classes 
of stock must be watched and kept trimmed so 
that the feet will stand level and true. Special 
trimming and shoeing of horses' hoofs are required, 
depending on action and show-ring purpose. Hoofs 
of horses are rubbed with sweet-oil prior to show- 
ing, and a bit of lampblack added when hoofs are 
treated. Great care should be taken to keep divided 
hoofs of cattle, sheep and swine from growing too 
long or out of balance in parts. The trimming of 
hoof resorted to should be very careful, else lame- 
ness will result. Gradual trimming is desirable, 
taking off no great amount of bone at 
a time. 

Stabling. — Prior to going on the cir- 
cuit, a variety of customs prevail in 
regard to the stabling. Show stock 
should be provided with box-stalls in 
the later weeks of fitting preceding 
the show. Here, more comfort is pos- 
sible for securing the best results. 
Ample bedding, preferably of straw, 
should be given. Animals in box-stalls 
should not be disturbed when lying 
down within a short time after feed- 
ing. The after-feeding rest is valuable 
in securing gains with meat-producing 
stock. Horses do not come in this 
consideration. In summer, during fly 
season, cattle do better in a darkened 
box-stall during the day, and in feed- 
lot or pasture at night, than out fight- 
ing flies in the sunlight. Hogs and 
sheep should be kept under limited 
yardage and pasture, convenient to 
shelter, and should be kept up during 
the heat of the day, in clean, bedded 
yards or pens. 

Exercise is most important with all kinds of show 
stock. This may be secured in a variety of ways. 
Horses are given a warming-up exercise for per- 
haps fifteen minutes ; cattle are exercised by 
natural inclination, in yards or in small pastures ; 
while most experienced exhibitors of sheep and 
swine drive their show stock about the yards or 
drives for a short time each day, to keep them well 
on their feet and so that they may move gracefully 
and easily. Exercise also assists in creating a firm 
flesh, which is most essential in show stock. 

Training is an important preliminary treatment 
of animals that are to show off to advantage. A 
well-trained animal will stand at quiet attention 
while under the inspection of the judge, or will 
move up in free, natural action if movement is 
desired. Young animals easily respond to handling 
and training. By means of halter or bridle, leading 
is made easy and changes of position readily 



secured. The feet should stand true, so as to 
present the body in the best balanced position ; 
one foot out of line with its mate may place the 
body in very poor form. By means of a slight 
touch of the point of an ordinary carriage whip or 
cane, one may train cattle and horses to move the 
foot to a desired point. Pulling or backing gently 
will also be quickly responded to by the trained 
animal. Horses, in particular, must be shown in 
action, even if of the draft type, so that special 
attention is absolutely necessary in training to 




Draft horse well shown. Note ring trappings. 



produce the truest and best gait possible. Coach 
horses are sometimes shown under a long, single 
line, where action is brought out in its greatest 
beauty, with the body of the attendant at some 
distance behind. Horses, cattle and sheep, when 
not in motion, should always stand at attention 
while in the judging ring. Under such conditions, 
the attendant should never obstruct the view of 
the judge. A careful exhibitor will never lose 
sight of this point. Swine being shown loose in 
the ring, should respond to gentle taps of cane or 
short whip, without manifesting irritation. Light, 
short hurdles, convenient for one person to handle 
easily with one hand, are valuable in show rings to 
guide pigs from other groups, and prevent friction. 

Making entries. 

All fairs and live-stock shows publish premium 
lists in which will be found books of entry. Entry 



156 



FITTING AND EXHIBITING LIVE-STOCK 



blanks are furnished by the secretaries on applica- 
cation. Entries must be made within a fixed date 
at all large shows. In most cases, entry fees 
are required, but in others, not. For example, the 
International Live-Stock Exposition charges no 
entrance fee, but charges a stall fee, which is 
much the same thing. Fees are generally required 
with the entry, though exceptions are made. Entry 
fees may range from fifty cents per head on sheep 
or swine, up to two or three dollars on horses or 
cattle. A fair example of rules of entry are the 
following, as applied in 1907 at the Ohio State 
Fair: 

" All entries of animals must specify the owner's 
name and the name, age, sex, record number (if 
any) and description of every animal offered ; ages 
of horses to date, from the first of January of the 
year foaled ; ages of other animals except cattle 
to be considered in months and days at date of 
fair ; ages of cattle to date from September 1, 
i. e., an animal coming two years old as late as 
September 1 is entitled to show as a yearling. A 
breeder is held to be the owner of the female at 
the time of service. 

" Entries must be made in the name of bona fide 
owners. Should any be found to be otherwise 
entered, they will forfeit to the State Board of 
Agriculture any premiums awarded by the judges. 

" An animal entered for exhibition in one class 
cannot compete for a premium in any other, except 
in speed classes and under rule 6 ; provided, how- 
ever, that animals entered in Books Nos. 1 and 2 
can be entered in Book No. 3. 

"A single animal may be exhibited as one of a 
pair or herd. 

" On receipt of entries of live-stock, cards will 
be made out indicating the books, entry numbers 
and classes, and will be ready for delivery by the 
superintendents of the appropriate departments 
when exhibitors arrive on the grounds, or will be 
sent by mail when specially requested." 

Transportation (Figs. 135-139). 

Animals exhibited at shows are usually trans- 
ported by freight in box-cars or special live-stock 
cars. Exception is frequently made with horses, 
which are shipped in express cars. Persons desir- 
ing to ship should order cars a day or so in 
advance of need. The interior of the car may be 
arranged by the shipper with improvised box-stalls 
or pens to suit his convenience. A good method is 
to place horses or cattle in number, side by side, 
and facing the side of the car, with a narrow feed 
alley in front. With loads of cattle of minor ages, 
the heavier bulls and cows should be at the ends 
of the car. Five or six head, however, may be 
fastened to face the center of the car, with straw 
beneath burlap or cloth for padding on car walls 
to prevent bruising. The center of the car is 
reserved for a sleeping place, utensils and feed. In 
the cooler season it is often desirable to blanket 
cattle and horses in shipment, to protect them from 
drafts and catching cold. Sheep should always be 
blanketed to keep the wool clean. Baled hay and 
straw, under ordinary occasion, should be shipped. 



In long shipments, a barrel for holding water should 
be taken along. 

Special freight rates for animals for shows, 
with free transportation for one attendant, have 
been customary in the past years in the United 
States. A common freight concession has been a 
one-fare freight rate for the round trip on cattle, 
sheep and swine. For example, if one ships to the 
state fair he prepays the freight, receives a bill of 
lading for the stock, receipted, showing the number 
and class of animals shipped, with name of attend- 
ant carried free, with certain other facts, such as 
name of shipper, to whom consigned and destina- 
tion, number of car and freight rate. Exhibitors 
may ship a car of mixed stock or otherwise, as they 
desire. Representatives of railways and express 
companies, as a rule, are found at important shows, 
where they solicit business and attend to ship- 
ments. Cars containing exhibits are in many cases 
especially fixed up by exhibitors for their stock, 
and are side-tracked, subject to the further use of 
the shipper. In this way, the same car may be 
used on the show circuit, covering a long mileage 
of several weeks' duration. The use of such a car 
is a special convenience and saving of cost. Ex- 
hibitors wishing cars reserved should arrange at 
once, after unloading, with the local railway agent 
for reservation for their further use after the show 



Stalls and pens. 

Stalls and pens at shows of importance are set 
aside to the exhibitors before the opening of the 
show ; each stall is numbered and grouped. If 
John Brown arrives with a load of cattle, he is 
at once assigned certain stalls, by number, by the 
department superintendent. In some shows special 
stall tickets are issued the exhibitor for each entry. 
As before indicated, prices for stalls vary. At the 
Chicago Horse Show in 1904, stalls were ten dollars 
each, including straw. At the American Royal 
Live-Stock Show at Kansas City, in 1907, the fol- 
lowing stall fees prevailed : " Rule 9. Stall fees 
will be three dollars per head for double stalls 
accommodating two animals, and when exhibitors 
desire a double stall for one animal the charge will 
be five dollars. A yardage charge of twenty-five 
cents per head will be made, except on nurse cows. 
In the swine department a charge of two dollars 
per pen will be made regardless of the number of 
animals in a pen." Box-stalls are provided at some 
of the larger shows, at about double open-stall rates. 

Feeding and bedding. 

Exhibitions vary greatly in their rules as to feed 
and bedding. Bedding should be supplied free by 
the management. All feed must be supplied by the 
owner of the stock, at his expense. In most cases, 
at large shows, feed dealers secure concessions to 
sell on the grounds ; usually one person or firm 
controls this situation. The exhibitor may bring 
his feed with him or buy wherever he desires. In 
some of the great shows of the country, the ex- 
hibitor, by the rules, must purchase his feed at the 
show. This is to prevent storing among the stalls 



FITTING AND EXHIBITING LIVE-STOCK 



157 



a variety of litter and parcels, thus obstructing 
the passageways and views of the stock. Certain 
concentrated feeds are allowed to be brought in 
when a change would affect the welfare of the 
stock. Rule 49 of the International Live-Stock 
Exposition for 1907 treats of this as follows : "The 
superintendent of forage will have feed for all live- 
stock at reasonable prices. To prevent aisles being 
obstructed with feed and bedding, to preserve the 
general harmony, and that stock may be shown to 
the best possible advantage, exhibitors will not be 
allowed to bring hay, bedding or whole grain." 

Exhibitor's cards. 

Each person showing animals as single, double, 
pen or other entries, must secure from the secre- 
tary of the association entry cards for each exhibit. 
These cards or tags will give the class entry num- 
ber of the exhibit, as based on the printed classi- 
fication of premium list, also the number of the 
exhibitor and perhaps other facts. These cards 
must be in the hands of the exhibitor before his 
stock is called for in the ring. This rule generally 
applies to all shows, down to the well-managed 
county fair. If a person has two cows in the same 
class, he must have two properly filled-out entry 
cards for each cow. These, then, should check up 
with the class entry on the books of the clerk of 
that particular exhibit. 

At some of the best shows in the country, cata- 
logues of the live-stock are printed, giving the 
entry number in prominent type as a prefix to each 
exhibit. Then the attendant holding the stock in 
ring wears on his arms, or chest and back, large 
cards on which is a very legible number corres- 
ponding to the number of the entry in the cata- 
logue. Visitors with catalogues may thus readily 
ascertain the character of the exhibit by the 
description published. Catalogues of the entries are 
published by the horse shows of importance, by the 
International Live-Stock Exposition, and by the 
Illinois State Fair. The catalogue and card system 
at the annual shows of the Royal Agricultural 
Society of England, and of the Highland and Agri- 
cultural Society Show of Scotland, are fine European 
examples of this worthy method. With large num- 
bers tacked against each stall, or worn by the 
attendant, the owner of a catalogue is able to view 
the show to material advantage. It is to be re- 
gretted that this custom does not prevail at more 
of our important American shows. 

Show-ring rules and methods. 

In showing stock in the ring, one should present 
his animals under the best conditions possible. 
Each ring is usually in charge of a superintendent 
and clerk. One of these officials sends notices to 
exhibitors when to appear with stock of the classes 
desired. The usual premium list gives the day for 
exhibition, and the exhibitor should have his work 
well in hand and be ready with his stock on call. 
The attendants should be neatly dressed. Some 
shows, such as the International Live-Stock Expo- 
sition, endeavor to require a uniform. Many firms 
of importance, who show on an extensive scale, 



provide their attendants with neat uniforms. 
Slouchy attendants, with untidy, filthy dress, should 
not be permitted in the ring. Horses and cattle 
should be bridled or haltered with first-class fur- 
nishings for show purposes. Any advertising 
schemes about the ring are in bad form and should 
not be attempted. 

Each exhibitor will line his stock in position as 
space is allowed or assigned him. It then becomes 
his duty to place his animals strictly on exhibition, 
that the judge may inspect at the very best advant- 
age. This phase of the subject has already been 
somewhat discussed in the topic on training. A 
correct bearing of the animal and an attentive 
attendant add greatly to success in showing. 

In the horse show certain rules prevail that are 
not applied to other stock. This may be illustrated 
in the following rules, applied at the Chicago Horse 
Show in 1904 : 

"All horses must be shown in the shoes in which 
they come to the show, and no horse's shoes may 
be changed, except for reasons satisfactory to the 
executive committee, and with their assent. The 
use of shoes of excessive thickness for the purpose 
of increasing the height of a horse will not be 
allowed, and a horse shod in this manner will be 
disqualified. 

"All horses doctored in any way artificially, im- 
properly, or unfairly prepared or tampered with 
before coming into the show -ring will be dis- 
qualified. 

" No animal exhibited shall be decorated about 
the head with colors until after the awards are 
made in respective classes." 

When cattle are shown in milk in the ring, the 
judges may order them milked out at their discre- 
tion. For years the custom has been to show dairy 
cows with heavily distended udders, from which 
the milk has not been removed for twenty-four to 
thirty-six hours. The custom is now coming into 
force in America to require exhibitors to milk the 
cows dry the night previous to showing, a repre- 
sentative of the show- yard inspecting to see 
whether the rule is obeyed. This is as it should be. 

Exhibitors of pure-bred stock will be wise to 
carry with them at the show the certificates of 
registry of the animals shown. While demand for 
such paper is rarely made, competitors from time 
to time are responsible for a demand for them. By 
the rules of some breeding associations, pure-bred 
stock shown must be registered. 

Non-breeding pure-bred stock, by the rules of 
many associations, is barred from the ring. For 
example, a certificate may also be required showing 
that a cow or horse three years old or over had 
produced a living offspring since September 1 of 
the year previous to snowing, or give satisfactory 
evidence of being in calf or foal. Even bulls may 
be disqualified, for the International Live-Stock 
Exposition provides a rule whereby any bull over 
thirty-six months old, entered in any breeding 
class, that has not had dropped to his service a 
living calf during the eight months preceding the 
exposition, shall be deemed barren and be excluded 
from competition. Rules of this character often 



158 



MARKETING FARM STOCK 



apply to other classes of stock, and meet with the 
approval of stockmen generally. 

The custom of parading and exhibiting stock in 
the ring is not general, but is sometimes employed, 
especially in the larger European shows, and in 
those of the United States in which large, covered 




Fig. 135. Modern cattle car. 

pavilions make the management independent of 
the weather. The Illinois State Fair has a rule 
to this effect: "All competing animals shall be 
exhibited and paraded in the ring at the discretion 
of the superintendents, and any exhibitor failing 
to comply with this rule shall forfeit any premium 
awarded his stock." 

In order of showing, animals are first presented 
in what are known as classes. The following are 
examples of standard classes : 

Cows three years old or over. 
Cows two years old and under three. 
Cows one year old and under two. 
Calves under one year. 

There may be other classes, as for example, senior 
and junior, heifers in milk and not in milk, and the 
like. In addition to classes, herd prizes, 
groups of sex, offspring of sire and dam, 
championship, sweepstakes, and the like, are 
offered. 

Awards are usually made by the one judge 
system. Usually only the prize animals are 
placed, but occasionally the judge is re- 
quired to place in relative order of merit 
each animal in class. Prizes range from two 
to five or even more. 

Awards are usually indicated by colored 
ribbons or rosettes, and the standard rela- 
tionship of color to award is as follows : 
Blue, first prize; red, second; white, third; yellow, 
fourth ; and green, fifth. Royal purple applies to 
championship or sweepstakes. The ribbons are 
handed the attendant either by the judge or his 
clerk, and note of the award made on the clerk's 
entry book. After the awards, custom permits the 
withdrawal of the animals from the ring. 

Premiums are usually in cash, although medals, 
cups, ribbons, certificates, and the like, are awarded. 
Premiums at many shows are paid before the 
exhibitor ships his stock away. Payment is made 
by bank check, payable on presentation to the 



office of the treasurer of the association. Pre- 
miums not paid during the show will be paid by 
checks sent through the mail. 

This subject is one involving many details in 
the way of experience on the part of the stockman, 
but the space available here will not permit a more 
extended consideration. 

Literature. 

Clark, W. J., Fitting Sheep For Show Ring 
and Market, Chicago (1900). 



MARKETING FARM STOCK 

By C. S. Plumb 

The marketing of farm stock may be con- 
ducted in several ways, but it is quite de- 
pendent on the class of animals to be dis- 
posed of. The old-fashioned method was to 
drive across country to market. The drives, 
in some cases, covered many hundred miles, 
as the famous overland ones from Ohio to 
Baltimore, or from the far Southwest to St. Louis 
or Chicago. The modern method is transportation 
by rail or by boat. In a limited way, animals are 
given short hauls to market in wagons, sent in 
crates by express, shipped in express cars, or 
driven overland to nearby local markets. 

Great variation exists in the importance of the 
live-stock markets, ranging from the small local 
one where a few animals are handled, to that of 
Chicago, the largest in the world. The nine lead- 
ing markets in the United States are those of 
Chicago, Kansas City, Omaha, St. Louis, St. Joseph, 
Sioux City, St. Paul, Indianapolis and Fort Worth, 
Texas. In 1905, the Chicago stock-yards received 
3,410,469 cattle, 380,835 calves, 8,319,730 hogs, 
4,736,558 sheep and 127,250 horses. Nearly 303,000 
cars hauled live-stock during that year into Chicago. 




Fig. 136. Modern horse car. 

The shipment of live-stock to market involves 
providing for transportation, for food, water and 
care en route, and for disposing of the stock when 
at the terminus of the journey. 

Transportation. (Figs. 135-139.) 

A very large percentage of stock sold is shipped 
by freight. Horses or cattle may be shipped in plain 
box-cars, or in special stock-cars (Figs. 135-137). 
The box-car, with entrance at the sides, is usually 
thirty-four to thirty-six feet long, and accommo- 
dates sixteen to thirty head of matured animals 



MARKETING FARM STOCK 



159 



standing closely together, facing the side of the car. 
For short shipments, common cars will answer. For 
extended shipments, either regulation stock-cars 
are used, with feed-racks and water-troughs, or 
so-called palace stock-cars are employed (Fig. 138). 
These contain specially fitted stalls, with feed-racks 
and other conveniences, and are used for horses 
more than anything else. There are slat cars and 
open cars, the former being used for cattle more 
than for horses. Sheep and swine are shipped in 
box-cars or slat cars, and when a full capacity 
shipment is made the car has a second floor 
placed therein, about three and one-half feet 
above the first floor. Such a car is known as 
a "double-decker." An ordinary car with but 
one floor carries 70 to 90 hogs and 125 sheep, 
while a double-decker will hold 100 to 150 
hogs and 200 to 250 sheep or even more. 
Horses and cattle are packed in cars so as to 
stand close together and not get on one an- 
other. Sheep and hogs occupy the car with 
more comfort and are able to lie down. 

A shipment by freight requires making a pre- 
liminary request for a car of the agent of the 
railroad In some instances this may be secured 
readily, in other cases it may have to be brought 
from some other town on the railway, especially if 
the shipment is to be made from a small local 
shipping point. In a large city, cars are usually to 
be had on a few hours' notice. The interior of the 
car may be arranged to suit the convenience of 
the shipper, and temporary stalls or partitions may 
be erected as desired. 




lies the names of the shipper and consignee, the 
place to which the shipment is made, the number 
and description of stock, the weight, and the cost 
of transportation. If by freight, the car number 
and initials are specified. Express shipments are 
usually crated, but all of the express companies 
own special live-stock-cars, with stall accommo- 
dations. These are used almost exclusively for 
transporting horses, and make up a part of pas- 
senger train service. When stock is shipped un- 
crated in the car, it is customary to allow one 




Fig. 137. Interior of horse car. 

All shipments by freight or express must be 
made through the local agent, and a signed bill of 
lading or contract filled out between the shipper 
and transportation company. This contract speci- 



Fig. 138. A palace horse car. 



attendant a free passage along with the animals. 
Even more than this is allowed with a load of 
horses sent by express. The bill of lading or con- 
tract is made out in duplicate or triplicate, one 
copy of which is given the shipper. He may use 
this as a passport along with the stock, and it may 
also serve as a receipt for the prepayment of freight. 
In the case of a shipment by rail some distance, to 
a buyer or commission firm, the shipper may send 
this bill of lading by mail to the consignee if the 
stock is sent in care of the railway. Shipments of 
stock by freight or express may be prepaid or not, 
as conditions seem to make desirable. Persons sell- 
ing stock on the open market usually prepay freight, 
while buyers of breeding stock meet transportation 
charges. 

Care en route. 

All stock must be properly fed and watered while 
en route. On short-distance hauls, as, for example, 
fifty miles, this will not be necessary. A shipment 
of a carload of stock from Kansas to Chicago would 
require feed and water. Good, sweet hay is given 
horses, cattle and sheep, while pigs are usually fed 
ear-corn. Ordinary stock-cars contain troughs 
which hold water, and at a certain point along the 
way water is supplied in a moderate quantity. In 
case of small shipments of several animals in a car, 
a barrel for water may be taken along which will 
supply the needs of the stock. Water and grain 
should be given only in limited amounts. A carload 
of steers in a 400-mile run should be provided with 
about 250 pounds of hay and a bushel and a half of 
corn each. Stock that is shipped by crate may be 
fed grain- in a small trough built in the end of the 
crate, while hay may be placed directly in front, 
within the crate, on the floor. Hay and grain for 
long trips may be tied in sacks on the top of the 
crate, and express agents will feed it as required. 
Some shippers attach feeding directions for agents 
to the top of the crate. Feeding instructions may 
be made a part of the shipping card, being placed 
beneath the shipper's address. 



160 



MARKETING FARM STOCK 



The stock-yards. 

The stock-yards to which most of the farm ani- 
mals of the country are shipped vary greatly in 
capacity, but the principle of arrangement is gen- 
erally the same. This includes a long platform for 
loading or unloading chutes connecting with pens 
(Fig. 140), and alleys or drives between groups of 




Fig. 139. Fittings of ocean transport for carrying cattle or 
horses. (Adapted from Bureau of Auimal Industry Re- 
port, 1900 ) 

pens (Fig. 141). By means of gates at various 
points in the alleys, and at their intersection, one 
may control conditions and drive stock in any 
direction desired, to an outlet. All pens should be 
supplied with feed-boxes and water-troughs, and in 
the larger yards pens are covered to a greater or less 
extent. The yards of Pittsburg are almost entirely 
under roof, while the hog- and sheep-pens of the 
Chicago yards are also under cover. In the large 
yards, each class of stock, such as cattle or hogs, 
is kept in groups of pens by itself. 

A live-stock exchange is a most important feature 
of all large stock-yards. This organization has for 
its membership the commission men of the market, 
or the buyers and sellers in the yards. The pur- 
pose of such an exchange is to promote uniform 
and fair methods of trade, provide for adjustment 
of business disputes, to facilitate the receiving and 
shipping of stock, and to promote inspection and 
guard against the selling of unsound or unhealthy 
meats. The yards are usually owned by an entirely 
different organization from those making up the 
exchange, usually known as a stock-yards 
company. The exchange has a board of 
officers and directors, and these work in co- 
operation with government inspectors or 
agricultural officials in promoting the inter- 
ests of the yards. 

The rules of the stock-yards in different 
sections of the country vary only in degree. 
The stock-yards company cares for the stock 
from its arrival in the yards until it is sold. 
Water is free, but all feed is charged for on 
a liberal basis. Hay costs $1 to $1.50 per 
cwt., according to locality, and corn and oats 
usually about $1 per bushel. While it is as- 
sumed that no charge is made for the use of 
the yards, there is a charge for weighing, 
which is termed "yardage." The yardage 
charge may be fifteen to twenty-five cents 
each for cattle and five to ten cents each for 



smaller stock, according to the part of the coun- 
try. Western charges are less than those East. 

Selling. 

Nearly all of the stock in the yards is sold on 
commission. The rates of commission are formu- 
lated by the live-stock exchange, and all buyers 
and sellers doing business in the yards as commis- 
sion men are bound to charge according to ex- 
change rules. Some of the charges may be expressed 
as follows, as applied to leading stock-yards : For 
each head of cattle sold, 50 cents per head up to 
$12 per carload ; $6 per load for single-deck cars 
or $10 for double-deckers. Twenty-five cents per 
head is charged for calves, and 15 cents each for 
hogs and sheep, in mixed loads or for less than 
carload lots. 

The selling of stock, as before noted, is mainly 
delegated to commission men. The shipper may 
arrange to send his stock directly to a commission 
firm and leave the disposal of it entirely in their 
hands. This is a wise method, because the commis- 
sion men are well posted on the trade conditions 
and know where to find buyers better than the man 
who is not a regular dealer on the market. Each 
day buyers and sellers go about among the pens 
and buy and sell. All transactions are for cash. 
When the stock is sold it is usually at once driven 
to the scales and weighed. A weighmaster, em- 
ployed by the yards, weighs the stock and makes 
out tickets in duplicate for buyers and sellers, as 
well as an entry in a record book, which is the actual 
weight basis for all settlements. If the sale is 
made by an agent, he may send the purchaser a 
bill which will contain the scale weights, the price 
per pound and the total sum. The buyer may en- 
dorse this and return with it a check, or may write 
a bank order on the back of the bill, covering the 
amount. In settling with the person who consigns 
the stock, the agent furnishes a full statement, 
and may include a copy of the weighmaster's 
record. This statement includes the total proceeds 
of the sale less the freight, yardage, commission, 
and the like. Commission men as a rule are honor- 
able, and it is in their interests to make good 
returns to persons consigning stock to them, thus 




Pig. 140. A loading or unloading chute at stock-yards. 



MARKETING FARM STOCK 



161 



promoting future business. Any other policy would 
be destructive to a firm's business. 

Market grades. 

All live-stock sold is divided into different classes 
and grades. This classification is most complete in 
Chicago, but it must occur to a certain extent even 
in the smaller country locality. Market quotations 
are now sent all over the country from prominent 
market centers, and prices everywhere are regu- 
lated by these 
quotations. Dif- 
ferent classes 
occur with 
horses, cattle, 
sheep and 
swine, and 
within the class 
is a range of 
grade. With 
cattle for ex- 
ample, — in Chi- 
cago there are 
classes of (1) 
beef cattle, (2) 
butcher stock, 
(3) cutters and 
canners, (4) 
stockers and 
feeders and (5) 
veal calves. 
There are also 
some other spe- 
cial classes, as 
Texas and west- 
ern range cat- 
tle, distillers, 



culture, under the direction of the Secretary of 
Agriculture and the Chief of the Bureau, super- 
vises inspection work all over the country. A large 
number of trained veterinarians inspect stock on 
the hoof and in the slaughter house, as a protection 
to home consumers of meats, and as a guarantee 
of the health of the meats exported. In 1905, 
there were nearly 66,000,000 head of live animals 
inspected by the government, with over 40,000,000 
inspected after slaughter. According to Secretary 



f 



- j;_--a R- 



issigipfr . _ . .,. -; .. l _f 




Fig. 141. Stock-yards. Fort Worth, Texas 



baby beef, export, shipping, and dressed beef steers 
and stags. Each class is graded according to its 
quaiity and a price with some variation placed on 
each grade. These grades rank as prime, choice, 
good, medium, common and inferior. A prime beef 
steer may bring seven cents a pound, and an infe- 
rior one three and a half cents. The intelligent 
buyer, whether a butcher or shipper, must pay for 
his stock on some such basis of market quotations. 
Sheep and hogs are classified and graded, though 
not to so great a degree as cattle, while horses are 
classified according to purpose and graded largely 
on size, quality, and soundness. As a general 
proposition, the better classes and grades return 
the best results to the producers. High-class stock 
serves as a valuable advertising medium and pro- 
motes a demand from buyers. There are feeders of 
meat stock in the country, who will handle nothing 
but a choice grade, and who always have a demand 
for their stock at outside figures some time before 
it is finished off and ready for shipment. 

Inspection. 

The inspection of live-stock, through national, 
state or municipal officials, is practiced generally 
today in the United States in the larger yards and 
in inter-state commerce. The Bureau of Animal 
Industry of the United States Department of Agri- 

C 11 



of Agriculture Wilson, "there were tagged with 
the label of inspection in the year 1905, nearly 
22,000,000 carcasses of beef, nearly 8,000,000 
carcasses of mutton, 845,000 carcasses of veal, 
1,000,000 carcasses and 800,000 sacks of pork. 
Meat inspection stamps indicating the regular post- 
mortem inspection were affixed to 7,000,000 pack- 
ages of beef in 1905, and to more than 15,000,000 
packages of pork." 

The export or import trade requires inspection 
of all vessels and animals passing between the 
United States and a foreign country. All pure-bred 
meat stock brought to our shores mus,t be placed in 
government quarantine ; cattle, three months, and 
sheep and swine two weeks. Horses are exempt 
from quarantine if passing a veterinary inspection 
on landing. All vessels in the live-stock-carrying 
trade must convey stock under national and inter- 
national regulations, including construction of 
stabling r attendance, care and sanitation. 

All pure-bred breeding stock may be brought to 
the United States duty free, but it is required that 
importers fill out certain forms supplied by the 
government regarding the proposed importation. 
It is also necessary to furnish detailed information 
to the United States Consul at the point of embarka- 
tion, and to submit certificates of purity of breed- 
ing of the animals to be imported ; these certificates 



162 



MARKETING FARM STOCK 



being secured from the secretary of the registry 
association engaged in promoting the breed to be 
imported. Certificates of health are also required, 
bearing on the animals in question and the district 
from which they have been secured. 

Quarantine. 

In inter-state commerce, quarantine regulations 
and health certificates are also important. If a 
contagious disease occurs in one section, other 
states may quarantine against the state or states 
affected. Tuberculosis is now regarded a3 a conta- 
gious disease, and cattle for stock purposes cannot 
be shipped into Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Wis- 
consin and some other states, unless they are accom- 
panied by a veterinary certificate indicating that 
they are free from tuberculosis, based on the tuber- 
culin test. The freedom of trade between states in 
breeding stock is thus more or less restricted, and 
the wisdom of the policy is not open to serious 
question. The all-important subject of the health 
of our live-stock is receiving a constantly increas- 
ing attention from the seller, the buyer, and the 
consuming public. It is no longer possible to ship 
horses with glanders, cattle with tuberculosis, 
sheep with scabies, or hogs with cholera, from one 
section of the country to another, without serious 
effort being made to discover and prevent the dis- 
tribution of the contagion. 

When to market. 

The time for the marketing of live-stock depends 
on a variety of conditions ; the class, age, condi- 
tion and demand are all important factors. It may 
be given as a safe proposition to sell when a rea- 
sonable margin of profit is guaranteed. In the case 
of meat animals, the wisest feeder in the long run 
is the man who sells when his stock is finished and 
is ready for the block. It is not a safe policy to 
continue feeding in anticipation of a rise in values, 
when the stock to be sold is already over-fed or is 
too heavy in weight. Neither is it a commendable 
method to hold on to feeders ready for the block 
simply because they were bought at too high a 
figure. The present day market demands a com- 
pact, early finished, not over-fat class of butcher's 
beast. A 1,200- to 1,400-pound steer is preferred 
to one of 1,700 pounds, and commands a better 
price. In 1905, the average weight of the cattle 
received in Chicago market was 1,019 pounds, of 
hogs 222 pounds and of sheep 83 pounds. There is 
more waste in the larger, old-fashioned sort ; and 
the producer must meet the more modern demand 
if he desires to secure the benefit of the best 
values. 

A correct interpretation of values can be secured 
only by careful study of the stock in the markets, 
and from acquaintance with the classes and grades, 
and market quotations. The lessons of the horse 
markets and the stock-yards are invaluable to one 
engaged in producing or feeding for the trade. 
The first lessons may be costly, but with careful 
observation and experience one becomes familiar 
with the methods which must be grasped and under- 
stood, if he is to buy or sell intelligently. This is 



not intended to apply alone to the larger producing 
type of stockmen, but also to the man who feeds a 
limited number of animals. The difference in the 
value of two horses or of a carload of cattle or 
hogs is often far greater than the average man 
realizes. A carload of twenty cattle weighing 
20,000 pounds at five cents a pound amounts to 
$1,000. A similar load at four cents a pound brings 
but $800. The difference here may be due to quality 
and conformation, or it may be due to other factors. 
If the seller knows his stock and the markets, he 
will understand clearly the reason for this variation 
of $200 in the two loads. 

A knowledge of market quotations is equally im- 
portant with the dealer in live-stock. Values 
fluctuate from day to day and it is always desirable 
to buy when prices range downward, and sell when 
figures are tending strong. The daily papers of 
importance give quotations on the important mar- 
kets East and West, the agricultural journals 
furnish the essentials from week to week, while in 
a few markets, daily drovers' journals give a large 
amount of the details of the sales, showing classes, 
grades, weights and sales. In some yards commis- 
sion houses send customers once a week a printed 
market sheet, made by the firm, showing range in 
values of certain classes and grades, with comments 
on the trade of the week. Such sheets are free, and 
are widely distributed in shipping territory. Occas- 
ional visits to the markets and familiarity with 
quotations should promote intelligent buying and 
selling. 

Persons shipping stock to the great markets, 
should study the situation and ascertain what days 
furnish the best market for trade. For some time 
the dealers in the Chicago yards have tried to 
persuade shippers to send in their stock for four 
market days a week, rather than six. Saturday 
is a bad day for stock- to come in as the business 
of the week is being cleared up and trade is slack. 
Stock landed in the yards Saturday may be held 
over until Monday, at a possible loss from care and 
shrinkage. If one will study the receipts for each 
day of the week in the large yards, he will find 
that it is far better to ship so as to reach the 
yards on a day not marked for large receipts and, 
perhaps, showing a glut. If shipment is made 
through a commission firm, then this will advise 
as to the best time for shipment and delivery. It 
is a wise policy, also, to ship only finished stock, 
and not to rush to the markets half-fed stock when 
there seems to be a mania for shipping to the 
yards. A fall in prices always comes at such a 
time, later to be followed by a stiffening of quota- 
tions. One cannot be too well advised as to receipts 
and quotations, if shipments to the larger live- 
stock markets are contemplated. 

Literature. 

C. S. Plumb, Marketing Live-Stock, Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 184, United States Department of 
Agriculture ; Chicago Daily Drovers' Journal ; 
Breeders' Gazette ; Annual Report Bureau of Ani- 
mal Industry, United States Department of Agri- 
culture. 






CHAPTER VII 



WILD LIFE AND ITS RELATION TO FARMING 



HE FARM IS OUT OP DOORS. It has relations with eveiything out of 
doors, — with the wild animals as well as the rest. This general relation- 
ship has been little appreciated in a conscious way, and the result is that 
the farming business has not yet been closely adapted to its environment. 
The great biological fact — as one learns when he studies plants and animals 
— is that organisms are adapted to their conditions, else they do not thrive 
to their utmost, or, if adaption is wholly lacking, they die. The best 
farming is not that which follows an ideal schematic system as laid down 
y teachers and books, but that which best fits the particular environment, 
as a plant or an animal fits its environment. 

If all this is true, then it follows that, other things being equal, the 
best naturalist makes the best farmer, — if, by naturalist, we mean one who 
has knowledge of the nature about him and is in sympathy with it. There- 
fore, every agency or influence that brings the farmer into closer touch 
with the nature of which he is a part is a distinct gain in establishing 
his point of view and directing his energies. The wild mammals and birds 
- contribute directly to hinder or help his farming : but the larger signif- 
icance of his study of them is that it brings him one point nearer to the 
perfect understanding and accord that in the end will make the perfect farmer. 




WILD MAMMALS IN THEIR RELATIONS 
WITH AGRICULTURE 

By Clarence M. Weed 

The mammals form a very distinctive group of 
warm-blooded animals, the wild members of which 
are of much importance to American agriculture. 
No satisfactory common name other than the word 
" mammals " has been found for them, although 
many persons seem to think that the word " ani- 
mals " is a synonym. They are also often spoken of 
as quadrupeds. 

Pouched mammals. 

The marsupials or pouched mammals, the lowest 
order, exhibit only one species north of Mexico, 
— the opossum of the middle and southern states. 
Technically this is Didelphis Virginiana, with a 
named variety in Florida and another in Texas. 
This famous omnivorous creature is of slight impor- 
tance agriculturally, although it feeds to a con- 
siderable extent on insects and the smaller mammals ; 
much of its food is dead, however, before the 
opossum finds it. Among the negroes the opossum 
is a favorite article of diet. 

Hoofed mammals. 

Above the marsupials comes the great order of 
hoofed mammals (Ungulata), in which the agricul- 
turist finds many species of interest. The collared 
peccary of the far Southwest can hardly be said 



to be one of these, but the various species of deer 
hold the farmer's attention for several reasons : 
they furnish food and sport, and they often damage 
crops to a considerable extent. One of the leading 
agricultural issues in New England legislatures 
during recent years has been the demand of the 
farmers for the right to protect their crops from 
the ravages of deer, the laws as commonly adminis- 
tered having denied them this right. In some 
states, changes in the laws have been made, which 
enable the farmer to kill deer while they are 
engaged in doing such damage, the shooting to be 
done with shot-gun rather than rifle, and the facts 
to be reported at once to the nearest authorities. 
This seemed a just solution of a vexatious problem, 
and probably points the way for future legislation 
in other states. * 

Rodents. 

The great order of rodents or gnawing mammals 
(Rodentia) includes a large number of species of 
great importance to agriculture, chiefly because 
they are destructive to many crops and to stored 
products. These animals are largely vegetable- 
feeders and are especially characterized by the 
peculiar structure of the incisor teeth, which are 
coated with enamel only on the front surface, and 
continue to grow during life. Consequently, the 
owners must be continually gnawing on substances 
more or less hard to keep these teeth in their nor- 
mal condition. There are no canine teeth, and the 



(163) 



/64 



WILD MAMMALS IN THEIR RELATIONS WITH AGRICULTURE 



jaws are capable of moving sidewise as well as 
vertically. Many groups of rodents are able to 
multiply very rapidly and thus to become seriously 
destructive in a short period. 

The true squirrels are the typical forms of the 
large family Sciuridae, which includes also the 
chipmunks, the spermophiles or ground-squirrels, 
the prairie dog, the woodchuck and the flying- 
squirrels, The true squirrels, the chipmunks, and 
the flying -squirrels are of comparatively little 
importance agriculturally. The red squirrel and 
the gray squirrel occasionally take a little corn 
and are destructive to the eggs and young of many 
birds. In some city parks they are thought to have 
driven out the birds almost entirely. 

Spermophiles or groundsqu irrels. — One of the most 
destructive groups of rodents is that of the ground- 
squirrels or spermophiles, of the genus Citellus — 
slender creatures suggestive in form and habits of 
the familiar chipmunks of the eastern states. In 
many localities they are known as gophers, although 
this name is better restricted to the true pocket 
gophers of another family of rodents. (Geomyidas.) 
The spermophiles are strictly ground-loving ani- 
mals that feed chiefly on seeds and grain, for 
carrying which they have large cheek-pouches. 
There are at least fifty distinct forms recognized 
by zoologists as inhabiting North America, all 
occurring in the western states, and most of them 
being found west of the Rocky mountains. 

The life-habits of the ground-squirrel are sug- 
gestive of those of prairie dogs. They live in bur- 




Fig. 142. Grains injured by ground squirrels. 
(After Frandsen ) 

rows under ground and, generally, in colonies of 
many burrows near together. The burrows of the 
Oregon ground-squirrel (Citellus Oregonus), as 
studied by Peter Frandsen, of the Nevada Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station, are of a diameter of 
about three inches, with "one to five openings to 
the exterior, depending on the length of time the 
burrow has been occupied. The openings are usually 
on higher ground and the older ones are surrounded 



by a mound of well-packed earth a few inches in 
height, which probably serves to keep water out of 
the hole. From the opening the burrow descends 
to an average depth of eighteen inches and then 
runs nearly parallel with the surface, often with 
many turns, for a distance of ten to fifty feet. 
Frequently the burrow branches, and some of the 
branches may end blindly. There are occasional 
widenings or chambers, which are probably for the 
purpose of enabling the animals to turn around. 
There is usually a nest which forms an enlarged 
side chamber to the main burrow and is sometimes 
raised a little from it. It is lined with the bark of 
sage-brush, greasewood, rabbit-brush, blades of 
grass, or with any other material that may be con- 
venient." Early in spring the young are born, gen- 
erally in April, each litter numbering about six. 

The injury to crops is especially marked in 
spring and early summer, the more tender and 
juicy parts of alfalfa and other forage crops being 
especially sought, although to get these parts the 
whole stalk is commonly cut off near the surface 
of the ground. In the case of oats and other grains, 
this cutting down is often done about the time of 
heading-out, large fields being sometimes destroyed 
by the pests. Before the end of summer the Ore- 
gon ground-squirrels go into hibernation in their 
burrows, the sleeping period lasting six or eight 
months. A thick layer of fat is developed beneath 
the skin before the beginning of the winter sleep. 

In addition to the cultivated crops actually 
destroyed by ground-squirrels, their presence is 
injurious because of the obstacles that their bur- 
rows offer to tillage and irrigation, and through 
the injury they cause directly and indirectly to 
native range plants. 

Under natural conditions, the spermophiles are 
preyed on by a variety of birds and mammals ; of 
the former, the eagles, hawks and owls are the 
most important ; of the latter, the badgers, skunks 
and coyotes are the most destructive. The settle- 
ment of the country by white men has led to the 
reduction of many of these natural enemies, as 
well as to an increase in the available food supply 
of the ground-squirrels, two factors which have 
been chiefly responsible for their rapid multiplica- 
tion. The methods of restricting this undue multi- 
plication may be grouped under the two headings 
of encouraging natural enemies and direct destruc- 
tion by shooting, trapping, drowning, fumigation 
or poisoning. The stopping of the wanton destruc- 
tion of all raptorial birds would help greatly in 
reducing the numbers of the spermophiles and 
other rodents, and it is generally conceded by those 
who have studied the subject that the present 
feeling that such birds are more harmful than 
beneficial is wrong. The destruction of coyotes and 
badgers, however, may be justifiable, although the 
latter have economic value. (See page 168.) Many 
of the squirrels are also killed by cats and dogs. 

A great many methods of using poison on 
ground-squirrels and related pests have been tried, 
the safest and most satisfactory material for this 
use being strychnine. A formula found successful 
by D. E. Lantz and recommended in Bulletin 



WILD MAMMALS IN THEIR RELATIONS WITH AGRICULTURE 



165 



No. 129, of the Kansas Agricultural Experiment 
Station, is as follows : " Dissolve one and one-half 
ounces of strychnia sulfate in a quart of hot water. 
Add a quart of syrup, — molasses, sorghum or thick 
sugar and water, — and a teaspoonful of oil of anise. 
Thoroughly heat and mix the liquid. While hot 
pour it over a bushel of clean wheat and mix com- 
pletely. Then stir in two or more pounds of fine 
corn meal. The quantity of corn meal will depend 
on the quantity of extra moisture present. There 
should be enough to wet every grain of the wheat 
and no more. Let the poisoned grain stand over 
night and distribute it in the early morning of a 
bright day." A tablespoonful is placed near the 
mouth of the burrow, scattered in two or three little 
piles. The best time to use this or other poisons is 
in early spring, when the ground-squirrels are 
hungry from their winter fast, and when the 
destruction of the old ones before the young are 
born will greatly lessen the numbers of the pests. 

Prairie dog. — The famous prairie dog (Cynomys 
Ludovicianus), of the western states, is closely 
related to the spermophiles. Its burrows are much 
deeper, however, often reaching a depth of more 
than twelve feet, with a hollow cavity at or near 
the end in which the nest of grass is placed. The 
young are born in early spring, generally four in a 
litter, and develop rapidly, becoming large enough 
by midsummer to dig burrows for themselves. The 
food consists chiefly of grasses, grains, and their 
seeds, as well as the bulbs of wild onions and 
various other plants. In winter, several live together 
in the same burrow in a state of partial hibernation, 
from which they are frequently aroused in milder 
weather. The injuries due to prairie dogs are 
chiefly apparent in pasture lands. 

The prairie dogs are preyed on by much the 
same birds and mammals as prey on the spermo- 
philes. They are also open to destruction by man 
by the same means as are the latter. Poisoning by 
grains soaked in strychnine solution has proved the 
most successful way. In Kansas, where the pests 
formerly caused an annual loss estimated at $200,- 
000, through the use of poison under the direction 
of the State Agricultural Experiment Station, aided 
by small legislative appropriations, the prairie dogs 
were reduced to comparative unimportance in a 
very few years. 

Woodchuck. — Throughout New England and 
many of the eastern states, the woodchuck or 
ground-hog (Arctnmys monax) is the most vexatious 
of the destructive rodents. It is found as far south 
as Georgia and as far west as Nebraska, but is 
most abundant in eastern and northern regions. Its 
burrows are large, and generally have two or more 
openings ; they are especially likely to be made in 
the shelter of rocks or boulders, or beneath a fence 
or brush-pile. The woodchucks hibernate in their 
burrows, giving birth to the young in spring, and 
feeding through the spring and summer months on 
a great variety of crops. Crops of young beans 
and peas are especially attractive to them, but 
almost any succulent plant does not come amiss. 
Fortunately these mammals are easily trapped at 
the mouths of their burrows,' and are also easily 



killed by the vapor of bisulfid of carbon, the liquid 
being poured on a handful of moss or other absor- 
bent material and pushed down the burrow, all 
openings being at once closed. The vapor is heavier 
than air and will settle to the bottom, where it will 
kill any woodchuck present. 

The bearer, of the family Castorida?, can scarcely 
be said to be of agricultural importance at present. 

The rats, mice and votes, of the family Muridse, 
compose a great group of species which are very 
destructive to farm crops of many kinds. 

Rats. — At the head of the list stands the pestifer- 
ous brown rat (Mus Norvegicus), doubtless the most 
universally destructive of all the rodents. This 
species has driven out the black rat (M. rattus) 
which preceded it, and is now the rat with which 
every one is familiar. It causes the destruction of 
millions of dollars worth of property every year in 
the United States, feeding ravenously on such a 
variety of products that few things are safe from 
attack when food is scarce. It is also known to be 
a common cause for the spreading of disease germs. 

Rats are preyed on by the larger raptorial birds, 
as well as by skunks, weasels, and other preda- 
ceous mammals. But the enemies are so scarce and 
the rats so sheltered that the effect of such natural 
enemies is generally of little importance. The 
fecundity of the rats — which enables three or four 
litters of young to be brought forth each year, 
each litter consisting of six to a dozen young that 
mature in six months — is a chief reason for their 
abundance and the difficulty in checking their 
injuries. They may be destroyed by poison, how- 
ever, the best substance to use being barytes or 
barium carbonate mixed with oatmeal, one part 
poison to eight of oatmeal, the combined materials 
being made into a stiff dough by the use of water. 
This has the advantage of acting so slowly that the 
victims generally leave the premises in 
search of water. The pests may also be 
reduced in numbers by the persistent use 
of traps, the best general forms being 




Fig. 143. Guillotine trap for rats. (After Biological Survey 



the recently introduced " guillotine traps," which 
have a strong coiled spring that brings down a 
crosspiece that kills the rat (Fig. 143). 

Much of the damage that rats cause may be pre- 
vented by the use of cement in constructing cellars, 
basements and foundations generally. A good cat 
or dog will often clear the premises of rats in a 
short time. 

The house mouse (M. museulus) seems in many 
respects a miniature of the rat. It is commonly 
found in barns and granaries as well as in houses, 
and unless checked is very destructive. Jr. •> 



1G6 



WILD MAMMALS IN THEIR RELATIONS WITH AGRICULTURE 



closely related in structure and habits to the brown 
rat. 

Various native rats are also of interest agricul- 
turally. The cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus) of the 
southern states is one of the most destructive of 
these. It is only about half the size of the brown 
rat, from which it differs considerably in appear- 
ance. It attacks corn and other crops, especially 
when shocked in the field. Many species of wood- 
rats, of the genus Neotoma, have been described 
from North America. They are found chiefly in the 
western regions, where their presence in the woods 
is made known by the curious piles of brush and 
rubbish which they gather together over the 
entrances to their burrows. These piles may reach 



, 



■S^lf/% 




Fig. 144. Common vole or meadow mouse (Microtus Pennsylvanicus) . 
(After Biological Survey.) 

a height of five feet in case of burrows which have 
been occupied for a long time. Fortunately, these 
rats live so generally in the woods away from cul- 
tivated fields that they are seldom injurious to 
crops. They feed on the green bark of trees and 
other vegetation, as well as the seeds of various 
plants, often collecting considerable stores of these 
for the winter supply of food. The injury most 
commonly complained of is that done to the bark 
of osage orange hedges. 

Mice. — A great number of species of native mice 
are found in the United States and Canada. The 
rice-field mice, of the genus Oryzomys, have a 
comparatively limited range in the South, where 
they live in swamps and rice-fields. Some fifty 
forms of the miniature harvest-mice, of the genus 
Reithrodontomys, have been recognized by zoolo- 
gists. These are field creatures living chiefly on 
seeds and grains, and are comparatively little 
known even to professional naturalists. A similar 
statement may be made of the interesting grass- 
hopper-mice, of the genus Onychomys, which are 
also called scorpion-mice. These two common 
names indicate a part of the food, these mice being 
at least partially insectivorous, and feeding on 
grasshoppers, scorpions and related creatures. 

Tlie deer mice or white-footed mice of the genus 
Peromyscus are among the most attractive of the 



smaller rodents. They are known by their short 
front legs and long hind ones, and by the contrast 
of the white of the lower part of the body with the 
dark gray of the upper part. They are normally 
inhabitants of fields and woods, where they live in 
a great variety of situations and feed on a great 
variety of food ; but they invade buildings, especi- 
ally when near woods, where they rear their young 
in nests in any sort of a shelter between the walls. 
They feed on seeds and fruits of many sorts of wild 
and cultivated plants, as well as on insects and 
roots of various sorts. They remain active through 
much of the winter, in preparation for which they 
lay up stores of seeds and nuts, and their footprints 
on the snow may commonly be seen almost any 
winter's day. 

The voles, or meadow mice, 
of the genus Microtus (Fig. 
144), form one of the most 
destructive groups of mam- 
mals. Though small in size, 
they are often present in vast 
numbers, and cause an enor- 
mous injury to agricultural 
interests. They have many 
common names, among which 
are bear mice, mole mice, field 
mice and ground mice. They 
live just at the surface of 
the ground, making runways 
in summer beneath tangled 
masses of weeds and grass, 
and in winter penetrating the 
snow freely in all directions. 
They feed on almost any sort 
of vegetation, as well as on 
such animal flesh as they may 
be able to find. They are especially fond, however, 
of the tender bark of trees and shrubs and the suc- 
culent green stems of grasses and grains. To this 
fact is due their greatest injury, which is that done 
in gnawing the bark from the trunk and branches 
of fruit trees, an operation that occurs beneath the 
snow through the winter and is revealed only when 
it disappears in spring. Some seventy American 
forms were described in 1900 by Vernon Bailey in 
his revision of the genus Microtus. 

These meadow mice form a chief element in the 
food of many hawks and owls, and are constantly 
preyed on by weasels, foxes, skunks, minks and 
other predaceous mammals. The destruction of 
these various enemies has undoubtedly been the 
chief cause for the increase in the number of voles 
in many regions, and persons generally need greater 
enlightenment in the common attitude toward 
raptorial birds and the smaller predaceous mam- 
mals. Fruit trees may be protected by wrapping 
the trunks with wire netting. D. E. Lantz has 
reported a successful experiment in poisoning the 
mice with wheat soaked in strychnine solution. 

The common muskrat (Fiber zibethicus) is the 
only other member of the rat family that need be 
mentioned here. It is widely distributed and some- 
times locally abundant, but of comparatively litf 
agricultural importance. "" — ""*" ~~-« v - 1 - ~" ■'— '■ . 



WILD MAMMALS IN THEIR RELATIONS WITH AGRICULTURE 



167 



ing various crops, it is so persistently hunted that 
it seldom is really destructive. 

The pocket gophers, of the family Geomyida?, form 
one of the most characteristic, as well as most 
destructive groups of rodents. (Figs. 145-147.) 




Fig. 145. Pocket gopher (Geomys bursarius). 
(After Biological Survey.) 




Fig. 146. 
Face of pocket 
gopher. (After Bio- 
logical Survey.) 



Some one of the dozen American species occurs in 
most of the states west of the Mississippi river and 
as well to a limited extent east of it. The animals 
are notable for their curious cheek pouches that 
open externally and are used for carrying food, and 
for their underground habits, to which their struc- 
ture is especially adapted. They burrow through the 
earth in all directions, making, at short intervals, 
little mounds from the materials thrown out of 
the burrows. These mounds seri- 
ously interfere with the harvest- 
ing of crops, compelling the mow- 
ing-machine to be set so high that 
much forage is lost. As they make 
the tunnels, they feed on succu- 
lent roots and tubers of many 
kinds, often destroying trees 
completely by thus eating the 
roots. Some years ago the annual 
damage in Kansas to a single crop — alfalfa — 
inflicted by the prairie pocket gopher was estimated 
at $800,000. 

The chief natural enemies of the pocket gopher 
seem to be the weasels and the bull snakes, both 
of which follow through the burrows in search of 
victims. Fortunately, the pests are readily de- 
stroyed by poisoned grain, corn being especially 
recommended for the purpose, although various 
other materials may be employed. A dibble, made 
by adding a metal point to a spade handle, is used 
to make holes in 
the runways, into ^ J^J^.<g aa <£ 

which the pois- .^imimmmkdkM ■■ 

oned bait is 
dropped. " A skil- 
ful o p e r a t o r," 
writes D.E.Lantz, 
"can go over 
twenty to forty 
acres of badly in- 
fested land in a 
day, and, if the 
work is done care- 
fully, at a time when the pocket gophers are active, 
all the animals should be destroyed by the first ap- 
plication of poison." The pests may also be destroyed 
by trapping and by fumigation with carbon bisulfid. 




The hares and rabbits, of the family Leporida?, 
include a number of species that are often destruc- 
tive to fruit and other trees, the bark of which 
they gnaw, as well as to a great variety of 
field and garden crops which they devour. The 
larger forms abundant in the western states are 
called jack rabbits ; about seven species are recog- 
nized. The largest form in the eastern region is 
the northern hare, which turns white in winter. 
The smaller forms are commonly called cottontails, 
from the color of the turned-up tail, so conspicuous 
as the animals move about. All these rabbits mul- 
tiply rapidly, and under conditions favorable to 
their development they may become serious pests 
in a very short time. This is especially true of the 
jack rabbits, which are often destroyed in vast 
numbers by great " drives" organized by the inhabi- 
tants of some of the western states. (Fig. 148.) 
This is one of the most effective methods of holding 
them in check. 

Porcupines. — Two porcupines (Erethizontidae) are 
recognized in North America. These animals are 
commonly miscalled hedgehogs, although they are 
very different from the hedgehogs of the Old World. 
The porcupines are injurious to trees through their 
habit of feeding on the green bark, and even in 
extensive forests they often cause considerable loss. 

Kangaroo rats and pocket mice. — Several species 
of kangaroo rats and pocket mice (family Hetero- 
myidae) are also known ; the former sometimes 
cause considerable damage to corn and other crops 
in certain regions. 

The jumping mice. — The jumping mice (family 
Zapodidse) are seldom, if ever, sufficiently abundant 
to be of agricultural importance. 



Carnivorous mammals. 

The great order of flesh-eaters, Camivora, in- 
cludes many mammals of economic interest to the 
farmer. Comparatively few of these are harmful 
under existing conditions, while very many are 
beneficial because they prey on destructive rodents. 

Cat family. — In the cat family (Felidae) are found 
the puma or mountain lion, and the lynxes or wild 
cats. These are comparatively rare and inhabit 
such wild country that they are of little economic 
importance. 

The dog family (Canidas) includes the wolves, 



PPWW 



SS^NiVSf 




*w«iil 



Fig. 147. 



Runway of pocket gopher, a. Mounds of soil; b, laterals leading to mounds; 
runway. (After Biological Survey.) 



coyotes and foxes. The wolves and coyotes are 
very harmful to stock and poultry in the western 
states, although they do some good in the destruc- 
tion of hares, prairie dogs and other rodents. They 



168 



WILD MAMMALS IN THEIR RELATIONS WITH AGRICULTURE 



are most easily destroyed by hunting out the 
breeding-places in early spring and killing the 
litters of pups (Fig. 149). They may also be poi- 
soned and trapped. The foxes are generally con- 
sidered as enemies of the poultry yard, but it is 
probable that, in general, they do more good in 




Fig. 148. A jack-rabbit drive. 



destroying meadow mice and other pests than they 
do harm in taking poultry. 

The bears (Ursidse) are even yet troublesome in 
many of the sparsely inhabited regions of the 
country. In northern New England sheep cannot 
be kept in certain pastures without danger of 
attack from the black bear. 

The raccoon, which has been called the "little 
brother to the bear," is familiar to many persons 
over a wide territory. It feeds on a great variety 
of animal and vegetable food and is sometimes 
destructive to green corn in the field. 

Badgers, weasels, otters, minks and skunks. — To 
the family Mustelida? belong the badgers, weasels, 
otters, minks and skunks. Many of these animals 
furnish very valuable fur for which they are 
eagerly hunted. Many of them, also, are of great 
value to agriculture because they feed so largely 
on injurious insects and destructive rodents. The 
badger of the West is a notable example of this, 
feeding chiefly on ground-squirrels and prairie 
dogs, which it can easily get because of its wonder- 
ful ability to burrow rapidly through the ground. 
Even the skunks, which are universally condemned 
as enemies of poultry, doubtless do vastly more 
good than harm, hunting persistently for white 
grubs, voles and other pests. 

The black-footed ferret of the great plains region 
(Fig. 150) is one of the most effective extermi- 
nators of the inhabitants of prairie-dog towns, and 
in infested regions should not be killed on sight. 

Insectivorous mammals. 

The shrews and moles are the important represen- 
tatives of the order of insect-eaters — Insectivora. 
The former are very seldom seen, being nocturnal 
in their habits. They feed on insects and probably 
on such small rodents as they can catch. The gar- 
den mole is the most familiar member of the order; 



its runways at least are known to most persons in 
the country. It is commonly said to be beneficial 
from its habit of feeding on white grubs and other 
insects, but this fact will hardly compensate for 
the damage it does. Moles are rather easily poisoned 
by inserting in the runways corn in the milk stage, 
freshly cut from the ear, and 
poisoned with strychnine so- 
lution. They may also be 
caught in mole traps, and in 
various other ways. 

Bats. — The curious winged 
bats make up the order Cheir- 
optera. They fly only at night 
and feed exclusively on in- 
sects flying at the same time. 
For this reason they may 
fairly be said to be among 
the most beneficial of the 
mammals, and their wanton 
destruction should never be 
permitted. 

The control of destructive wild 
mammals. 
It has been a common 
practice in many states, to attempt to reduce the 
damage done by destructive mammals by the offer- 
ing of bounties. Vast sums of money have been 
expended in this way with very little practical 
result. As long as the animals are so abundant 
that it is profitable to hunt them for the bounty, 
they are killed, but, as soon as they become scarce, 
the killing stops, and the animals begin to increase 
again. The best informed authorities agree that 
the bounty system is pernicious in the case of 
most mammals. The saner way is to attempt to 
help nature hold the balance of life true by en- 
couraging the natural enemies of injurious pests 
and by the cooperative use of poisons, traps and 













Fig. 149. Wolf den. (After Biological Survey.) 



other methods of destruction, which experience has 
shown to be of value. 

Literature. 

Our knowledge of the economic relations of 
American mammals is very largely due to the inval- 
uable work of the Biological Survey of the United 



BIRDS IN THEIR RELATIONS WITH AGRICULTURE 



169 



States Department of Agriculture. For many years 
this corps of investigators has been patiently 
studying the problems involved, and has published 
a long series of scientific and practical reports in 
which will be found a discussion of nearly every 
phase of the relation of these animals to agriculture. 
The following are some of the more important of 
these. A complete list may be had on application 
to the Survey : Vernon Bailey, Revision of Ameri- 
can Voles, North American Fauna, No. IT ; Same, 




Fig. 150. Head of black-footed ferret (Putorius nigripes). 
(After Biological Survey.) 

The Pocket Gophers of the United States, Bulletin 
No. 5 ; Same, Destruction of Wolves and Coyotes, 
Circular No. 55 ; Same, Wolves in Relation to Stock, 
Forest Service Bulletin No. 72 ; David E. Lantz, Coy- 
otes in their Economic Relations, Bulletin No. 20, 
and Farmers' Bulletin No. 226 ; Same, Methods of 
Destroying Rats, Farmers' Bulletin No. 297 ; Same, 
Destroying Pocket Gophers. Circular No. 52 ; Same, 
An Economic Study of Field Mice, Bulletin No. 31; 
C. Hart Merriam, Revision of the Pocket Gophers, 
North American Fauna, No. 8 ; Same, Synopsis of 
the Weasels, North American Fauna, No. 11 ; Same, 
Prairie Dogs, Yearbook, 1901, and Circular No. 32; 
T. S. Palmer, The Jack Rabbits of the United States, 
Bulletin No. 80. Valuable articles have been pub- 
lished by some of the agricultural experiment 
stations, notably in Bulletin No. 129, of the Kan- 
sas Station, in which David E. Lantz discusses 
Kansas mammals in relation to agriculture, and in 
Bulletin No. 58 of the Nevada Station, in which 
Peter Frandsen discusses ground-squirrels and other 
rodent pests. 



BIRDS IN THEIR RELATIONS WITH 
AGRICULTURE 

By Edward Howe Forbush 

The relations of certain birds to agriculture are 
so complicated that they are not yet fully compre- 
hended even by the economic ornithologist, and 
they are often entirely misunderstood by the 
farmer. When a few species of birds destroy the 
fanner's grain, fruit or poultry, the injury is con- 
spicuously evident ; but many species feed on the 
enemies of grain, fruit and poultry, as well as on 
those of trees and crops of all kinds, and these 
beneficial habits of the many usually escape notice, 



while the harmful habits of the few become widely 
known. 

The food relations existing between birds, in- 
sects, other animals and plants are so obscure, and 
the results of the feeding habits of birds are so 
far-reaching, that often it is difficult for the 
investigator to determine whether a given bird is 
a friend or an enemy to the farmer. When the 
food of all forms of animal life shall have been 
studied carefully, the scientist will be in a better 
position to determine the exact value to man of 
certain species of birds. Nevertheless, enough has 
been done in this little-known field to warrant the 
general statement that birds greatly benefit the 
farmer. 

Species vary greatly in value, however. A few 
are inimical at times to the interests of the 
husbandman ; others seem to be of little or no 
economic importance ; the position of others is 
doubtful, as their beneficial and harmful habits 
appear to balance each other ; but the vast major- 
ity of those land-birds that live in or migrate 
through agricultural regions are thought to be far 
more useful than injurious. 

Birds are such active, energetic creatures, — their 
respiration is so rapid and their temperature so 
high, — that they need an amount of food in propor- 
tion to their size far in excess of that required by 
mammals. An adult bird has been known to con- 
sume more than its own weight of food in a single 
day, and the growing young of most small land- 
birds often take a still larger quantity. Endowed 
with wings of the highest type, and telescopic 
powers of vision, birds can concentrate quickly 
wherever food is abundant. They are capable, 
therefore, of being 
very injurious or very 
serviceable to the 
farmer, according to 
the nature of the food 
they take from his 
gardens, fields, or- 
chards or vineyards. 
When, for example, 
crows flock in the 
meadows, they may 
be very useful in de- 
stroying grubs, cutworms and grasshoppers ; but 
crows in the corn-field are not always an advantage 
to the farmer. 

Birds form a standing aerial army for the sup- 
pression of uprisings in nature. The scouts are 
always spying out the land and the swift detach- 
ments and flying legions gather at threatened 
points and attack the swarming hosts of destruc- 
tive insects or other animals, or the too numerous 
seeds or fruits of herbs or trees, and so assist in 
maintaining the biological balance and ordering 
the general good. Numerous instances on record 
show that birds have saved trees and crops from 
destruction by insects or other pests, and local 
extirpation of birds, or great reduction in their 
numbers, has been followed in all recorded cases by 
an increase of pests and consequent injury to 
vegetation. 




Fig. 151. American robin. 



170 



BIEDS IN THEIR RELATIONS WITH AGRICULTURE 



Investigators who have examined the contents of 
birds' stomachs have found large quantities of 
injurious insects and weed seeds. In the stomach 
of a yellow-billed cuckoo were 217 fall webworms; 
in another, were 250 tent-caterpillars. Two flick- 
ers' stomachs contained, respectively, 3,000 and 




Fig. 152. Nighthawk. 

5,000 ants. A nighthawk had eaten 500 mosqui- 
tos; another, 60 grasshoppers, and another revealed 
the remains of 1,000 flying ants. Twenty -eight 
cutworms were taken from the stomach of a red- 
winged blackbird. Seven cedar birds had eaten 70 
to 100 cankerworms, each. Three mourning doves 
had taken seeds (mostly those of weeds) to the 
number of 7,500, 6,400 and 9,200 respectively. 
Stomachs of the common snowbird or snowflake 
have been found to contain 500 to 1,500 weed 
seeds, each. Nine mice were eaten in succession 
by a young barn owl, about two-thirds grown, and 
near an owl's nest were found 453 skulls, mostly 
those of mice. These statements will suffice to 
show the capacity of birds' stomachs; and digestion 
is so rapid that the stomach must be filled many 
times each day. 

Insect-eating birds. 

The insect-eating birds are of the greatest value 
in regulating the numbers of those insects which 
feed on trees and those which subsist on grasses. 
Therefore, the farmer is largely indebted to birds 
for his annual product of wood and timber and for 
the grass and hay 
which furnish 
subsistence for 
cattle, horses and 
sheep. In wood 
and field, nature is 
allowed to take 
her course for a 
certain period un- 
til the crop is 
ready to cut, and little can be done by the farmer 
to protect either woodland trees or field grasses 
from their insect enemies. 

But birds find congenial homes in field and wood- 
land, and nesting there comparatively undisturbed 
by man, they find their food in the abundant ene- 
mies of grass and tree and do their part in saving 
both from insect injury. Certain birds are fitted 
to search out the insect enemies of each part of 




y Fig. 153. 

Black-biUed cuckoo. 



t^;*? 1 ..'?; 



the tree. Woodpeckers attack borers and bark 
insects ; creepers, nuthatches and titmice search 
out those insects peculiar to trunk and limbs ; 
warblers and all the smaller birds assail insects 
injurious to foliage. Crows, robins, sparrows, 
woodcocks, sandpipers, meadowlarks and other 
ground - feeding species unearth insects in the 
fields; while all birds of the open take insects from 
the grass. Grasshoppers and caterpillars, the most 
conspicuous enemies of grasses and trees, respec- 
tively, form a staple food for nearly all land birds. 

Birds may be quite as serviceable to man in 
orchard and shade trees as in field or woodland, if 
they receive protection and are provided with safe 
nesting-places and sufficient shelter at all seasons ; 
but they are not ordinarily so useful in gardens 
and cultivated fields, for there they find no safe 
nesting-places, and the frequent operations of til- 
lage during the time when insects are most destruc- 
tive tend rather to drive them out. A few species, 
however (notably the robin, house wren, chipping 
sparrow, song sparrow and quail), are very destruc- 
tive to garden insects; while swallows, nighthawks 
and martins, which catch insects in the air, are 
serviceable about the garden and cultivated field. 

The hairy woodpecker, the downy woodpecker 
and their allies are among the most useful birds of 
woodland and orchard. These birds peck into the 
trees and abstract wood-boring ants, the larvae of 
wood-boring beetles and the 
hibernating larva? or pupa? 
of injurious moths. The 
downy woodpecker is par- 
ticularly destructive to the 
white pine weevil, the cod- 
ling-moth, the apple-tree 
borer, the woolly aphis and 
other enemies of the or- 
chard. These woodpeckers 
should not be confounded 
with the red-bellied sap- 
sucker, which is sometimes 
injurious to trees in the 
more northern parts of the 
United States. 

Warblers are insect-eaters chiefly and feed mainh 
among the leaves. Small caterpillars, tree hoppers 
and other destructive leaf-eating insects are much 
sought by them ; also plant-lice, moths and beetles 
many of which are taken on the wing. The Ameri- 
can redstart is one of the most beautiful and 
widely distributed species. It is a bird of great 
activity, with striking orange and black plumage 
and moves through the woods like an erratic tropical 
flame. Warblers destroy great quantities of inju- 
rious insects and also act as a wholesome check on 
some beneficial species. 

Cuckoos are noted as the greatest enemies of those 
pernicious hairy caterpillars, the ravaging larva? 
of the bombycid moths, but warblers, thrushes, 
catbirds, blackbirds, woodpeckers, vireos, chicka- 
dees, crows, jays and some other birds eat these 
caterpillars at some stage of growth with more or 
less avidity. Warblers take mainly the smaller 
caterpillars ; vireos, chickadees and orioles dissect 







Fig. 154. Apple-tree bark, 
showing cocoon of cod- 
ling -moth pierced by 
woodpecker. (After 
Petit.) 






BIRDS IN THEIR RELATIONS WITH AGRICULTURE 



171 




out the inner parts of the larger ones, and black- 
birds, robins, crows and jays swallow the cater- 
pillars whole in all stages. Fully fifty species of 
birds are now known to feed on the different 
stages of the destruc- 
tive gipsy moth. Fly- 
catchers, swallows, mar- 
tins, swifts, and nights 
hawks catch mainly 
insects in flight. The 
kingbird and phcebe are 
among the most con- 
spicuous useful fly- 
catchers about the 
farm. The phcebe often nests about buildings or 
under bridges. It feeds on a variety of pests, 
among them the imported elm-leaf beetle, the 
striped cucumber beetle, cankerworms, cut-worms, 
brown-tail moths and gipsy moths. 

The kingbird is sometimes regarded as an enemy 
by bee-keepers, but stomach examinations show 
that the bees eaten are mainly drones, and the 
birds destroy robber flies and other insect enemies 
of bees as well as injurious May beetles (" June 
bugs"), weevils, click beetles, grasshoppers, 
crickets, house-flies, cattle-flies, leaf hoppers and 
injurious bugs and moths. As it also drives hawks 
and crows away from the poultry-yard, it may be 
considered one of the farmer's best allies. 

Swallows are valuable everywhere. The com- 
mon barn swallow and the cliff (or eaves) swal- 
low, which find nesting-places either in or on 
buildings, undoubtedly save the farmer many dol- 
lars by destroying insects that would otherwise 
greatly decrease his grass crop. The purple mar- 
tin takes many house-flies, horse-flies and injurious 
garden insects. 

The thrushes feed much on the ground-frequent- 
ing insects in spring and fall, but subsist largely 
on fruit (particularly wild fruit) during the sum- 
mer. The American robin is the most useful of all 
American thrushes, for it has become half-domes- 
ticated about the farm and feeds mainly in culti- 
vated grounds, taking ground-beetles, cutworms 
and white grubs in numbers that possibly no other 




Fig. 156. Kingbird. 




bird can equal. The blue-bird is second in useful- 
ness to the robin, but is not destructive, like the 
robin, to cultivated fruit. 

Sparrows are regarded as seed-eaters ; but, with 
the exception of the house sparrow, commonly 



known as the "English sparrow," they all feed 
mainly on insects during the spring and early sum- 
mer, and they feed their young in the nest almost 
entirely on insects. The insects taken are chiefly 
either injurious or neutral in character and very 
few useful species are eaten. Sparrows are very 
fond of the seeds of weeds, and they feed chiefly on 
seeds in the fall, winter and early spring months. 
They eat very little cultivated fruit, and not much 
grain, and as a family, are of great benefit to the 
farmer. The introduced " English sparrow " is the 
only species regarded as a pest. 

Birds of prey. 

The birds of prey are in many cases valuable 
aids to the farmer. The owls are thought to be 
among the most beneficial of all birds. They 
destroy many injurious night-flying insects and 
numbers of caterpillars that escape the diurnal 
birds ; but their special function is to hold in check 
the increase of the smaller nocturnal or crepuscular 
mammals. The 
hawks are nearly 
as useful as the 
owls in this respect. 
In certain regions 
of England and 
Scotland, where the 
hawks and owls 
have been nearly 
driven out, field 
mice or voles have 
increased from time 
to time, destroying 
crops and pasture. In such cases their progress 
has been stayed at last by migrating hawks and 
owls that have assembled from other regions. 

Dr. A. K. Fisher, of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, examined the stomach contents 
of about 2,700 hawks and owls, and Dr. C. Hart 
Merriam, Chief of the Division of Ornithology and 
Mammalogy, says of the results of this investigation : 
"Only six of the seventy-three species and sub- 
species of hawks and owls of the United States are 
injurious. Omitting the six species that feed 
largely on poultry and game, 2,212 stomachs were 
examined, of which 56 per cent contained mice and 
other small mammals, 27 per cent insects and only 
3J per cent poultry and game birds." 

Bird depredations. 

The injury done by birds is confined to a few 
species, but they sometimes cause considerable loss 
to the farmer or fruit-grower. The greatest dam- 
age attributed to birds in any section of the United 
States is that inflicted on the rice crop of the 
southern Atlantic seaboard by bobolinks and black- 
birds, which, under the name of rice birds, cause 
an annual deficit of nearly $2,000,000 in the 
planter's crops. Blackbirds often commit depreda- 
tions in other parts of the country, either by pick- 
ing up grain from newly sown fields, or by attacking 
the standing grain. The destructiveness of crows 
in the corn-field has become proverbial. Sometimes 
individual fruit-growers suffer considerable loss by 



Fig. 157. Slate-colored jurrco. 



172 



BIRDS IN THEIR RELATIONS WITH AGRICULTURE 



the depredation of crows, robins, catbirds, cherry 
birds, orioles and a few other species. All these 
birds are more or less useful to the farmer, and the 
problem that the fruit-grower faces is, not how to 
destroy the birds, but how to protect the crops and 
spare the birds. 

The protection of crops and poultry from bird depre- 
dations. 

This problem has never yet been fully solved nor 
has its solution been more than casually attempted 
by any thoroughly competent investigator. Still 
something has been done in this direction by prac- 
tical farmers. 

Crows are prevented from pulling up young corn 
by either tarring the seed, planting it deeply, scat- 
tering soaked corn over the field to attract atten- 
tion from the young plants, hanging streamers of 



increase their numbers. If, with little trouble and 
expense, he can make his farmstead attractive to 
the more valuable species, he may be able to lure 
to it and maintain on it, more birds than it would 
ordinarily support, — particularly if he is willing 
to provide them with a little inexpensive food to 
tide them over hard places. In this way, he may 
secure on his own land the full benefit of the ser- 
vices of birds as insect- and weed-destroyers. 

Food is the magnet which will attract all spe- 
cies. A diversity of vegetation will provide a 
variety of insect and vegetable food. It is impor- 
tant that groves and thickets should be left about 
the farm for bird shelters and insect refuges. The 
growth of existing fruit-bearing trees, shrubs and 
vines may be encouraged, or others may be planted 
especially for the birds. 

Nearly all wild fruits, except a few of the most 




Fig. 158. 
For mens or tree swaUows. 



Fig. 159. 
Slab bird-house. 



Fig. 160. 
Bark bird-house. 



Fig. 161. 
Birch-bark box. 



Fig. 162. 
Box with sliding front. 



cloth from twine strung about the field on poles, or 
using various scare-crows or effigies. 

Persons who plant cherry trees may usually 
secure immunity for the fruit by planting nearby, 
at the same time, trees which bear a fruit that the 
birds prefer to cherries. The Russian mulberry 
offers the best protection for early fruit, and will 
succeed in most parts of the temperate zone. Plant 
ings of mulberry, buckthorn, elder and chokeberry 
may serve to protect raspberries and blackberries. 
H. A. Surface, State Zoologist of Pennsylvania, 
says that strawberries and other berries may be 
protected by planting sweet early fruits which are 
left to ripen on the vines for the birds. When 
no other method is available, small beds of straw- 
berries and small cherry trees may be covered with 
small-meshed fish-net, when the fruit is about to 
ripen. 

Young chickens may be insured against the 
attacks of hawks by covering with portable run- 
ways of fine wire netting, which may be set on grass 
land and moved often. Chickens are comparatively 
safe wherever kingbirds or purple martins breed 
about the farm-yard, as these birds drive hawks 
away. Some hawks are frightened away by guinea 
hens. A pair of ospreys or fish-hawks nesting near 
a farmhouse will keep other large hawks away. 

The encouragement of useful birds on the farm. 

It is important to the farmer to be able to pro- 
tect the useful birds about the farm so as to 



poisonous, are eaten by birds, and many that are 
not considered edible are not disdained by them. 
Fruit which, like the berries of the barberry, 
juniper, sumac and smilax, remains on the plant in 
fall and winter, is a godsend to the birds in times 
of stress. Many of the winter sparrows may be 
gathered about the farm-yard by scattering on the 
ground a supply of chaff and hayseed from the 
barn floors. This feeding should be begun in the 
fall and continued in some open shed with a south- 
ern exposure when the deep snows of winter cover 
the ground. A scratching-shed for poultry is an 
ideal place as a shelter and feeding- ground fur 
small seed-eating birds. The birds thus fed will 
spend most of their time during fall, winter and 
early spring in searching for and eating the seeds 
of weeds about the farm and garden. The insect- 
eating winter birds may be tolled to the orchard 
by tying on the trees, in sheltered places, bits of 
suet, and bones with shreds of meat attached. 

If these precautions are taken in the fall and 
continued throughout the winter, many birds will 
be attracted by them and will remain wherever the 
eggs and other hibernating forms of insects arc 
plentiful on the trees. Orchards may sometimes be 
nearly 'freed from native pests by this method 
alone ; but some of the more recently introduced 
insects seem to enjoy a greater or less immunity 
from the attacks of native birds. 

There are many attractive bird-foods that may 
be used in winter ; among these are the seeds of 



BIRDS IN THEIR RELATIONS WITH AGRICULTURE 



173 



\ 



x V X 



hemp, sunflower and Japanese millet, bread crumbs, 
doughnuts or crullers and nuts. In the winter, 
pieces of suet or fat meat (unsalted) may be tied 
in trees to feed the small woodpeckers, chickadees 
and nuthatches. But 
a variety of food is 
not so necessary as is 
a supply of coal-ashes 
or sand, which furn- 
ish the mineral mat- 
ter that the seed-eat- 
ing birds require to 
grind their food. 

One reason for a 

scarcity of certain 

birds is a lack of 

the hollow trunks or 

these birds, some of 




Fig. 163. 
Phoebe's nest in shed. 



suitable nesting-places in 
limbs of trees. To attract 
which are among the most valuable insect-eating 
species, it is only necessary to put up suitable nest 
receptacles. These may be made of small wooden 
boxes or tin cans, with an entrance in each near the 
upper or outer end. This hole should be one and 
one-half inches in diameter for blue-birds, one and 
one-fourth inches for chickadees, about one inch for 
wrens and two or more inches for other larger birds. 

The above dimensions are such as will barely 
allow the entrance of the species mentioned in each 
case, and will keep out most of its enemies. Those 
who would cater to unusual visitors may bear in 
mind that a flicker or a screech owl will require 
an entrance about three inches in diameter, while a 
wood duck will use an opening five inches in width. 

The size of the box is not material, provided only 
that it is large enough, but the entrance should be 
so high above the bottom of the box that the cat 
cannot reach in and claw out the young birds. If 
the box be not so constructed, it should be so 
placed as to be inaccessible to this arch enemy of 
the birds. To be most useful, a nesting-box should 
have the opening turned away from prevailing 
storms, and should be protected by a tight, over- 
hanging roof. Its bottom should not be tight 
enough to hold any water that might chance to 
drive in. The box should be so situated as to be 
be shaded in the hotter part of the day, and 
the entrance should be made accessible by means 
of a hinged or removable door, slide or cover, 
so that the box may be readily cleaned and 
undesirable tenants may be speedily evicted. All 
the above conditions may be met without any 
expense by the use of worn-out utensils, such as 
milk cans, coffee-pots, tea-kettles, or fruit cans 
slightly altered for the purpose. 

Suitable and ornamental boxes may be made of 
the bark of the elm, chestnut and birch, all of 
which are desirable. The bark may be easily 
removed in June from a freshly cut sapling, cross 
sections of the trunk may be used for the bottom 
and top of each box, and the roof may be covered 
and protected by tin, zinc, or bark (See Figs. 159, 
160, 161). The elaborate " architectural " houses 
chat one often sees are not appreciated by the 
birds, nor are they always in good taste ; but they 
are serviceable for purple martins. 



Openings through which swallows can come and 
go, should always be left in all barns. If the raft- 
ers are so smooth as to offer no points of attach- 
ment for the nests, cleats should be nailed up here 
and there. Eaves swallows will not nest on painted 
barns unless a ledge or cleat is placed on the outer 
wall beneath the eaves. Little trays or shelves 
may be put up in sheds to accommodate the nests 
of robins and phoebes, and it is well to hang out 
tow cotton or string for the use of such birds as 
orioles, vireos and fly-catchers. 

Honeysuckle, bee balm, salvia and most trumpet- 
shaped flowers invite the humming-birds, which are 
destructive to minute insects and they assist in fer- 
tilizing flowers. Gunners, particularly boys,and bird- 
shooting foreigners, should never be allowed about 
the home grounds, the garden or orchard. Cats, 
bird-hawks, snakes, crows and jays, English spar- 
rows or squirrels that have the bird-nesting or 
bird-killing habit, should be summarily dealt with, 
and children should be taught to care for the birds 
and not to molest them. 

Literature. 

Readers who desire more detailed information 
are referred to the report on " Useful Birds and 
Their Protection," by the present writer, issued by 
the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture in 
the year 1907 ; Weed and Dearborn, Birds in Their 
Relation to Man, J. B. Lippincott Company (1903). 




Fig. 164. Cedar biids eating canker- worms. 

Numerous bulletins treat of this subject, notable 
among which are those of the State Department of 
Agriculture at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, and of 
the Bureau of Biological Survey, United States 
Department of Agriculture. Among the latter may 
be mentioned the following bulletins: No. 1, The 
English Sparrow in North America, W. B. Barrows ; 
No. 3, The Hawks and Owls of the United States in 
Their Relation to Agriculture, A. K. Fisher; No. 15, 
The Relation of Sparrows to Agriculture, Sylvester 
D. Judd ; No. 17, Birds of a Maryland Farm, a 
Local Study of Economic Ornithology, Sylvester D. 
Judd ; Farmers' Bulletin No. 54, Some Common 
Birds ; C. F. Hodge, in Nature Study and Life, 
Ginn & Co., devotes three interesting chapters to 
economic bird study and bird protection from the 
standpoint of a teacher. 



PART II 

THE MANUFACTURE OF ANIMAL PRODUCTS 

Every important animal affords material for one or more manufactured products. These products 
are of several classes or kinds, as : Direct fresh food products, the parts being unchanged in char- 
acter, as meat, eggs, milk ; preserved natural food products of many kinds ; manipulated or manu- 
factured food products, in which the original form is radically changed, as butter, cheese, lard ; 
clothing products, as leather, wool-fabrics, mohair ; fertilizer products, as bone flour, tankage ; soap 
products ; many incidental or secondary materials used in the arts, as bone, horn, glue, leather, ivory. 
It would be interesting to make a catalogue of all the manufactured or manipulated products of the 
animals described in this book. If the list were at all complete, the reader would be astonished to 
know the extent to which we depend for our well being on the common animals of the fields. We 
depend on common things for the necessities. Exotics are mostly luxuries or amenities. 

The manufacture of many of the animal products lies closer to the farm than the manufacture 
of crop products. This is particularly true of butter and cheese, the manufacture of which is so 
very closely associated with agriculture itself that the subject is now a recognized part of the 
curriculum of all modern colleges of agriculture. On the crop side, there are no recognized manu- 
facturing phases now in the colleges, although some of them — particularly the manufacture of fruit 
products — must soon find a place in these institutions. There is probably no manufacturing business 
in any college or university that has now reached a higher development than the making of dairy 
products ; and this manufacture is extending beyond cheese and butter to ice-cream and special 
lines of milk-beverages. On the farming side, the skimming stations, creameries and cheese factories 
have become an accepted part of the agricultural development of great regions, and their influence 
extends far into the social phases of country living. There is no other agricultural manufacture that so 
profoundly modifies agricultural practice or rural association. In a very important way, these institutions 
provide local centers that check the outlook to the town or city. There is now a marked tendency, 
however, toward the consolidation of this manufacturing into the larger centers, leaving the isolated 
establishments to be only scattered collecting stations, with a less vital social interest. On the other 
hand, there is also a tendency in many parts for good home-dairying to develop a new effectiveness, 
with improved machinery and appliances and new ideals of sanitary cleanliness ; and in certain regions 
the milk is coming to be separated at home and only the cream taken to the factory or station, thus 
decreasing haulage and keeping the skimmed milk on the farm. These various tendencies will have 
marked effects on the home. 

In general, the manufacture of animal products is not agriculture, and therefore no complete 
account of it is due in a book like this Cyclopedia. In fact, the factory making of cheese and butter 
is usually delegated to men who are specially trained and who are not farmers. Many of the dairy 
students in the colleges of agriculture are not farmers but factorymen. Inasmuch, however, as the 
making of cheese and butter is also a home function, a somewhat particular account of this business 
may rightly be expected here. 

With the increase of competition and the rise of constructive intelligence, the utilization in 
manufacture of waste and secondary products will become more and more important. In the great 
abattoirs, the utilizing of the animal carcass has arrived at great perfection, but it is not so in 
smaller establishments nor on farms. As with crops so with animals, a use must be found for every- 
thing, else it will not be profitable to grow the animal. The farm - management plans will be modified 
by the higher development of manufacture or utilization of animal products. 

In the old days, every well-developed farm establishment depended on itself for its animal prod- 
ucts, — its salted and smoked meats, sausages and head -cheese, tallow and lard, soap, the tanning 

(174) 



DAIRY PRODUCTS 



175 



of hides and the making of shoes by the traveling or the village shoemaker, and the spinning of 
wool and weaving of cloth. The day of homespun has passed, and a new economic and social order 
has come in. Manufacture has gone farther and farther from the place of production of the raw 
materials. It is probable that we shall see a return movement in some of the manufacture aside 
from milk products. We may hope, at all events, for a return of the home-preparing of meats, with 
improvements on the old practices in the way of less salt meat and of greater variety. The light 
power and refrigeration, which are gradually coming on the farms, will aid this work. 

Unfortunately, there appear to have been few studies of these subjects of manufacture and 
cooperation in this country in their agricultural relations. The literature is scattered and special, 
partly of the recipe order and partly of the technical commercial manufacturing order. The next 
ten or twenty years is likely to see much change in this condition. 



CHAPTER VIII 



DAIRY PRODUCTS 




Millet's chumer 



P^p^HE MILK OF THE COW IS ONE OF THE FUNDAMENTAL NECESSITIES of our 
present civilization. With greater attention being given both to its production and 
Q j to its manipulation, its use is vastly increasing. The milk-producing industry has 

1 ■*» elements of stability that many other rural industries lack. It has the constancy 
and regularity of all business that rests on fundamental and daily demand. It 
now is comparable with the beef industry. Animals, in recent times, have been 
more developed in milk -producing power than in flesh-producing power. 

The advance in modern dairying, however, is less marked in the increase 
in production than in the careful attention that is beginning to be given to cleanli- 
ness. The mere statement of this fact conveys little idea of its great significance, 
for cleanliness in milk-producing and marketing is vastly more than mere tidiness 
in the work. It is concerned with the lessening of bacteria, as well as of dirt, in the 
milk, and it therefore rests on rational scientific procedure. It is well to bear in 
mind that, of all foods widely used for human consumption, milk has been produced 
and handled in the most uncleanly way, considering the fact that it is amenable to 
contamination and capable of propagating germ life. Cows and stables and sur- 
roundings are commonly unclean, the animals are unclean, and often the man himself 
is unclean. The milk is exposed to contamination in unclean cans and to dust and 
germs from the air. It is likely to be carelessly handled over and over again in transit and in market, 
in unclean cars, unclean booths and by unclean men. Finally, the consumer himself has not been in the 
habit of exercising any special care to protect the milk from contamination. All this is the error of 
nobody in particular, for we have been in ignorance of the facts. This condition is certainly not the 
fault of the farmer, for he has been as careful as dealers and consumers ; and milk has always been 
erroneously regarded by purchasers as a cheap product. 

The demand for clean milk is the direct result of the study of dairy bacteriology, following studies 
in Europe within the past twenty-five years, and in this country beginning, perhaps, twenty years ago. 
A "Report on the Dairy Industry of Denmark" by C. C. Georgeson, published in 1893, by the national 
Department of Agriculture, called wide attention to the improving dairy practice of that country. In 
the same year (1893) a committee of physicians of Essex county, New Jersey, entered into an extensive 
contract with Stephen Francisco, a local dairyman, whereby it agreed to certify to the quality of his 
milk, that was to be produced under rigorous control and inspection. The term "certified milk" (page 
186) originated with Henry L. Coit, a member of this medical commission, and it was copyrighted 
by Mr. Francisco to protect the term from being degraded by dairymen not in contract with a similar 
commission ; but it was distinctly understood that the term should be allowed to others without question 
when it shall be employed by medical milk commissions organized to influence similar milk-production. 
The term is now defined by statute in New York state. The Walker-Gordon Laboratory Company, of 
New York and other c'ties, adopted the term "guaranteed T*ulk" for their product, which was produced 



176 



MILK AS A MARKET PRODUCT 



under rigid conditions of control. The popular result of all the efforts for better milk is expressed in 
the term "clean milk," which means, in a general way, a product in which the new ideas of cleanliness 
and control are put in operation. A paper by R. A. Pearson on " Market Milk : A Plan for Its 
Improvement," published in 1900 by the United States Department of Agriculture, brought the new 
ideas and practices prominently and officially before the public. There are now about twenty-five 
medical milk commissions in the United States. In most cases, these exercise supervision over only 
one dairy. The National Association of Medical Milk Commissions was organized in 1907. In the 
same year, first steps were taken to organize an association of certified-milk producers. 

While great improvement in sanitary conditions of dairies is being made without actually 
increasing the money cost of milk production, yet these improvements deserve money recognition 
and will command it. When sanitary improvements are carried to the point required by milk com- 
missions, it is expected that the producer will receive two to three times the ordinary price for his 
milk. We shall be forced to readjust our scale of values. Milk has not sold for its full value as a 
food product. The bacterial content is the best measure of the condition of cleanliness of milk. 
The New York commission enforces a standard of not more than 30,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. 
The Philadelphia commission holds the standard at 10,000, but allows two or three re-examinations 
when the count is found to be excessive. 

It is probable that the bacteriological studies that have expressed themselves in the new ideas of 
cleanliness are destined to have greater effect on agricultural practice than any other single series of 
investigations. They have already developed a wholly new point of view and new practices in modes of 
living in both town and country. 



MILK AS A MARKET PRODUCT 

By Raymond A. Pearson 
Milk is the natural food of the young of mam- 



making condensed milk at the rate of four to one ; 
14 per cent for making cream ; 30 per cent was 
used as market milk, on the basis of an average 
daily per capita consumption of .6 of a pint. 



Constituents 


Quantity in 
average milk 


Extent of varia- 
tion in normal 
milk 


Fat 

Albumen .... 

Water 


Per cent 
40 
2.6 
0.7 
5.0 
0.7 
87.0 


2.5-8.0 
2.0-3.5 
0.6 0.9 
4.0-6.0 
0.6-0.8 
84.0-88.0 



malia. It is secreted in the mammary glands of 

the female parent during a more or less extended lhe composition of milk. 

period after parturition. The milk of cows is exten- As milk is a complete food for the young, it has 

sively used in commerce, and the milk of some other all the food constituents necessary for the nourish- 

animals is thus used to a limited extent. The milk ment of the young. The table shows the composition: 

of goats, ewes, and buffaloes is commonly used as 

food in some southern European countries. Mares' 

milk is used in Russia, asses' milk in southwestern 

Europe and in Cuba ; the reindeer's milk is used in 

the sub-arctic regions, and it is reported that in 

some parts of Spain sows' milk is used as a human 

food. Except when otherwise stated, this article 

has special reference to cows' milk. 

According to the last census, in 1899, there 
were 17,139,674 milch cows on farms in the United 
States, and they produced in that year 7,266,392,- 
674 gallons of milk. It is estimated that about 58 
per cent of this was used in making butter, on the Fat. — Fat in milk is in the form of minute glob- 

basis of ten quarts of milk for one pound of but- ules, having a diameter of T^trtr to ^Vtt of an 
ter ; 4 per cent was used for making cheese, on the inch. These float about in the milk, forming an 
basis of ten pounds of milk, or a little less than emulsion. When highly magnified, these fat glob- 
five quarts, for one pound of cheese; 5 per cent was ules may be easily seen. In any milk, many dif- 
used for rearing calves ; 1J per cent was used for ferent sizes of globules are found, but it is notice- 
able that the average size of 
globules in Jersey and Guern- 
sey milk is much larger than 
the average size of globules 
in the milk given by other 
breeds. As the specific grav- 
ity of the fat is .93 and the 
specific gravity of the re- 
mainder of the milk is about 
1.04, the fat globules always 
tend to rise. They are more 
Fig. 165. Relative proportions of fat globules in cream, whole milk and skimmed milk. or ' e p s entangled by other 
a, cream; b, whole milk; c, skimmed milk. Highly magnified. constituents of the milk, and 




MILK AS A MARKET PRODUCT 



177 



great numbers of the smallest sized globules fail 
to reach the top, or the cream layer. (Fig. 165.) 

The most variable constituent in milk is fat, and 
the following are some of the chief reasons why 
the quantity of fat differs in different milks : 

(1) Breed of cows. The analyses of large num- 
bers of samples of milk given by different breeds 
have been made by the New York Agricultural 
Experiment Station, and the averages of fat for 
the different breeds are : 

Per cent 

Holstein-Freisian 3.4 

Ayrshire 3.6 

Shorthorn 4.4 

Devon 4.6 

Guernsey 5.3 

Jersey 5.6 

(2) Individual cows, even of the same breed, 
differ widely one from another. For example : it 
frequently happens that Holstein cows give milk 
that tests 4 per cent fat or better. Thus, some 
strains or families of cows are sometimes developed 
within a breed. 

(3) The length of period preceding milking. 
Experiments show that the milk taken after the 
shorter period between milkings is slightly richer. 

(4) Morning or evening milk. Other things being 
equal, the milk will more frequently be found to be 
richer in the morning than in the evening. 

(5) The portion of the milk tested. The first 
milk drawn from the udder tests low in fat, while 
the last contains a large amount of fat. The differ- 
ence may be as great as 1 to 10 per cent. 

(6) The time in lactation period. Generally the 
richness of milk falls off slightly a few weeks after 
the calf is born, and then steadily increases to the 
end of the lactation period. 

(7) Age of the cow. Although there are many 
exceptions, it is customary for tha milk to be 
slightly less rich after the second or third period 
of lactation. 

(8) The health or nervous condition of the cow, 
caused by the condition of the weather, or other- 
wise, also seems to affect the amount of fat in the 
milk. The percentage of fat may fluctuate between 
wide limits in case of sickness. 

Milk-fat is a mixture of several different fats 
which are combinations of glycerine and fatty 
acids. The principal fats and their proportion in 
milk-fat are as follows : 

Per cent 

Palmitin 40 

Olein 34 

Myristin 10 

Butyrin 6 

A few others vary from 1 to 3 per cent each. 

Butyrin is the characteristic butter-fat, and is 
absent from butter substitutes, such as oleomar- 
garine. The melting point of milk-fat is about 
92° Fahr. 

Nitrogenous constituents of milk. — Casein con- 
stitutes about 80 per cent in this group, albumen 
about 18 per cent, and other constituents the 
remaining 2 per cent, (a) In normal milk casein 
exists as very small gelatinous particles in sus- 
C 12 



pension. It is in combination with calcium in 
some form. This constituent is coagulated by the 
enzyme rennet or by mineral acid. Casein is used 
in the following ways : (1) As food, in milk and 
beverages made therefrom. (2) In cheese, the man- 
ufacture of which depends on the presence of casein. 
(3) In special proprietary food preparations. (4) 
In the manufacture of paints and paper-sizing. 
(5) In making mucilage and cement. (6) As a 
substitute for horn or celluloid, in which condition 
it is known as "galalith." (7) As a dressing and 
color-fixing medium in the textile industry. 

(b) Albumen is present in milk in small quantity 
in solution. It resembles the white of egg, and 
is coagulated by exposure to heat from 157° to 
170° Fahr. The specific gravity of the nitrogenous 
constituents is 1.346. 

Sugar. — Sugar is in solution in the water of 
milk. It is called lactose or milk-sugar. It is the 
most abundant constituent. Its quantity fluctuates 
less than that of other constituents above-men- 
tioned. Its specific gravity is 1.666. Milk-sugar is 
extracted from whey by concentration, by means of 
evaporation in vacuo, and crystallization. It is used 
largely for coating pills and proprietary foods. It 
is used also in the manufacture of certain explo- 
sives. By its decomposition, which is due directly 
or indirectly to bacteria, milk-sugar foims lactic 
acid. Thus — 

Ci2H 22 Oii + H 2 = 4C 3 H 3 (lactic acid). 

There is very little, if any, lactic acid in perfectly 
fresh milk, but soon it begins to form, and "sweet 
milk," on reaching the market or the factory, com- 
monly contains .1 to .2 per cent. When milk con- 
tains about .3 per cent lactic acid, the sour taste 
begins to be noticeable. Under conditions favor- 
able for bacterial growth the acid increases to 
about .8 per cent, when the bacteria cease to act 
because of the large amount of acid surrounding 
them. If some of the acid is neutralized by the 
addition of an alkali, the bacteria become active, 
and more acid is formed by the breaking down of 
more sugar until the limit is again reached. Lactic 
acid is essential for certain dairy manufacturing 
processes. 

Ash. — This is mineral matter which, in normal 
milk, is present in the form of a solution, or in sus- 
pension. Milk-ash consists of chlorids and phos- 
phates of sodium, potassium, calcium, and magne- 
sium. It contains also traces of iron oxid. Its 
specific gravity is 4.12. Ash is a most important 
constituent of milk when used as a human food. 

Water. — Milk contains 87 per cent of water. 
This need not be considered an excessively large 
quantity ; it is not equal to the amount of water 
in certain fruits and vegetables, and it is less in 
quantity than the combined water and waste of 
some of our favored meat foods. 

Some physical properties of milk. 

Other than those mentioned in connection with 
the composition of milk, the following physical 
properties are important : 

(1) The specific gravity of average milk, or the 



178 



MILK AS A MARKET PRODUCT 



relation between its weight and the weight of 
an equal quantity of water at 39° Fahr. is 1.032. 
This varies, however, frequently between 1.030 and 
1.034, and occasionally the specific gravity of nor- 
mal milk goes slightly beyond these limits. The 
specific gravity depends on the quantity and rela- 
tive amounts of fat and solids not fat, the specific 
gravity of the fat being .93, and of the solids not 
fat 1.616. When the fat has been removed in the 
form of cream, the specific gravity is raised to 
about 1.036. 

(2) The freezing point of milk is 31° Fahr., and 
its boiling point is practically the same as that of 
water— 212° Fahr. 

(3) Milk is most concentrated at 31° Fahr., its 
volume slightly increasing with the rise of 
temperature. Richmond gives the relative volumes 
of a milk (in glass) having a specific gravity of 
1.032 and a fat test of 3.8 per cent at different 
temperatures as follows : 

Temperature 
Fahrenheit Volume 

31° 1.00000 

40° 1.00041 

50° 1.00114 

60° 1.00229 

70° 1.00372 

80° 1.00549 

Rich milk expands more than poor milk. 

Milk tests. 

Among the older milk tests, descriptions of 
which are found in the old text-books on dairying, 
is the cream gauge. This is a plain glass cylinder, 
into which a measured quantity of milk is placed 
and allowed to stand quietly until the cream layer 
becomes distinct. This test is used to a limited 
extent today. It is convenient for the household, 
but it is not accurate, and for commercial purposes 
has little value. The reason for its inaccuracy lies 
chiefly in the fact that the cream rises more com- 
pletely on some milk than on others, and in some 
cases the cream layer is much more rich or heavy 
than in other cases, hence the quantity of cream 
showing on different milks cannot be fairly com- 
pared. 

Certain optical tests have been more or less used. 
These tests include the pioscope, and Feser's lacto- 
scope. In these tests the transparency of the milk 
was supposed to indicate its quality. The pioscope 
consists of a black rubber disc with a shallow depres- 
sion, surrounded by a raised ring about the size of 
a twenty-five cent piece, in the center. The surface 
of the rubber outside cf the circle is divided into 
several parts, each coming against the central cir- 
cle, and the different parts showing different 
shades of white, from a dark gray to very light. 
These different shades are marked to indicate 
percentages of fat. A few drops of milk are placed 
in the center and covered with a small plate 
of glass. Its shade is compared with those surround- 
ing it, and its percentage of fat is supposed to be 
the same as the percentage marked on the outside 
division whose shade most closely corresponds. 
This test is inaccurate, becaua3 the richness of milk 



does not vary directly with its transparency. Foi 
example : a small amount of fat in the form of 
very small fat globules causes more obscurity than 
a large amount of fat in the form of large globules. 




Pig. 166. Hand separator adapted to farm use. 

The lactoscope depends on the same principle. 
A measured quantity of milk is placed in a glass 
tube having an inner part on which there are black 
marks. The milk covers the inner part, and water 
is added until the marks can be seen faintly. The 
quantity of water is supposed to indicate the rich- 
ness of the milk. This instrument also is inaccurate, 
but it is used to a limited extent by inspectors. 

About twenty years ago, when the system of 
buying milk at factories was being rapidly devel- 
oped, it became necessary to have a quick and 
accurate method of testing milk for its fat content. 
Chemists worked diligently on this problem, and 
numerous ingenious tests were devised. These 
include the lactobutyrometer, Soxhlet's method, the 
De Laval lactocrite, Fjord's control apparatus, and 
the methods of Failyer and Willard, Parsons, Pat- 
rick, Cochran, Beimling, and Babcock. Some of 
these tests were quite satisfactory, but in this 
country the Babcock test has practically replaced 
all of the others because of its rapidity, accuracy, 
inexpensive apparatus, and simplicity. It has been 
widely adopted also in some other countries. This 
test was brought out by Doctor Stephen Moulton 
Babcock, a native of New York state, formerly 
Instructor in Chemistry at Cornell University, then 



MILK AS A MARKET PRODUCT 



179 



Chemist in the New York Agricultural Experiment 
Station, and since 1SS8, Professor of Agricultural 
Chemistry in the University of Wisconsin. 

The Babcock method. — In this test, a measured 
sample of milk is mixed with strong sulfuric acid, 
which dissolves all of the 
milk constituents except the 
fat. The mixture of milk and 
acid is then subjected to 
centrifugal force, by which 
the fat is separated from the 
heavy liquid and, after the 
addition of water, the fat is 
brought into a part of the 
bottle where it can be quickly 
measured. The entire test 
can be made in fifteen to 
twenty minutes. It is a test 
which should be used even 
more widely by milk buyers 
and those who have author- 
ity in connection with milk 
inspection, as well as by pro- 
ducers themselves. 

In detail, the test is made 
as follows : The milk to be 
sampled is thoroughly mixed 
by pouring it several times 
from one vessel to another. 
By means of a milk pipette, 
or measure, graduated to hold 
17.6 cc, this quantity of milk is transferred to a 
special form of bottle, which has a capacity of a 
little more than one ounce and a long neck with 
graduations or per cent marks from to 10. The 
cubic capacity of the neck, from to 10, is exactly 
2 cc. This is the volume of 1.8 grams of fat, which 
is the substance to be measured on the scale. As 
the bottle is so graduated that 1.8 grams repre- 
sents 10 per cent, it is necessary to use a sample 
weighing ten times as much, or 18 grams, and it is 
found that the 17.6 cc. pipette will deliver approxi- 
mately this weight of milk. There is then added 
17.5 cc.of concentrated commercial sulfuric acid, 




Fig. 167. Milk jar for 
holding samples. 



to the base of the neck. It is then whirled two 
minutes and more hot water is carefully added until 
the fat rises in the neck so that it is opposite the 
graduations. The sample is then whirled one min- 
ute, to insure collecting as much fat as possible in 
the neck. While the fat is still warm, its percentage 
is ascertained by reading the marks at its upper 
and lower levels and taking the difference between 
them. 

The cost of a small complete outfit for testing 
milk is six to ten dollars, and one may be purchased 
from almost any dairy supply house. An outfit 
complete is shown in Fig. 168. 

The Gerber method of testing milk for fat is used 
extensively in Germany and Denmark, and is found 
occasionally in this country. It differs but little 
from the Beimling method. This test depends on 
the same principles as the Babcock test. A smaller 
quantity of milk is used for the sample, and amyl 
alcohol is added besides sulfuric acid. The amyl 
alcohol has the effect of assisting to a clear sepa- 
ration of the fat. 

Test for formaldehyde. 

Formaldehyde is sometimes used as a preserva- 
tive of milk, although this is unlawful in most 
states. The general objections to preservatives 
obtain in this case, and a further objection to 
formaldehyde is that it renders the casein in milk 
insoluble, and, therefore, less digestible. Hehner's 
test for formaldehyde is exceedingly delicate. It is 
sensitive for one part of formaldehyde to two hun- 
dred thousand parts of milk. This test is as follows : 
To a few cubic centimeters of the suspected milk 
add a few cubic centimeters of concentrated com- 
mercial sulfuric acid, and pour this in carefully, so 
that it will follow the side of the glass container 
to the bottom, not mixing with the milk, but form- 
ing a distinct layer under it. If a violet color is 
noticed where the two liquids come together, for- 
maldehyde is indicated ; otherwise, there will be 
no color, or a dark-colored layer, between the milk 
and acid. In this test the acid should contain some 
iron-salt, as is usually the case with commercial 




Fig. 168. Babcock test outfit. 



having a specific gravity of 1.82 to 1.83. The acid 
and milk are mixed by a rotary motion. The action 
of the acid on the water and solids of the milk 
generates considerable heat. The sample is promptly 
placed in a centrifugal machine and whirled for five 
minutes. Hot water is then added to bring the fat 



acid. To make sure of this, however, a little ferric 
chlorid may be used. 

Test for boric acid or borax. 

These substances are sometimes used as preser- 
vatives. Van Slyke describes a simple test as fol- 



180 



MILK AS A MARKET PRODUCT 



lows : Add lime-water to 25 cc. of milk until the 
mixture is alkaline ; evaporate to dryness and burn 
to an ash in a small porcelain or platinum dish. 
Add a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid to the 
ash, care being taken not to use too much acid, 
then add a few drops of water, and place a strip 
of tumeric paper in this water solution. Dry the 
paper, and if either borax or boric acid is present, 
a cherry-red color will appear. This test is con- 




Fig. 169. Mann's acid test outfit. 

firmed by moistening the reddened paper with a 
drop of an alkali solution, when the paper will turn 
to a dark olive color, if borax or boric acid is 
present. 

Test for coal-tar dyes. 

Van Slyke also describes a test for this form of 
milk adulteration. Add 10 cc. of milk to 10 cc. of 
strong hydrochloric acid, and mix. A pink color 
appears if coal-tar dyes have been used. 

Test for boiled milk. 

It is sometimes desirable to determine whether 
milk has been subjected to 176° Fahr. or higher 
heat. A successful test has been devised by Storch. 
To 5 cc. of the suspected milk add a few drops of 
potassium iodid and a similar quantity of starch 
solution, also a few drops of hydrogen peroxid. 
If the milk has not been cooked, an enzyme which is 
present will decompose the hydrogen peroxid, set- 
ting free oxygen. This combines with the potassium 
salt and thus iodine is in turn set free and with the 



starch it forms a purple color. If the milk has been 
heated so that the enzyme is killed, no color will 
result. 

Another test for cooked milk is given by Arnold, 
as follows : Tincture of guaiac is added, drop by 
drop, to a little milk in a test-tube. If the milk 
has not been heated to 176° Fahr., a blue zone is 
formed between the two fluids. If it has been 
heated, there is no reaction. The guaiac -wood 
tincture is said to be more reliable than other tinc- 
tures, and it should not be used when fresh, but 
when at least a few days old and its potency has 
been determined. 

Test for acid. 

It is not practicable to isolate lactic acid from 
milk and measure it as milk-fat is measured. But 
its quantity can be easily determined by slowly 
adding to a known quantity of milk an alkali of 
known strength until all the acid is neutralized. 
The neutralization is indicated by phenolphthalein 
which was previously added to the milk and which 
causes the milk to turn pink as soon as it begins to 
show an alkaline reaction. It is customary (Mann's 
test, Fig. 169) to use deci-normal alkali solution, 
1 cc. of which will neutralize .009 grams of lactic 
lacid. The equipment includes, besides the neutral- 
izer and phenolphthalein, a burette for measuring 
the neutralizer, cup and glass rod. If 20 grams of 
milk is used and it requires 6 cc. of alkali to neu- 
tralize the acid, it is known that the milk contains 
6 x .009 or .054 grams of lactic acid or .27 per 
cent. Alkali tablets (Farrington's), each capable of 
neutralizing .034 grams of acid, are on the market. 
They may be used in solution instead of the deci- 
normal solution. [See page 211.] 

The lactometer. 

As the specific gravity of milk is markedly 
changed when it is adulterated by the addition of 
water or the removal of cream, the lactometer is 
an important instrument to indicate such adultera- 
tions. It is of little use if both kinds of adultera- 
tion have been practiced on the same sample of 
milk, as the increase in weight due to removal of 
cream can be offset by the addition of water, which 
is lighter than skimmed milk. In connection with 
the Babcock test, the lactometer is most valuable, 
and several formulae are in use by which the solids 
not fat or the total solids of milk may be closely 
computed from the specific gravity and the fat test. 

The lactometer is a form of hydrometer adapted 
especially for use in milk. Several styles are in use, 
the Quevenne (Fig. 170) being the most convenient 
because its readings indicate the specific gravity 
without the necessity of more than a simple mental 
calculation. The readings on the stem of the Que- 
venne lactometer are from 15 to 40, and they 
represent the second and third decimal figures of 
the specific gravity, the preceding figures always 
being 1.0; thus, a reading of 29 represents a spe- 
cific gravity of 1.029. This instrument should be used 
in milk at a temperature of 60° Fahr. If the tem- 
perature varies therefrom a correction of the read- 
ing must be made, .1° being added to the reading 



MILK AS A MARKET PRODUCT 



181 



for each degree of temperature of the milk above 
60°, or the opposite if the temperature is below 
60°. Thus, if the lactometer reads 3L at a tem- 
perature of 65°, the corrected reading for 60° would 
be 81.5, and the specific gravity of this milk at 60° 
would be 1.0315. Special tables for making correc- 
tions for different temperatures are published in 
books treating on the subject. By the 
rule given, it is not advisable to attempt 
to correct for a variation of more than 
10° from 60° Fahr. 

Another style of lactometer in com- 
mon use is known as the New York 
Board of Health lactometer. Its gradu- 
ations are from 10 to 120. The instru- 
ment stands at 100 in milk having a 
specific gravity of 1.029, and it would 
stand at 0, if graduated to that point, 
in a fluid having a specific gravity of 1. 
Thus, it has 100° with the same value as 
29° on the Quevenne lactometer, and it 
is a simple matter to compute the equiv- 
alent reading of one lactometer for any 
given reading on the other by the 
formula : 



r 



Q = .29Bof H, crB of H = 



.29 



Computing total solids of milk. 

Babcock and Richmond have proposed 
formulas for computing the total solids 
of milk. One of the best is : 

^ + 1.2P + .14 = total solids. 

L represents the second and third deci- 
mal figures of the specific gravity, or 
the Quevenne reading, and F represents 
the per cent of fat. This formula is 
used largely, and for practical purposes 
agrees closely enough with results of 
gravimetric analysis. 

Production of milk. 

The production of milk involves two 
large questions — the cost of production, 
and the quality of the milk. The first is 
chiefly a matter of the efficiency of the 
cows, and the second is chiefly a matter 
of cleanliness. It is now recognized 
that any healthy cow, in normal condi- 
tion, gives milk that is wholesome. Cows 
of different breeds have their respective 
advantages, but these are not so great 
between the leading dairy breeds as is 
popularly supposed. A matter of larger 
importance to most dairymen, is the 
proportion of good dairy blood in their 
cows. Owing to the lack of this, as well 
as the lack of good care, there are many unprofit- 
able cows. It is often stated that one-fourth or 
one-third of the dairy cows throughout the country 
are kept at a loss — that is, the value of their milk 
is less than the value of their feed. There are no 
official figures to confirm this statement, but there 



Fig. 170. 

Quevenne 

lactometer. 



are a large number of unofficial figures, which are 
reliable, and which do show a very large proportion 
of cows to be "robbers." Some such may be found 
in most herds. When they are given good feed and 
care, and with these advantages still fail to pro- 
duce profits, they should be quickly disposed of. 
In recent years, an important feature of dairy 
development in districts where competition is most 
keen has been the formation of cow -test associ- 
ations, the chief purpose of which is to see that 
the production of each cow, and the value of food 
consumed by each cow in the herds of the members, 
are carefully recorded for the year. With the accur- 
ate information thus provided, it is possible for 
owners to dispose of the poorest cows, and statis- 
tics show that they do this, with the result that 
the average yield per cow and the average profit 
per cow have increased. The most progress along 
these lines has been made in Denmark, where the 
value of cow-test associations is widely recognized. 
The movement is now extending slowjy to Canada 
and the United States. 

But a great many individual dairymen are learn- 
ing the value of individual cow records and they 
are taking advantage of this (best-known) help to 
develop a herd of good milkers. No judge can pick 
out the cows of a herd in the order of their own 
value as milk-producers, as a record will enable 
one to do. 

The only requirements are a spring-balance, a 
sheet ruled for dates and cows' names, a lead-pen- 
cil, and a milk-testing outfit. For practical pur- 
poses, it is sufficient to weigh the milk only one 
morning and evening per week, and from these 
weights compute the total milk-yield. It is suffi- 
cient, also, to make a composite sample test only 
once in two weeks, for computing the fat-yield. In 
many dairies the milk of each cow is weighed 
twice daily. Not a few dairymen have begun by 
making occasional records of their individual cows, 
and have found this so satisfactory that they want 
the records as complete as possible. 

At the present time there is a widespread and 
increasing demand for cleaner milk. This demand 
comes from those who are manufacturing butter 
and cheese, but more especially from milk con- 
sumers in cities and towns, and is shown chiefly by 
the enactment of laws and ordinances demanding 
specific improvements. Some of these improve- 
ments can be put into effect at low, or no extra 
cost on the part of the producer. Others are less 
easy to provide. All of them require more intelli- 
gence than is needed in the production of ordinary 
dirty milk, and for this reason, if no other, the 
adoption of sanitary improvements in dairies should 
be rewarded by some increase of the selling price 
of the milk. 

In the production of sanitary milk, the different 
points to be carefully safeguarded may be grouped 
under five headings : 

(1) The first is the health of the herd. An ani- 
mal that is diseased is likely to give unwholesome 
milk. Her milk may contain germs of disease, 
whether the disease is established in the udder 
tissue or not. Tuberculosis is the principal disease 



182 



MILK AS A MARKET PRODUCT 



that causes trouble. It develops in an insidious 
manner and cannot always be recognized by phys- 
ical examinations. Many progressive cattle-owners 
now accept the scientific teaching that the best 
method to assure against the presence of tubercu- 
losis in a herd is to depend on the tuberculin test 
(page 136). It should be applied by a competent 
veterinarian, at intervals of one or two years, 
and oftener when there is a special reason. An 
animal suffering from tuberculosis should be isola- 
ted from the remainder of the herd, because of the 
danger of this animal to the others, as well as 
because the milk may be infected. Other diseases 
to which cows are subject are more or less common, 
but they are easily recognized. 

For the protection of the health of the herd, it 
is important to provide an abundance of light and 
ventilation in the stable. It has been attempted to 
formulate rules for these essentials, but thus far 
no better rules have been proposed than that the 
cow stable shall have as much daylight as the 
dwelling-house, and it should be so well ventilated 
that the air will at no time be oppressive to one 
who enters from out-of-doors. 

The quality of food and water may have an effect 
on the health of the cows, and thus indirectly on 
the value of the product. Especially must care be 
taken to avoid foods that are not in wholesome 
condition, such as certain by-products of breweries 
and distilleries when these are allowed to remain 
wet and become considerably fermented before use. 
It is necessary, also, to avoid giving any single food 
in excessive quantity. 

(2) The second requirement for the production of 
sanitary milk is cleanliness of the cows and their 
surroundings. This implies a reasonable degree of 
scientific cleanliness in the stable. The stable and 
cows must be cleaned frequently, but not just 
before milking-time, when the air should be kept 
as free as possible from dust. It is well to clip the 




Fig. 171. The ordinary milking pail; the "milk kettle," which makes a good 
small-top milking pail, and same with low and high visors, further to reduce size 
of opening through which dirt may fall. 

long hairs from the udder and surrounding parts. 
A common mistake is to allow the stable air to be 
filled with dust of hay or other dry feeds just before 
milking. The small particles of dust carry enor- 
mous numbers of bacteria, which, falling into milk, 
find satisfactory conditions for rapid growth. 

At the Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station, 
it was found that more than 5,000,000 bacteria fell 
into an open milk can when it was exposed seven 
minutes in a stable in which the air did not contain 
an excessively large quantity of dust. It was shown 
also that a large amount of contamination by bac- 



teria occurs from fine particles of dirt dropping 
from the udder into the pail at the time of milking. 
When the udder and surrounding parts were wiped 
with a damp cloth, contamination from this source 
amounted to less than four per cent of what it was 
when the udder had been carelessly brushed before 
milking. A fly falling into the milk may introduce 
as many as 1,000,000 organisms. A cow's hair 
was found to carry 26,000 bacteria, and a small 
piece of hay that dropped from the cow's body was 
found to carry more than 150,000 bacteria. 

(3) The third requirement refers to the utensils 
and their care. They should be constructed in such 
a way as to make cleaning easy. This demands free- 
dom from sharp corners and cracks, and places 
that can not be reached by a brush. They should 
be sterilized after cleaning, an operation that is 
usually neglected. At the Cornell Agricultural 
Experiment Station, old milk was placed in several 
different pails. These were cleaned with different 
degrees of thoroughness, and clean, fresh milk was 
put into each one. It was found that the pail that 
had been cleaned only by rinsing with cold water 
contaminated the fresh milk to the extent of 130,- 
000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. The pail care- 
lessly washed and rinsed with warm water furnished 
nearly 15,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter to the 
milk it contained; while those carefully washed and 
sterilized furnished only a few hundred, or practi- 
cally no bacteria per cubic centimeter. 

(4) The fourth point requiring attention is the 
health and manner of work on the part of the em- 
ployees. Typhoid fever and other human diseases 
are easily carried by milk, if the organisms get 
into it ; hence the importance of insisting on good 
health of those who handle milk. The milk han- 
dlers also should wear special overall clothes for 
their work. In the highest class dairies, white 
overalls are worn and these are frequently washed 
and often sterilized. Special attention also is given 

to the cleanliness of the milkers' 
hands and to their care to keep the 
hands dry when milking. 

(5) The fifth point is the hand- 
ling of the milk, which means its 
prompt and efficient cooling, and 
its storage at low temperature until 
used. The accepted limit to which 
market milk should be cooled is now 
50° Fahr., and it should be cooled 
more than this when practicable. 
Some cities have rigid require- 
ments on this point. In New York, 
the inspectors may dump into the gutter milk 
having a temperature above 50° Fahr. 

The above items have been arranged in their 
order, with sub-headings and numerical values, on 
a score-card which was proposed by the writer 
before the Syracuse Farmers' Club in February, 
1905. This score-card, with slight modification, 
follows, together with a statement showing what 
constitutes perfect under each heading. Such a 
card has been shown to be of value in city milk- 
inspection work. It points directly to and shows 
the gravity of faults in equipment and methods : 



MILK AS A MARKET PRODUCT 



183 



Date_ 



Department of Dairy Industry, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. 

Score-card for Production of Sanitary Milk. 
Dairy of P. 



I. Health of the 
herd and its 
protection. 



II. Cleanliness of 
the cows and 
their sur- 
roundings. 



III. Construction 
and care of 
the utensils. 



IV. Health of em- 
ployees and 
manner of 
milking. 



V. Handling the 
milk. 



Health and comfort of the cows and their isolation 

when sick or at calving time 

Location, lighting and ventilation of the stable . . 
Food and water 

Total 

Cows 

Stable 

Barnyard and pasture 

Stable air (freedom from dust and odors) . . . . 

Total 

Construction of utensils and their cleaning and 
sterilizing 

Water-supply for cleaning and location and protec- 
tion of its source 

Care of utensils after cleaning 

Use of small-top milking-pail 

Total 

Health of employees 

Clean, over-all milking suits and milking with clean, 
dry hands 

Quiet milking, attention to cleanliness of the udder 
and discarding foremilk 

Total 

Prompt and efficient cooling , 

Handling milk in a sanitary room and holding it at 

a low temperature 

Protection during transportation to market . . . 

Total 

Total of all scores 



Perfect 

45 
35 
20 



100 



30 
20 
20 
30 



100 



40 

25 
20 
15 



100 



45 

30 

25 

100 



35 



35 
30 



100 



500 



Score 



If the total of all scores is 
480 or above 



450 or above- 
400 or above. 
Below 400 _ 



And each division is 

90 or above 

_ 80 or above 

_ 60 or above 



The sanitary conditions are- 



Or any division is below 60 
Scored by 



The sanitary conditions are 
Excellent 
Good 
Medium 
Poor 



BRIEF DESCRIPTION OP WHAT CONSTITUTES PER- 
FECT " UNDER EACH HEADING OF ABOVE SCORE 

I. Health. No evidence of chronic or infectious 
disease or of acute disease in any member of the 
herd on the dairy premises. Freedom from tuber- 
culosis proved by the tuberculin test made within 
one year. 

Comfort. Protection from weather extremes. 
Stall comfortable — at least three feet wide for a 
small cow, or three and one-half for a large cow ; 
length of stalls sufficient for cows to rest easily. 
Sufficient bedding. Frequent outdoor exercise. 

Isolation. Removal of cows to comfortable quar- 
ters outside of the dairy stable, when sick or at 
calving time. 



Location of stable. Elevated, with healthful sur- 
roundings. 

Lighting. As light as a well-lighted living-room, 
and with not less than four square feet for light 
from the east, south or west, for each cow. 

Ventilation. An adequate ventilating system of 
the King or other approved pattern, and, except 
when the stable is being cleaned, no marked stable 
odor. 

Food. Clean, wholesome feeding-stuffs, fed in 
proper quantities. 

Water. Clean, fresh water, free from possibility 
of contamination by disease germs. 

II. Cows. Cleaned by thorough brushing, and, 
when necessary, by washing ; no dust or dirt on 
the hair (stains not considered). The udder thor- 



184 



MILK AS A MARKET PRODUCT 



oughly cleaned by brushing at least thirty minutes 
before milking, and, by washing just before milk- 
ing, leaving the udder damp to cause dust to 
adhere. Hair clipped on udder and flanks. 

Stable. Free from the accumulation of dust and 
dirt except fresh manure in the gutter. Apart from 
horses, pigs, privy, poultry-house, etc. 

Barnyard and pasture. No injurious plants, no 
mudhole or pile of manure, or any decaying sub- 
stance where cows have access. 

Stable air. Free from floating dust and odors. 
Tight partition or floor between the space occupied 
by cows and that used for storage of feed or other 
purpose. Floor dampened before milking. 

III. Construction of utensils. Non-absorbent mate- 
rial, and every part accessible to the brush, and, 
except inside of tubes, visible when being cleaned. 

Cleaning. Thorough cleaning with brush and hot 
water, and rinsing each utensil in clean water. No 
laundry soap. Thorough sterilization in special 
apparatus. 

Water, — from a source known to be pure ; pro- 
tected from contamination from seepage or sur- 
face drainage. 

Care of utensils. Such as to avoid contamination 
by dust as well as by coarser dirt. 

Small-top pail, — with opening not over seven 
inches in diameter, and at least one-third of this 
opening protected by hood. 

IV. Employees, — free from contagious disease 
and not dwelling in nor frequenting any place 
where contagious disease exists. 

Milking suits, — freshly laundered and clean ; 
ample to protect from dust and dirt from the milk- 
er's person or clothing. 

Milker's hands. Hands and teats dry when milk- 
ing. Hands thoroughly cleaned before milking each 
cow. Wash basin and clean towel in stable or milk- 
room. 

Milking quietly, — so as to avoid dislodging dirt 
from cow's hair. At least four streams of foremilk 
from each teat to be discarded into a separate 
vessel. 

V. Cooling. Cooled within fifteen minutes of milk- 
ing, to temperature below 45° Fahr. 

Handling, — in a room used exclusively for hand- 
ling milk, and free from dust, dirt and odors ; and 
the milk after being cooled, always at a tempera- 
ture below 45°. 

Protection during transportation. Protected from 
dirt by tightly closed receptacles, temperature 
always below 45° Fahr. ; not delayed in transit, 
reaching market within twenty-six hours after 
milking. 

Fermentation test. 

The fermentation test is sometimes useful to 
show the result of objectionable bacteria present 
in excessive numbers. A few ounces of milk is 
placed in a clean glass jar and coagulated by ren- 
net. It is held at about 90° Fahr., and the whey 
drained otf. When the curd has shrunken and 
become fairly firm, it is examined. It should be free 
from holes and without bad odor. These faults are 
roughly in proportion to the contamination. 



Pasteurization of milk. 

Pasteurization is the destruction by heat of a 
large proportion of the micro-organisms in milk. 
The principal advantage of this treatment, from the 
commercial standpoint, is the improvement result- 
ing in the keeping-quality of the milk. From the 
standpoint of the hygienist, the advantage of pas- 
teurization is chiefly in the fact that this treatment 
can be depended on to destroy pathogenic organ- 
isms. The practice of pasteurization is rapidly 
increasing in certain places, but it is making no 
progress in others, because of strong opposition. 
Among the arguments against pasteurization is the 
fact that this treatment does not kill all the organ- 
isms in milk but only those which are most easily 
destroyed, and these include the relatively harmless 
lactic-acid forms and do not include some of the 
most harmful putrefactive bacteria which have 
the property of producing resistant spores. Thus, 
after milk has been pasteurized, it may contain 
only a small number of organisms, but all, or prac- 
tically all of these, may be highly objectionable 
types. If, then, the milk is exposed at tempera- 
tures favorable to bacterial growth, or held a con- 
siderable length of time at a fairly low tempera- 
ture, these few bacteria have an opportunity to 
grow without the checking influence of other 
forms. They may increase to such an extent as to 
injure seriously the quality of the milk without 
giving any outward sign of their action, such as 
is occasioned by the growth of lactic-acid bacteria, 
which cause milk to become sour. Milk that is 
heavily loaded with harmful but unobserved organ- 
isms may cause serious disturbance in the digestive 
tract. Another strong objection to pasteurization 
is on the ground that the work is often poorly 
done; and it is true that in some places the so-called 
pasteurization is conducted in a most careless man- 
ner, the pasteurized milk actually containing a 
larger number of bacteria than it contained before 
heating. This is due to careless methods through- 
out : the use of improperly cleaned utensils, the 
use of insufficient heat, delay of cooling and 
insufficient cooling, and unnecessary exposure of 
the milk. It is needless to say that in such cases 
the milk is not desirable for food purposes. 

The chief value of pasteurization is at times 
when there is a general outbreak of a contagious 
disease, when it is not known but that persons 
handling the milk are affected with the disease. In 
all such cases, the milk should be pasteurized, and, 
after treatment, protected with the utmost care to 
assure no further infection. 

Probably the most resistant of the pathogenic 
organisms that are likely to be in milk is the bacil- 
lus of tuberculosis. To kill these germs, milk must 
be heated to 150° for thirty minutes, or 157° for 
fifteen minutes, or 167° for ten minutes, or to 180° 
momentarily. It has lately been shown, however, 
by Smith and Russell, that it is sufficient to heat 
the milk only to 140° for twenty minutes, provided 
it is heated in closed receptacles. For market- 
milk purposes, this lower temperature is preferred 
because it is not accompanied by the cooked flavor, 
which is objectionable to many persons. 



MILK AS A MARKET PRODUCT 



185 




Fig. 172. Milk-cooler. 



An essential part of the work of pasteurization 
consists in cooling the milk. The operation really 
is not completed until the milk has been cooled to a 
point below 50°, at which bacteria grow but slowly. 
There are many different forms of apparatus for 
use in pasteurizing milk. They may be divided into 
two general classes, — those for treating the milk in 
bulk, and those for treating it continuously. (1) The 
former method would be employed in a household 
and is used in a few commercial plants. It consists 
of placing the milk in a receptacle that is sur- 
rounded by hot water or steam. The temperature 
of the milk is raised to the required point, held 
there the required length of time, after which the 
milk is cooled. 
With this method 
one has perfect 
control of all con- 
ditions, and for 
this reason it is 
more thorough 
than the continu- 
ous method. Very 
simple, inexpen- 
sive equipment 
may be used, — 
even ordinary 
kitchen utensils, 
such as a small 
tin pail standing 
in a pan of hot 
water which is 
placed on the stove. It is essential to have an 
accurate thermometer ; the best form is the glass 
floating thermometer which can be easily cleaned. 
(Fig. 173.) 

(2) The continuous pasteurizers perform their 
work continuously and usually are arranged to heat 
the milk and at least partially to cool it, a stream 
of milk flowing through them constantly so long as 
the operation is in progress. There are several 
different styles of these machines. All are con- 
structed so that the milk is separated from the hot 
water or steam by a thin sheet of metal, usually 
copper covered with tin. (Fig. 242.) 

One of the latest improvements in pasteurizers 
is known as the regenerative featjire. With this 
the milk-flow within the machine is so arranged 
that the heated milk which needs to be cooled is 
separated from the cold milk which has just entered 
and needs to be heated, by a thin metal plate 
through which considerable heat readily passes. 
Thus there is a large saving of required heat units 
and an equal saving in the cooling. (Fig. 243.) 

An improvement on continuous pasteurizers, 
which has been exhibited very recently, consists 
of a series of reservoirs arranged as the sectors of 
a circle. These are filled with hot milk, one after 
another, and when the last of the sector spaces is 
being filled the first one, which stands adjacent, is 
being emptied and its milk is on the way to be 
cooled, and this space is ready to be filled again 
by the time it is needed. Thus, all of the milk is 
heated to the desired temperature and held at 
that temperature as long a time as is required for 



all of the sector spaces to be filled, and this is 
under control. 

One of the practical difficulties in connection 
with the pasteurization of milk, and especially the 
pasteurization of cream, lies in the fact 
that the heating of milk or cream causes 
it to become more fluid, or to " lose its 
body." This is due, probably, to the ten- 
dency of fat globules to break away from 
their irregular clusters in which they 
gather in raw milk and distribute them- 
selves evenly throughout the entire mass, 
causing it to flow more easily. Babcock 
and Russell have proposed the use of vis- 
cogen to remedy this difficulty in cream. 
Van Slyke's recipe for this substance is, 
— " To one pound of water add one pound 
of any pure cane-sugar and dissolve. Then 
add an excess of fresh quicklime in small 
chunks about the size of ordinary mar- 
bles ; stir occasionally until the action is 
completed. Let the sediment settle and 
pour off the clear liquid. Keep in tightly- 
stoppered bottles." This should be added 
to pasteurized cream at the rate of one 
part of solution to 100 or 150 of cream. 

Market milk. 

Milk contains all the necessary food 
constituents. It is palatable, digestible, 
nutritious, and cheap. The market milk 
industry, which includes the preparation, 
transportation, and sale of milk for use in 
the household, has been rapidly developed 
with the increasing size of cities and 
towns. The territory from which market 
milk is drawn may be divided into three 
districts or zones : (1) the city itself, 
where dairies are often found, and where 
much of the poorest milk is produced. 
Perhaps the chief reason for the poor 
quality of milk produced in the city is 
that the cows do not have clean, roomy 
pastures, and they are usually kept in 
cramped quarters ; but another reason of 
importance is that the food given the 
cows in city dairies is often of a character 
that should not be used and can not profita- 
bly be transported to the country. (2) The jjj| 173- 
second zone is a band of territory about floating 
ten miles wide, surrounding the city, and thermom- 
from which milk is brought in the wagons dairy use. 
of the producers. (3) The third district is 
all the territory beyond. In the case of large cities, 
most of the milk comes from this last district. 
Trains carrying milk originate about four hundred 
miles from New York City. It is safe to say that the 
milk from the third district runs as good in quality 
as that from any other. The delay because of long 
hauls requires extra care in cooling and handling. 
As a rule, milk shipped by railroads reaches the 
cities in time for it to be delivered when twenty- 
four or thirty-six hours old. 

Most of the large shippers to New York, and 
some other cities, now have stations along the rail- 



186 



MILK AS A MARKET PRODUCT 



roads where milk is received and prepared for ship- 
ment. For New York, these used to include bot- 
tling facilities, but the railroad rates having been 
raised on bottled milk, it has had the effect of bring- 
ing about the shipment of milk in cans and bottling 
in the city. At present the ruling rates for trans- 
portation of milk on railrords running into New 
York City are as follows : 

From stations within 40 miles of New York City, 

23 cents per 40-quart can. 
From stations within the next 60 miles, 26 

cents per 40-quart can. 
From stations within the next 90 miles, 29 

cents per 40-quart can. 
Beyond this distance, 32 cents per 40-quart can, 

Milk in bottles is usually charged 40 per cent above 
these rates. One car carries 200 to 325 cans. 
About 1,000,000 cans are carried each month. 

Prices paid to farmers for market milk vary from 
about two to three cents per quart in the summer, 
and from about three to four cents in the winter 
months. The retail price in cities is generally eight 
cents per quart, but in the past year there has been 
a tendency to increase, so that the regular price in 
some cities is now nine cents. Milk is often sold at 
lower rates at stores, and this is possible because 
of the saving of heavy delivery charges. In this 
business, as in others, there are usually a few firms 
that cut under the regular price and are more or 
less uncertain in the quality of their product, as 
well as their reliability. The retail price in towns 
is generally five to seven cents per quart. 

The prices paid to producers for their milk are 
announced in advance by some concerns which have 
a definite contract with their producers and agree 
to pay stated prices each month for a period of six 
months after the date of the contract. These agree- 
ments also govern the manner in which milk shall 
be produced and handled. A very large part of the 
milk, however, is bought on the basis of prices 
which are announced by an organization composed 
largely of dealers, and which changes the price 
from time to time, as conditions of supply and 
demand seem to require. As a general rule, the 
relation between this price for one quart of milk 
and the value of one pound of butter, is about as 
1 is to 8.2. Occasionally the price of butter is ten 
times as high as the price for one quart of milk, 
and on the other hand, in the fall of the year, when 
milk for tie city is scarce, the price of butter may 
be only about seven times the price of milk. 

Most states have general laws relating to foods, 
and some of them have special laws relating to 
milk. Most cities have special milk ordinances. 
These commonly require at least 3 per cent of fat 
in the milk and at least 12 per cent total solids. 
The remaining requirements of the laws, as a rule, 
are indefinitely stated and rarely enforced. It 
must be said, however, that within the last few 
years a few cities have adopted rigid regulations 
which refer to the manner of producing and hand- 
ling milk, and are enforcing these regulations to a 
limited degree. This movement in the interest of 
more sanitary milk is in direct accord with the 
movement for more sanitary conditions generally. 



Standard milk. 

Standard milk is that conforming to the legal 
requirements. 

Standarized milk. 

Standardized milk is milk which has been changed 
in its composition to cause it to contain a required 
amount of fat. This is usually done by adding 
cream or skimmed milk. A convenient rule for 
determining the amount of ingredients to make a 
mixture testing a certain per cent of fat, is as 
follows, supposing cream and milk are to be used 
(in most states it is unlawful to add skimmed milk) : 

Draw a rectangle, placing the per cent of fat in 
the cream at the upper left-hand corner, and the 
per cent of fat of the milk at the lower left-hand 
corner. Place the desired per cent of fat in the 
center. The difference between the numbers in the 
center and at the lower left-hand corner should be 
written at the upper right-hand corner, and the 
difference between the numbers in the center and 
at the upper left-hand corner should be written at 
the lower right-hand corner. These right-hand 
numbers represent the proportions of the sub- 
stances represented at the corresponding left-hand 
corners which must be mixed to produce a milk 
testing the desired amount of fat. Thus : 

To raise the fat test of a 3.8 per cent milk to 
4 per cent by the use of cream testing 25 per cent, 
by completing the figure as explained, it will be 
seen that for every twenty-one pounds of 3.8 per 
cent milk there should be used .2 of one pound of 
25 per cent cream. 



25 



3.8 



4 per cent 



.2 



J 21 



Certified milk. 

This term is applied to milk that is produced by 
special agreement under certain strict regulations 
as prescribed by a milk commission, which certifies 
to the high quality of the product. Usually the com- 
mission is composed largely or entirely, of medical 
men and they depend on four experts, — a veterin- 
arian, chemist, bacteriologist and physician. This 
milk is used principally for infant feeding. It 
commonly retails for ten to eighteen cents per 
quart. 

Modified milk. 

This term refers to cow's milk which has been 
so changed in its composition as to meet the re- 
quirements of young babies. It is used very largely 
for feeding infants whose mothers are unable to 
nurse them. Modified milk laboratories are estab- 
lished in some of the larger cities, and there phy- 
sicians send prescriptions for milk -feeding, the 
same as they would send prescriptions for medi- 
cines to a drug store. Modification is practiced 
extensively, also, in homes, but with less accurate 
results. Modifying is done with the aid of tables 






BACTERIA OF MILK 



187 



or set rules which show the amounts of cream, 
skimmed milk, sugar solution, distilled water and 
lime-water necessary for mixtures of different 
composition. 

Milk beverages. 

These include Kumyss, Kephir, Zoolak and Youg- 
hort, which are now made from cow's milk. All are 
the products of fermentation generally produced by 
yeasts and bacteria. In some cases sugar is added 
and a small amount of alcohol is formed. The popu- 
larity of these beverages seems to be increasing 
slowly. This is partly due to statements of some 
European medical authorities that they are health- 
ful and may be the means of prolonging life. 

Literature. 

Henry D. Richmond, Dairy Chemistry, Charles 
Griffin & Co., London (1899); Harry Snyder, Dairy 
Chemistry, The Macmillan Company, New York 
(1906); Farrington & Woll, Testing Milk and Its 
Products, Mendota Book Company, Madison, Wis. 
(1907); Lucius L. Van Slyke, Modern Methods of 
Testing Milk and Milk Products, Orange Judd 
Company, New York (1906); H. L. Russell, Out- 
lines of Dairy Bacteriology, Madison, Wis. (1902); 
Jensen, Essentials of Milk Hygiene, translated and 
amplified by Leonard Pearson, J. B. Lippincott 
Company, Philadelphia (1907); H. W. Conn, Prac- 
tical Dairy Bacteriology, Orange Judd Company, 
New York (1907). 



BACTERIA OF MILK 

By W. A. Stocking, Jr. 

The relation existing between bacteria and the 
handling of all milk products is an intimate one ; 
in fact, nearly all of the processes of handling milk 
and cheese, and to a large degree of butter also, 
are based on the action or the control of bacteria. 
The nature of milk makes it preeminently an ideal 
habitat for most forms of bacteria, and because of 
the almost universal occurrence of these minute 
organisms, milk produced and handled under ordi- 
nary conditions becomes planted with large numbers 
of them. 

Nature of bacteria. (Fig. 174). 

Bacteria belong to that great group of the 
lower plants known as fungi. Each individual 
plant consists of a single cell filled with proto- 
plasm. They are microscopic in size, and without 
any of the green color common in the higher plants. 
In form they are the simplest known plants, and 
are therefore classified at the bottom of the scale 
of plant life. [See p. 441, Vol. I.] 

Because of the fact that these minute plants 
contain no chlorophyl, they are not able to feed on 
the mineral substances on which the higher green 
plants grow, but must have more highly organ- 
ized substances, thriving best on nitrogenous 
organic compounds, as proteids and albumen, and 
on starches an 1 sugars. 

Like the higher plants, they can absorb their 



nourishment only in solutions, and even when liv- 
ing on solid substances their food must be made 
soluble before it can be taken into the bacterial 
cells. Bacteria need a liberal amount of moisture 
in order to grow rapidly. Most species thrive best 
in liquids, and, if gradually deprived of moisture, 
they grow more and more slowly, and finally cease 
growing altogether when the material in which 
they are living becomes moderately dry. 

Heat is also essential to the growth of bacteria. 
Different species vary considerably as to the tem- 
perature at which they will make their maximum 
growth, but most of the common dairy bacteria 
develop rapidly at temperatures between 50° and 
100° Fahr. The optimum temperature for the 
growth of most of the common species lies between 
70° and 95° Fahr. 

Any one familiar with the composition of milk 
will at once see that it supplies all the conditions 
necessary for rapid bacterial growth. Not only 
does milk contain all the necessary materials for 
nutrition, but these are in such form that they are 
easily appropriated by the bacteria. The albumen, 
being in solution, is easily taken up by the cells; 
the milk-sugar is also an excellent food, and, while 
the casein cannot be used directly, it is made use of 
by those organisms which produce enzymes, whose 
action renders the casein soluble. 

How bacteria get into milk. 

When milk is secreted in the glands of a healthy 
udder, it contains no bacteria. It does not, how- 
ever, remain long in this sterile condition. Nor- 
mally, the cavities and milk ducts in the udder 
contain a more or less abundant bacterial flora. 
These organisms become disseminated through the 
milk as soon as it is elaborated, and as a result of 
this condition milk normally contains greater or 
less numbers of bacteria when it is drawn from the 
cow. It is, however, after leaving the cow that it 
receives its greatest bacterial contamination. Even 
if much care is taken in keeping the stable free 
from dust, and the cows clean, and the milkers 



o?m 



o 



m 



m 



Q9( 



-J) m 






%' 




^S 



Fie. 174. Some common dairy bacteria. 1, The common cause 
of sour milk. Bacterium lactis acidi; 2, a gas-forming lactic 
bacterium, B. lactis aerogenes; 3, a coccus found in milk: 
4, B. lactis viscosus, the cause of ropy milk; 5, a putrefac- 
tive, spore-forming bacillus. 

exercise considerable care, it is impossible to pre- 
vent a certain number of organisms falling into 
the milk at the time of milking. By the exercise 
of extreme precaution, the number of bacteria thus 
getting into the milk may be reduced to a compar- 



188 



BACTERIA OF MILK 



atively small number, but when little care is exer- 
cised, and uncleanly conditions exist, the milk 
commonly becomes heavily planted with a variety 
of species of bacteria. Considerable numbers may 
also get into the milk from the dairy utensils if 
they have not been properly cleansed and sterilized. 
Exposure at any point between its production 
and consumption may very materially increase 
the bacterial contamination of milk. 

It may be seen from the above statements that 
milk may become contaminated with organisms 
normally living in the udder at body temperature ; 
from the exterior of the cow ; from the stable 
atmosphere ; from the stable filth, either directly 
or indirectly, having passed first into the atmos- 
phere of the stable, and thus falling into the pail ; 
from the hands or clothing of the milker ; or from 
the water that is used for the washing of the 
dairy utensils. As a result of the large number 
of sources from which these minute organisms get 
into the milk, we commonly find a considerable 
variety of species, the types and numbers depend- 
ing on the conditions under which the milk was 
produced. 

With the exception of the putrefactive organisms 
which get into the milk from the stable, these 
various species are not known to be harmful, while 
some are beneficial in important dairy operations. 
If, however, the cow is suffering from certain 
forms of disease, or a person who is affected with, 
or is closely associated with human diseases, such 
as tuberculosis, typhoid fever, scarlet fever, han- 
dles the milk, or if the dairy utensils are washed 
with water which has been contaminated with the 
organisms of disease, the milk may contain the 
germs of that specific disease, and be a source of 
danger to those who consume it. 

Normal development of bacteria in milk. 

When milk first leaves the cow, as has already 
been said, it commonly contains a considerable 
variety of species of bacteria. These will normally 
include a small number of acid-producing organisms, 
some of which may form gas. There may also be 
a certain number of putrefactive bacteria, together 
with a variety of miscellaneous species. If such a 
sample of milk is taken, and the bacterial flora 
studied at intervals of a few hours, it will be found 
that the total number of organisms decreases dur- 
ing the first few hours after the milk has been 
drawn from the cow. This decrease is due to the 
fact that some of the miscellaneous species that 
get into the milk do not find the conditions there 
suitable for their development, and, therefore, die 
out during the first few hours. It will be noticed, 
also, that, while the total number of organisms is 
decreasing, certain species which existed in very 
small numbers at the outset are increasing con- 
stantly from the very start. After a time, the total 
number of organisms in the milk begins to increase 
more or less rapidly, depending on the temperature 
at which the milk is kept. At this point, it will be 
found that the increase in numbers is due to the 
rapid development of the acid organisms. Some of 
the miscellaneous species may also be increasing 



along with the acid-producing species, while others 
may still be decreasing in numbers. A little later 
it will be found that the acidity of the milk has 
begun to increase, and continues to increase until 
the milk becomes sour and curdles. Subsequent 
examinations will reveal the fact that the rapid 
increase of bacteria, commonly up in the millions 
per cubic centimeter, is due almost entirely to the 
rapid development of the acid-producing organisms, 
which gain not only in actual numbers, but also in 
percentage as compared with the other species 
present in the milk. This rapid development of the 



-">y-~v -i = 



1 



3* 









m 



-j- 



to-' 



w \y w w v_y W 

Fig. 175. To iUustrate the character of growth of some com- 
mon dairy bacteria in gelatin stab cultures. 

acid organisms continues until the milk becomes 
sour and curdles, when it is found that they consti- 
tute at least 99 per cent of all the organisms present. 
Briefly stated, therefore, the normal development 
of bacteria in milk is as follows : the milk contains 
at the outset a variety of different species of 
bacteria, with the acid - producing ones very much 
in the minority. Some of the miscellaneous species, 
not finding the milk suitable for their growth, 
gradually die out. The acid organisms, which do 
find the milk specially suited to their require- 
ments, develop rapidly from the first, and by the 
changing of the milk-sugar into lactic acid, gradu- 
ally prevent the growth of other species, and con- 
stitute at least 99 per cent of all the bacteria at 
the time the milk curdles. 

Abnormal development of bacteria in milk. 

Under conditions favorable for them, other types 
of bacteria may get into the milk in such numbers 
that they will produce abnormal conditions in it. 
Sometimes gas-producing bacteria develop to such 
an extent that they cause very serious troubles, 
especially in connection with the manufacture of 
cheese. Certain bacteria produce a bitter taste in 
milk and cream, often causing considerable trouble, 
especially in cream used for direct consumption. 
Sometimes milk becomes slimy when it is a few 
hours old. This condition is caused by the develop- 
ment of certain species of bacteria, and such milk 
is known as "ropy" or "stringy" milk. Occasion- 



BACTERIA OF MILK 



189 



ally a sample may develop a soapy condition, and a 
number of other abnormal conditions may be pro- 
duced by the development of different species of 
organisms. 

The problems of those who handle milk, or its 
products, are to prevent the entrance of the 
undesirable organisms into the milk, or, hav- 
ing once gained entrance, so to control their 
development that they will not produce unde- 
sirable results. To prevent the entrance of 
bacteria into milk, much care and cleanliness 
must be exercised from the time the milk 
leaves the cow until it is consumed, but hav- 
ing once gained access to the milk, their de- 
velopment can be controlled either by keep- 
ing the milk constantly at cold temperatures, 
■or by raising it to a high temperature for a 
short period and then cooling and holding at 
a low temperature. This latter process is 
known as pasteurization. [See page 184.] 

Methods of studying bacteria. (Figs. 175- 
178.) 

It frequently becomes necessary to study the dif- 
ferent species of bacteria that may exist in any 
given sample of milk. For this purpose, what is 
known as the "plating" method is commonly used. 
This method consists in diluting a given quantity 
of milk with sterile water, and then placing a given 
amount of this milk dilution in materials suitable 
for the development of the bacteria in a flat glass 
dish. For this purpose bouillon is commonly used, 
to which has been added a sufficient amount of 
gelatin, or similar material, to cause it to solidify 
when cool. This material can then be heated suf- 
ficiently to make it liquefy, when the milk dilution 
containing the bacteria is added and thoroughly 
mixed. On cooling, the bacteria that were in the 
milk are fixed in definite positions in the plate. 
These plates are then allowed to stand for a time, 
during which the bacteria develop, producing small 
spots or colonies where each organism was located 
at the time the plate was made. By counting these 
colonies and multiplying by the dilution used, the 
number of bacteria in a given quantity of the origi- 
nal sample of milk can easily be determined. 

This is illustrated by the following example : 
The sample of milk to be tested is thoroughly 



mixed, and one cubic centimeter drawn out by 
means of a sterile pipette, and placed in a 
bottle containing thirty -nine cubic centimeters 
of sterile water. This gives one part of milk in 
forty parts of the dilution. After thoroughly mix- 





Fig. 177. Bacterial growth from milk kept for twelve hours at 
different temperatures,— at 70° F. on the left, at 50° on the 
right. 

ing by shaking, one cubic centimeter of this dilu- 
tion is removed with a clean sterile pipette, and 
placed in another bottle containing ninety-nine 
cubic centimeters of sterile water, giving a dilution 
of one part of milk in four thousand parts of the 
dilution. After thoroughly mixing, one cubic cen- 
timeter of this second dilution is placed in each of 
two test-tubes containing culture media, which are 
then thoroughly mixed and poured out into culture 
dishes Nos. 1 and 2, and allowed to solidify. Now 
another cubic centimeter from the first dilution 
bottle is added to the second to make a dilution of 
practically one part of milk in two thousand parts 
of the dilution, and plates Nos. 3 and 4 made as 
before. Similarly, plates Nos. 5 and 6 are made 
from a dilution having one part of milk in one 
thousand. After the bacteria have developed suf- 
ficiently, the number of colonies in each plate is 
counted, and the average obtained as follows : 

No. of plate .12 3 4 5 6 

Dilution . . . 4,000 4,000 2,000 2,000 1,000 1,000 
No. of colonies 44 46 89 90 180 182 

44 X 4,000=176,000 

46 X 4,000=184,000 

89 X 2,000=178,000 

90 X 2,000=180,000 
180 X 1,000=180,000 
182 X 1,000=182,000 



Fig. 176. Bacterial growth from milk produced and handled under 
different conditions of cleanliness. Both samples are the same 



1,080,000-^6=180,000 
Average number of bacteria per ce. of milk, 
180,000. 

This shows that the milk contained 180,- 
000 bacteria per cubic centimeter at the 
time the test was made. 

Sometimes a different method, known as 
the "centrifugal" method (Fig. 178), is used 
for determining the bacteria in milk. This 
consists in placing a given amount of milk 
in a tube and whirling it violently with 
sufficient force to throw the bacteria to the 
bottom of the tube. The sediment thus 



190 



MANUFACTURE OF CONDENSED MILK 



obtained is then transferred to a slide, stained, and 
studied under the microscope, where the individual 
bacteria can be seen. 

Leucocytes in milk. 

The microscopic examination of milk by the cen- 
trifugal method has revealed the fact that milk 




Fig. 178. Centrifuge and microscope for the study of bacteria. 

frequently contains varying numbers of leucocytes. 
This has resulted in the adoption by some city 
boards of health of a numerical standard for the 
leucocyte content of milk, and the condemning of 
milk that contains leucocytes in excess of the 
standard. Wherever inflammation and pus exist, 
leucocytes, or white blood corpuscles, are present 
in very large numbers, and it has been found in 
certain cases that milk coming from diseased udders 
shows a large leucocyte content. For this reason a 
large number of leucocytes in any given sample of 
milk is regarded as indicating inflammation in the 
udder producing it. On the other hand, recent 
investigations indicate that normal milk contains a 
certain cellular content as a result of the normal 
processes of milk elaboration. With the present 
methods of examination, it is difficult to distinguish 
these normal cells from true leucocytes. It is also 
a question as to where to draw the line between a 
normal and an abnormal number of leucocytes in 
milk. Until further research throws more light on 
the real significance of the cellular content of milk, 
and better methods for their study have been 
worked out, this method of determining the whole- 
someness of milk cannot be regarded as entirely 
satisfactory. 

Literature. 

Swithenbank and Newman, Bacteriology of Milk ; 
H. W. Conn, Bacteria in Milk and Its Products : H. 
L. Russell, Outlines of Dairy Bacteriology ; W. A. 
Stocking, Jr., Germicidal Property of Milk, Report, 
Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station (1904) ; 
Studies of Market Milk, Report of Storrs Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station (1905) ; H. W. Conn, 
Practical Dairy Bacteriology; Ed. von Freudenreich, 
Dairy Bacteriology ; A. R. Ward, The Invasion of 
the Udder by Bacteria, Bulletin No. 178, Cornell 



University Agricultural Experiment Station ; A. R. 
Ward, Ropiness in Milk and Cream, Bulletins Nos. 
165 and 195, Cornell University Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station ; Preventing Contamination of 
Milk, Bulletin No. 91, Illinois Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, and Bulletin No. 42, Storrs Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station ; V. A. Moore, Bacteria in 
Milk, New York Department of Agriculture 
(1902); Classification of Dairy Bacteria, Report 
of Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station 
(1906) ; Russell and Hoffmann, Leucocyte Stand- 
ards and the Leucocyte Content of Milk from 
Apparently Healthy Cows, The Journal of Infec- 
tious Diseases (1907). 



MANUFACTURE OF CONDENSED MILK 

By O. F. Hunziker 

Condensed milk is milk from which a consid- 
erable part of the water has been evaporated. 
It is primarily of two kinds, — sweetened and 
unsweetened. 

Sweetened condensed milk is preserved with 
cane-sugar, which is added to the milk before 
evaporation. If manufactured properly, it will 
keep for years, but it is best when fresh. It is 
put on the market in hermetically sealed tin cans 
and in barrels. The cans vary in capacity from 
eight ounces to twenty ounces ; the fourteen-, fif- 
teen- and sixteen-ounce cans are the most popular. 
These are shipped in cases holding forty-eight cans 
and sell for three to six dollars per case, according 
to size of cans, season of the year and reputation of 
brand. The sweetened condensed milk in barrels is 
sold to bakeries and candy and caramel factories 
at four to seven cents per pound, the price being 
governed by the percentage of fat and the local 
market conditions. 

Unsweetened condensed milk, sold under the 
names " evaporated milk " or "evaporated cream," is 
preserved by sterilization with steam under pres- 
sure. If placed in hermetically sealed cans, it keeps 
indefinitely. It reaches the market in hermetically 
sealed tin cans, holding eight ounces to one gallon, 
and sells for two to four and one-half dollars per 
case. Unsweetened condensed milk, sold as " plain 
condensed bulk milk," is not sterile and will keep 
for six to ten days only. It is sold partly to the 
direct consumer in ordinary milk bottles, and 
partly in large (forty - quart) milk cans to ice- 
cream manufacturers. The price varies from twenty- 
five to sixty-five cents per gallon, according to the 
percentage of fat it contains. 

The quality of the fresh milk is the first and all- 
important requisite in the manufacture of a market- 
able and wholesome condensed milk of any kind. 

History and development of the industry. 

In direct contrast to the slow and gradual evolu- 
tion of the ancient branches of dairying, stands 
the more modern innovation and rapid development 
of the condensed-milk industry. This branch of 
dairy manufacture was not developed on the 
farm, nor can its origin be traced far back, and 






MANUFACTURE OF CONDENSED MILK 



191 



yet, within the last few decades it has assumed 
such proportions that today it occupies a prominent 
place among the leading branches of dairying. 

The condensed-milk industry was introduced at 
the same time as the factory system of butter- and 
cheese-making, though for many years before the 
invention of a successful process of condensing 
milk some method had been sought for preserving 
it. The American, Gail Borden, the inventor of 
the manufacture of condensed milk and the father 
of the condensed-milk industry, is said to have 
experimented for some ten years, when he finally 
decided that a semi-liquid state was the best form of 
milk preservation. He patented his process in 1856, 
and in the same year erected the first condensed-milk 
factory in the world in the town of Wolcottville, 
Connecticut. The beginning was small, the process 
crude, and the product imperfect, and it was not 
until the strenuous years of the Civil war that the 
value and usefulness of condensed milk as a com- 
modity became fully recognized. During the Civil 
war there was a great demand for this product, 
and from that time on, the industry increased 



/ 






a 





Fig. 179. Vacuum-pan. 





Fig. 180. The vacuum-pan, condenser and accessories. I. 
Jacket— a. steam outlet of large coil; 6, steam outlet of 
small coil; c, steam outlet of jacket; d, outlet of finished 
condensed milk: e, steam inlet of jacket. II. Body— f, 
milk inlet; g, steam inlet of large coil; h, steam inlet of 
small coil. III. Dome— j, manhole cover with eyeglass; h, 
thermometer; I, vacuum gauge; m, valve for water inlet 
of condenser; n. hlow-down valve; o, eyeglasses; p, elec- 
tric lights. IV. Condenser — r, water-pipe leading to spray- 
pipe; s, spray-pipe; (, water outlet connecting vacuum- 
pump. V. Accessories — u, steam supply and gauges for 
jacket and coils; v, milk supply; w, water; x, steam. 



with enormous rapid- 
ity. In the sixties the 
Anglo-Swiss Condensed 
Milk Company was or- 
ganized in Switzerland, 
and the first factory 
of that company was 
built and operated un- 
der the direction of an 
American, George H. 
Page, in 1867. Both in 
this country and on 
the continent the con- 
densed-milk industry 
grew rapidly. Every 
succeeding decade marked the organization of new 
companies and the erection of new factories, until 
today there are milk-condensing factories in nearly 
every civilized country within the dairy belt. 

According to the United States Census Report of 
1905, there were in that year eighty-one condensed- 
milk factories in the United States, distributed 
over seventeen states, and receiving 712,000,000 
pounds of fresh milk. The manufactured product 
amounted, in the aggregate, to 198,000,000 
pounds of sweetened condensed milk, and 
105,000,000 pounds of unsweetened con- 
densed milk, at a total value of $20,060,000. 
The states leading in condensed-milk pro- 
duction are New York and Illi- 
U nois, with a total output of 
— v^ 196,000,000 pounds, or nearly 
two-thirds of the entire out- 
~J7 put of condensed milk in this country. 

Sweetened condensed milk. 

In the manufacture of sweetened con- 
densed milk, 2.75 to 3 parts of fresh milk 
are reduced to 1 part of condensed milk. The 
fresh milk is heated to a temperature of 
180° to 195° Fahr. To the hot milk, 12 to 18 
per cent (usually 16 per cent) of the best re- 
fined granulated cane-sugar is added. When 
this is thoroughly dissolved, the milk is drawn 
into the vacuum-pan, where the actual condensing 
takes place. The vacuum-pan is a retort (Fig. 179), 
equipped with steam jacket and steam coils. The 
retort leads into the condenser, where the hot 
vapors are condensed by means of a powerful spray 
of cold water, issuing from a perforated pipe. The 
condenser is connected with the vacuum-pump and 
the cold-water tank. (Fig. 180.) The milk is con- 
densed under reduced pressure, which causes it to 
boil violently at a comparatively low temperature. 
The temperature in the vacuum-pan is regulated 
by the supply of steam to the jacket and coils, by 
the amount and temperature of the water spray in 
the condenser and by the capacity of the vacuum- 
pump. Although these conditions vary in the differ- 



192 



MANUFACTURE OF CONDENSED MILK 



ent factories, experience has shown that about 
fifteen to twenty-five pounds of steam pressure in 
jacket and coils, a vacuum of twenty-five inches 
and a temperature in the retort of 130° Fahr., give 
the most satisfactory results. This ratio of steam 
pressure, temperature and vacuum make it possible 
| to condense a batch of 15,000 pounds, of milk in 
about two and one-half hours. Some processors do 
not add the cane-sugar until the condensation has 
been nearly completed. The milk is then swelled 
by super-heating with live steam, after which the 
sugar solution is added and the process finished. 

Sweetened condensed milk, made from whole 
milk, and under normal conditions, has a specific 
gravity of 1.28 to 1.29. When the boiling milk in 
the pan approaches the desired degree of conden- 
sation, it is "struck." This term is applied to samp- 
ling and testing the sample for density. 

The degree of condensation may be determined 
by various methods, such as weighing a definite 
quantity of the condensed milk on a sensitive scale, 
by the use of a resistance apparatus, or by means 
of a specially constructed hydrometer. Mechanical 
devices, such as the above, can be depended on when 
all the the conditions influencing the specific grav- 
ity of the liquid to be tested are definitely known, 
and when there is plenty of time for their manipu- 
lation. When the boiling milk in the retort is 
approaching the proper density, however, quick 
action is essential. One minute over- or under- 
condensing may cause the milk to be either too 
thick or too thin for the market and may neces- 
sitate the "re-running" of the entire batch with 
a new " run " of milk. Therefore, these instruments 
are practically worthless at the time they are most 
needed. There is not time carefully to measure and 
weigh out a sample of sweetened condensed milk, 
nor can the processor wait till the hydrometer has 
found its equilibrium in as viscous a fluid as sweet- 
ened condensed milk. Again, the density or specific 
gravity of the finished product depends on many 
and fluctuating conditions, such as the amount of 
heat applied towards the end of the process, the 
temperature of the sample drawn, and the per cent 



cooling vat. (Fig. 181.) This vat is equipped with a 
series of revolving cog-wheels, on which the cans 
stand. Stationary paddles or stirrers, which scrape 
the sides of the revolving cans, are inserted. The 
cooling should be done slowly and the milk must be 




Fig. 181. Cooling vat. 

of fat and of sugar that the condensed milk con- 
tains. For these reasons it is not difficult to under- 
stand why arbitrary mechanical instruments are 
not so satisfactory as the experienced eye and 
good judgment of the processor. 

The finished condensed milk is drawn from the 
racuum-pan into 40-quart cans, which are set in a 




Fig. 182. The Stickney filler. 

stirred constantly and thoroughly. Rapid and 
uneven chilling will cause the sugar in the milk to 
re-crystallize and thus make the product gritty or 
sandy. The sugar thus precipitated has a tendency 
to settle to the bottom after the condensed milk 
has been poured into tin cans and render it unfit 
for sale. (Fig. 182.) 

The cooled condensed milk is poured either into 
barrels and sold in bulk, or into tin cans, hermeti- 
cally sealed, labeled and sold in cases holding forty- 
eight cans. 

Unsweetened condensed milk. 

In the preparation of unsweetened condensed 
milk the fresh milk is condensed at the ratio of 
about 2.5 parts of fresh milk to one part of con- 
densed milk. The process of heating and condens- 
ing is identical with that of sweetened condensed 
milk, but no sugar is added. When the milk 
has reached the proper density, specific gravity 
1.06 to 1.08, which, in this case, can easily be 
determined by means of the hydrometer, the con- 
densed milk is cooled and filled into tin cans, holding 
eight ounces to one gallon. These cans are then 
hermetically sealed. They are then put into iron 
trays and these are locked in the revolving frame- 
work of a sterilizer (Fig. 183), where they are sub- 
jected to a high temperature under steam pressure. 
In order to hasten the heating and to prevent the 
contents of the cans burning on the tin, they are 
kept constantly in motion. The heat applied varies 



MANUFACTURE OF CONDENSED MILK 



193 



in different factories from 228° Fahr. to 236° Fahr., 
and the time of exposure from five to fifteen minutes. 
This sterilization has a threefold purpose, namely, to 
destroy all germ life, to give the contents of the cans 
a creamy texture and color, and so to change the 
physical condition of the condensed milk as to pre- 
vent the fat separating in transportation and in 
storage. 

When the cans are taken from the sterilizer the 
condensed milk has the consistency of jelly or cus- 
tard. In this condition it would not be salable. 
The next step, therefore, is to provide some means 
to break up this coagulum into a uniform, homo- 
geneous mass resembling cream. For this purpose 
the cans are placed in the " shaker," a heavy iron 
box moving back and forth on an eccentric. Their 
exposure, for one minute, to violent agitation in 
the shaker brings about the desired results. From 
here the cans are transferred to the incubator 
room where they are allowed to remain for ten to 
thirty days, at a temperature of about 90° Fahr. 
This incubation is not an essential part of the 
process, but is merely a precautionary measure for 
the purpose of detecting leaky cans and those whose 
contents are not absolutely sterile, thus preventing 
defective milk leaving the factory. At the con- 
clusion of this incubation the cans are labeled, 
packed in cases and shipped to their destination. 

Plain condensed bulk milk. 

This is an unsweetend, condensed milk which is 
not subjected to the sterilizing process and, there- 
fore, is not sterile. It is generally more concen- 
trated than the canned goods, three to five parts 
of fresh milk being condensed into one part of con- 
densed milk. When the milk has reached its proper 
degree of concentration, the vacuum is broken and 
live steam is passed into the contents of the 
vacuum-pan for the purpose of swelling the milk. 
When the " superheating " has produced the proper 
"liver" (coagulum), the steam is turned off, the 
vacuum-pump started again and the process of con- 




Fig. 183. The Baizley sterilizer. 

densing completed. The finished product is cooled 
and sold either in milk or cream bottles for direct 
consumption, or in forty-quart cans, to ice-cream 
establishments. 

Within recent years, a new process of manufac- 
turing plain condensed bulk milk and milk-powders 
has been introduced and patented as the " Campbell 

C 13 



Patent." In this process, the milk is condensed by 
forcing a current of hot air through it until the 
product has reached the desired degree of conden- 
sation. The points in its favor are that the initial 
cost of the necessary machinery is very small, an 
ordinary jacketed kettle taking the place of the 
expensive machinery required when milk is con- 
densed under reduced pressure ; and the milk is 
not heated to temperatures high enough to injure 
its digestibility. This process has so far been 
confined to the manufacture of unsweetened con- 
densed bulk milk and milk -powders. [See page 
194.] 

Composition of condensed milk. 

The composition of condensed milk depends on 
such factors as the composition of the fresh milk 
from which it is made, the degree of condensation 
and the percentage of cane-sugar added. As all of 
these factors vary in milk from different factories, 
and in milk from the same factory during different 
seasons of the year, no hard and fast rule can be 
given. The following figures merely represent the 
average composition of sweetened and unsweetened 
condensed milk as obtained from the results of a 
large number of analyses : 

Sweetened Condensed Mtt.k Per cent 

Water 26.5 

Fat 9.0 

Proteida 8.5 

Milk-sugar 13.3 

Ash 1.8 

Cane-sugar 40.9 

100.0 
Unsweetened Condensed Milk 

Water 71.0 

Fat 8.4 

Proteids 7.5 

Milk-sugar 11.6 

Ash 1.5 

100.0 

The federal pure food law, which went into force 
in 1907, requires that condensed milk shall contain 
not less than 28 per cent of milk solids and that 
27.5 per cent of these milk solids shall be fat. 

Relation of the industry to dairying. 

The presence of a condensed-milk factory, oper- 
ated by a reputable concern, usually indicates a 
higher standard of sanitary dairying in the locality. 
There is, perhaps, no one dairy product the quality 
and usefulness of which depends so greatly on the 
quality of the fresh milk as does that of condensed 
milk. Though heated and preserved with cane- 
sugar, condensed milk is bound, sooner or later, to 
be affected by the many, and, in most cases, unfavor- 
able conditions to which it is subjected in its 
transit from the manufacturer to the consumer, 
unless made from a high grade of fresh milk. Good, 
clean, sanitary milk is one of the essentials to the 
success of a condensory. As a matter of necessity, 
therefore, the condensory requires its patrons to 



194 



MILK -POWDER 



produce and transport their milk under sanitary 
conditions. The farmers are taught how to produce 
clean and wholesome milk, and how to take care of 
it. As these instructions are usually vigorously 
enforced, the condensory for its own protection is 
thus playing the role of an educational institution 
for the betterment of the dairy industry. 

Like the city milk plant, the condensory uses up 
all there is in milk, and the dairyman can take back 
from the factory neither skimmed milk nor butter- 
milk. This is one of the serious disadvantages to 
which the condensory patron has to submit. Terri- 
tories in which much stock is raised, therefore, are 
not suitable for the establishment of milk conden- 
sories, for there the farmer cannot afford to sell his 
skimmed milk. On the other hand, the condensory 
usually pays twenty to thirty cents more per one 
hundred pounds of milk than creameries and cheese- 
factories, a difference in price which, in localities 
not especially adapted for stock-raising, is ample 
compensation for the skimmed milk. Generally 
speaking, condensed-milk factories,, operated by 
responsible parties, are a benefit to the farming 
community both financially and educationally. 

The future of the industry. 

That the condensed-milk industry has passed the 
experimental stage is amply demonstrated by the 
enormous rapidity with which the number of 
factories and the output of the old factories are 
increasing. That there is a place for the product 
in the future is strongly indicated by the fact 
that it has found its way into every country on 
the globe. Not only is its consumption increasing 
in localities and lands unable to produce fresh milk, 
in the mining camps, on the battle-fields, in the 
tropics, in the arctic region, on ocean liners and 
on men-of-war, but the demand for condensed milk 
in our home markets is growing with astonishing 
rapidity. This fact also suggests the possibility 
that the condensed-milk industry may help to solve 
the complex problem of supplying milk to our large 
cities in the future. 

The fact that the condensed-milk industry is 
absorbing, today, a large and constantly increasing 
part of the fresh milk produced in our dairy states, 
causes this industry to be felt as an active compet- 
itor for the supply of fresh milk ; it has become 
an important factor bearing on the milk-, butter- 
and cheese-market of the country, and promises to 
be a lasting and growing benefit to agriculture in 
many regions. 

Literature. 

0. F. Hunziker, The Manufacture of Sweetened 
Condensed Milk, Cornell Countryman, Volume 3, 
Nos. 4, 5, 7, 9 ; Volume 4, Nos. 2, 3, 9 (1906-1907); 
C. B. Cochran, Analysis of Condensed Milks and 
Infants' Foods, Pennsylvania Department of Agri- 
culture (1905); C. D. Holley, Condensed Milk, 
North Dakota Department of Agriculture, 15th 
Annual Report, No. 1, Part II (1905) ; Condensed 
Milk, Inland Revenue Department, Ottawa, Canada, 
Bulletins Nos. 54 (1897) and 69 (1900), by Thomas 
Macfarlane and A. McGill, respectively. 



MILK-POWDER 

By Geo. W. Cavanaugh 

Milk-powder is the dry solids of milk in the form 
of a powder. Either whole milk or milk wholly or 
partly skimmed may be used in its preparation. 
The milk must be sweet and produced under san- 
itary conditions to yield a powder of good quality. 

A milk-powder should fulfil these conditions : 
(1) It should contain not to exceed 2.5 per cent of 
moisture. This small amount precludes the action 
of bacteria. (2) The milk-fat must be in the orig- 
inal globular form, otherwise the powder will not 
mix with water to a true emulsion. (3) The milk 
albumen must not be coagulated. When the milk 
albumem is coagulated, the solubility of the powder 
may be reduced so that part of it will settle out on 
standing. There will also be a taste that is charac- 
teristic of boiled milk. 

History. 

The first patent recorded for producing dry milk 
was granted to a Mr. Newton by the British Patent 
Office in 1835. Other patents were recorded from 
time to time, but there is no record of the processes 
described in them being commercially successful 
until the years 1899-1900. Since the latter date, 
five or six factories in New York and New Jersey 
have been producing considerable quantities of pow- 
dered milk by various processes. Outside the patent 
records, there is yet no literature on the subject. 

The composition of milk-powder. 

Whole milk has an average composition as fol- 
lows : Water, 87.1 per cent ; fat, 3.9 per cent ; 
casein, 2.5 per cent ; albumen, .7 per cent ; sugar, 
5.1 per cent; ash, .7 per cent. One hundred pounds 
of whole milk yields, therefore, about thirteen 
pounds of solids and skimmed milk about nine 
pounds. The partly skimmed milk will yield an 
amount of solids according to the degree to which 
it has been skimmed. Powdered milk made from 
whole milk has a composition approximately as fol- 
lows : Moisture, 2 per cent ; fat, 28.5 per cent ; 
casein, 20 per cent ; albumen, 5.4 per cent ; milk- 
sugar, 39.3 per cent ; ash, 5.8 per cent. Milk- 
powder made from half-skimmed milk has a compo- 
sition approximately as follows : Moisture, 2 per 
cent ; fat, 17 per cent ; casein, 23.6 per cent ; 
albumen, 6.5 per cent ; milk-sugar, 43.7 per cent ; 
ash, 7.2 per cent. Skimmed-milk-powder may have 
the composition : Moisture, 2 per cent ; fat, 17 per 
cent ; casein, 28 per cent ; albumen, 7.4 per cent ; 
milk-sugar, 53.6 per cent ; ash, 8 per cent. 

The processes. 

As a part of the solids of milk are in solution 
and a part in the form of an emulsion, the water 
may not be removed by any process of straining or 
filtering, but must be removed by evaporation. The 
resulting solids should be miscible with water to 
yield a liquid milk in which the several constituents 
have the same physical and chemical properties 
that they possess in ordinary milk. The processes 
for the removal of the water by evaporation, antf 



MANUFACTURE OP ICE-CREAM AND OTHER FROZEN PRODUCTS 



195 



which accomplish the above desirable results, 
wholly or in part, may be grouped as follows: 

(1) Boiling the milk under reduced pressure in a 
vacuum and stirring until the water is evaporated. 
The dry mass is then ground to a powder. 

(2) Exposing the milk in a thin layer on the 
surface of a revolving cylinder that is heated by 
steam. A knife removes the dried layer, which is 
then ground to a powder. 

(3) Exposing the milk in a thin layer on the 
surface of a revolving cylinder that is heated either 
by steam or hot water, the cylinder being enclosed 
in a vacuum chamber. This makes it possible to 
effect the evaporation at a lower temperature. 

(4) Passing a current of warm air upwards 
through the milk until the milk thickens, and then 
evaporating the remainder of the water by expo- 
sure to heated air. This is followed by grinding. 

(5) Exposing the milk in the form of a spray to 
a current of heated, dry air, in an evaporating 
chamber. This process is based on the fact that an 
atomized liquid in the form of a mist offers the 
maximum surface for the evaporation of its water. 
The evaporation is so nearly instantaneous that the 
milk souds are in the form of a dry powder when 
they fall. No grinding or pulverizing is necessary. 

One cause of the relatively slow development of 
successful processes is found in the difficulties 
encountered in the complete removal of the water 
from milk after the material becomes thickened by 
evaporation. By continuing the ordinary process 
of evaporation, there is a necessary concentration 
of each constituent of the milk. All milk contains 
small quantities of acids even when perfectly fresh. 
On concentration these acids reach a degree which, 
together with the heat employed, tends to coagu- 
late the milk albumen and to curdle the casein. Thus, 
while all the water might be removed by continu- 
ing the process of evaporation, its removal would 
be accompanied by a decrease in the solubility of 
the resulting powder. Certain media may be used 
to neutralize the acids of milk. 

Uses and advantages. 

Milk-powder is particularly adapted for use in 
baking, for which it may be used either by mixing 
directly with the flour or by reconstituting and 
then using as ordinary milk. When the powder is 
mixed dry with the flour, the mass may then be 
moistened with water, and the same result secured 
as by the use of liquid milk. 

In the preparation of some kinds of confectionery, 
as chocolate, the use of whole-milk-powder is very 
advantageous. The water in ordinary milk or cream 
sometimes causes an uneven distribution of the fat 
or oil of the chocolate that impairs the color. This 
is entirely avoided by the use of milk in the dry 
form. In the preparation of ice-cream, powdered 
milk may serve not only as the basis of the milk or 
cream that is used, but also as a thickener in the 
place of gelatine. 

A comparison with the ordinary sweetened con- 
densed milk will show the relative advantages of 
powdered milk when transportation and economy 
of storage are concerned : 



Condensed milk 


Per cent 


Milk-powder 


Per cent 


Moisture . . 


. . 25 


Moisture . . 


. .2J 


Milk solids . 


. .35 


Milk solids 


. . 97J 


Cane-sugar . 


. .40 







The transportation of milk in the form of powder 
avoids the usual refrigeration and hence may be 
by freight. The manufacture of powdered milk will 
undoubtedly have an important bearing on the 
whole dairy industry, making possible the transpor- 
tation of fresh sweet milk from places heretofore 
inaccessible because of distance. 



MANUFACTURE OF ICE-CREAM AND 
OTHER FROZEN PRODUCTS 

By H. E. Van Norman 

The term ice-cream is applied to any frozen 
mixture resembling frozen cream and based on milk 
products. Literally speaking, it is cream sweet- 
ened, flavored and frozen. Sometimes it is a com- 
bination of cream with milk, skimmed milk or 
condensed milk, starch, eggs or gelatin, sweetened 
with sugar, syrup or glucose, and flavored with 
fruit juices, extracts, fresh or canned fruits, fruit 
syrups, nuts, liquors, macaroons, bread-crumbs. 

When large quantities of cream are made for a 
moderate-priced trade, gelatin is often used to 
make the cream " stand up " or retain its shape 
when shipped or held for several days. When 
cream is low in butter-fat, certain fillers are added 
to give body to the product, such as rice flour, corn- 
starch, sago, arrowroot and gelatin. Condensed 
milk and condensed skimmed milk are used to give 
body and smoothness when cream is not rich. 

Owing to the confusion of terms and standards 
of quality, there is a growing disposition to con- 
form in local practice to the standards promulgated 
by the authority of Congress for interstate com- 
merce, which recognize as ice-cream only that 
product made from a standard cream (containing 
18 per cent of fat), sweetened and flavored. 

Kinds of frozen dishes. 

Mousse is rich cream beaten stiff, sweetened, 
flavored, placed in a mold and frozen without 
agitation. It must remain about three hours in a 
freezing mixture of equal parts of salt and ice. 
Water-ice is fruit juice sweetened, diluted with 
water and frozen. This requires a colder freezing 
mixture than cream. Sherbet is water-ice to which 
has been added gelatin, or beaten whites of eggs. 
It may be a combination of the juice of several 
fruits. Frappe is water-ice frozen only to the con- 
sistency of mush. Punch is water-ice to which have 
been added liquors and spice. Neapolitan is usually 
a combination of three different flavored ice-creams 
in a brick. The term is sometimes applied to a 
cooked cream containing eggs. 

Ice-cream. — There are many kinds of ice-cream 
and many names for them. Generally speaking, 
ice-creams may be divided into plain creams and 
cooked creams. The plain product is usually called 
Philadelphia cream. It is a raw cream sweetened, 
flavored and frozen. In commercial establishments 



196 



MANUFACTURE OF ICE-CREAM AND OTHER FROZEN PRODUCTS 



in which large quantities of ice-cream are made, 
the cream usually is not cooked except as pasteur- 
ized cream is used in place of raw cream. On the 
other hand, in catering establishments, where 
small lots of fancy creams are made, and in the 
family kitchen, the ice-cream mixture is frequently 
cooked, or at least heated to the boiling point. This 
is desirable with all formulas in which eggs are 
used. The proportion of the foundation materials 
may be varied to suit the requirements of each 
maker. This is especially true of the cream. The 
cook-books give an infinite variety of recipes, 
many of which differ only in the richness of the 
cream or the proportion of sugar, eggs, fruit or 
other flavoring material. 

Ice-cream-making. 

The cream. — The cream for an excellent quality 
of ice-cream should contain 20 to 25 per cent of 
butter- fat. Cream raised by allowing the milk to 
stand twenty-four hours, or from the centrifugal 
separator, set so that the cream is not more than 
one-sixth of the volume or weight of the milk to 
begin with, usually will have about this percentage 
of fat in it. Double cream should contain 35 to 45 
per cent of butter-fat. Too rich cream may be 
reduced to suit the taste by the use of skimmed 
milk or whole milk. Some commercial makers 
reduce it as low as 10 per cent of fat. 

The cream should be free from taints and all 
undesirable flavors, as freezing does not drive off 
or materially disguise them. In commercial work, 
stable taints and " cowy " odor or flavor should be 
guarded against. The cream should not contain 
over .3 per cent of acid and, preferably, only .2 
per cent. 

If cream containing too much acid, i. e., slightly 
sour, must be used for ice-cream-making, its acid- 
ity may be reduced by the use of a little bicarbon- 
ate of soda (common baking-soda). If more soda 
is used than is necessary to neutralize the acid, it 
will give the cream a bitter taste. 

Pasteurized cream may be used in part or 
entirely. It is important that it should be thor- 
oughly coojed, and it is better if it has been held at 
a temperature below 45° for one to three days 
after pasteurizing, as this increases the apparent 
body and the over-run of the ice-cream. 

Condensed milk. — The commercial product usu- 
ally sold for use in ice-cream manufacture may be a 
condensed skimmed milk or whole milk. Its use adds 
to the body and smoothness of a cream not rich in 
butter-fat, due to the milk solids other than fat in 
the condensed milk. It may replace one-fifth of the 
cream. 

Sugar. — The sugar may be added to the cream 
and should be allowed time to dissolve thoroughly 
before the cream is put into the freezing-can. It 
may also be made into a syrup and added in this 
form, although the least water that will answer the 
purpose in making the syrup, the better. If any 
milk is to be used in the mixture, it may be meas- 
ured out and the sugar added to it, as the sugar 
will dissolve more rapidly in the milk than in the 
richer cream. Gentle stirring will hasten the dis- 



solving. When preserved fruits, fruit-juices and 
syrups are used, less sugar will be required. 

Flavoring. — Flavors may be crushed fresh or 
canned fruits, fruit juices or syrups, extracts or 
nuts, browned bread-crumbs, macaroons, grape- 
nuts, and the like. The flavoring material may be 
added to the mixture before freezing begins, or it 
may be added when the cream is frozen to the con- 
sistency of mush. The latter practice is more 
desirable in the case of alcoholic extracts, as these 
are volatile ; also with fruits that are fleshy, and 
which it is desirable should not be frozen too hard, 
or when sour fruits are used. With sour fruits, 
such as raspberries, strawberries, and the like, part 
of the sugar should be mixed with the fruit. With 
canned peaches the addition of lemon -juice is 
recommended, one lemon for each gallon of the 
peaches. The vanilla-bean may be ground and mixed 
with powdered sugar and used for flavoring, the 
fine specks of the bean not being objectionable 
when it is understood what they are ; or an alco- 
holic extract may be used. Since the cold cream 
lessens the acuteness of the sense of taste, the 
unfrozen mixture must be flavored more highly 
than would be necessary if it 
were to be eaten unfrozen. 

Salt for freezing. — This 
should be coarse rock salt. 
Ordinary fine or stock salt 
may be used, although it is 
not very satisfactory. 

Ice. — The ice should be 
crushed. It may be crushed 
in small amounts in a bag 
with a wooden mallet, or in 
a box with a spiked ice- 
crusher (Fig. 184). The finer 
the ice the more rapidly it 
melts. The colder the freez- 
ing mixture the quicker the 
freezing will take place. For 
small lots of cream, snow can be used, although it 
is not desirable. 

Freezing. — The freezing is brought about by the 
melting of the ice by the salt. The greater the 
proportion of salt the colder the freezing mixture 
and the more rapidly the cream will freeze. If this 
occurs too rapidly, the cream will be coarse and 
granular. If it is too slow, the fat of the cream 
may be churned and appear as small particles of 
butter or the cream may be greasy. 

For large freezers, one part of salt to each eight 
or ten parts of ice is satisfactory ; for small free- 
zers, the proportion may be increased to one of 
salt to four or five of ice. For water-ice, mousse, 
and creams with syrups or liquors, the proportion 
of ice and salt may have to be increased to one to 
one or two, and the ice made fine. The proportion 
of ice and salt should be such as to freeze the mix- 
ture in twelve to fifteen minutes. If the agitation 
is continued too long, the cream will be granular 
and coarse and the swell or over-run will be less. 

The ice and salt may be placed in the freezer in 
alternate layers. With a large freezer, it is prefer- 
able to mix them first in a box or on the floor. 




Fig. 184. 
Spiked ice crusher. 



MANUFACTURE OF ICE-CREAM AND OTHER FROZEN PRODUCTS 



197 




Fig. 185. A hand freezer. Made in 
1- to 20-quart sizes. 



When the mixture is ready for the freezer, if 
it is not thoroughly chilled, the freezer should 
be put in motion slowly or rotated intermittently 
in order that the mixture may be chilled thor- 
oughly before 
starting at full 
speed, thus pre- 
venting the 
churning of the 
fat particles be- 
fore the cream 
becomes chilled. 
The cream should 
not be allowed to 
stand still in the 
freezingmixture, 
as cream freez- 
ing to the sides 
of the can 
scrapes off and 
makes lumps in 
the finished prod- 
uct. The richer 
the cream the 
more quickly it 
will freeze. The agitation should be stopped when 
the cream rolls up on the stirrer, has a consistency 
like thick mush, and is no longer shiney and watery 
in appearance. Because of the viscous nature of 
cream and the agitation of the stirrer, and other 
factors, more or less air is incorporated in the 
cream, causing it to swell or over-run ; the can, 
therefore, should not be filled more than two-thirds 
full of the mixture. In factory work, five and one- 
half gallons of mixture should swell and make ten 
gallons of frozen cream. 

The freezer. — A good freezer should be so ar- 
ranged that the can and dasher revolve in opposite 
directions. Figs. 185-187 show types of hand and 
power machines. 

Speed of freezing. — 
The speed of the factory 
freezer should be such 
that the can will make 
135 to 160 revolutions 
per minute. The ordi- 
nary hand freezer should 
be run at 80 to 100 
revolutions of the crank 
per minute. 

Ripening. — As soon 
as the cream has suffi- 
ciently f rozen,the stirrer 
should be removed, the 
cover replaced, ice and 
salt added, if necessary, 
and the ice-cream al- 
lowed to stand in order 
that it may become 
hardened throughout. 
The smoothness of the cream is usually improved 
by this ripening period, which consumes one to 
twenty-four hours. In commercial work, the 
ice-cream is sometimes held for two or three 
days. 




Fig. 186. A factory ice-cream 
freezer. Made in 18- to 40- 
quart sizes. 



Fancy creams. 

In small lots for home use, fancy creams may be 
made directly from formula as desired. For bricks 
and fancy forms in molds, the cream should not be 
frozen too hard. A little gelatin is often used to 
make the forms retain their shape when served. 
The bricks and molds should be packed in ice and 
salt until hard. One to three hours is required, 
depending on the shape and size of the mold. A 
larger proportion of salt should be used and the 
brine should be allowed to drain out of the packer 
if the molds are not tight. Molds may be made 
tight by covering the cracks with butter. To re- 
move the cream from the mold, dip the mold in 
cold water, never in hot. 

In commercial work it is not uncommon to use 
vanilla ice-cream as a basis for small orders of 




Fig. 187. A brine freezer, 40 quarts capacity. 

special flavors and fruits, by stirring them into 
the vanilla cream and placing it in bricks or other 
molds. 

Formula. — For this purpose, 1 cup=£ lb.; 1 
pt.=l lb.; 8 lbs.=l gal. 



For 1 gal. ice-cream 

2| qts Cream 

1£ cups Sugar 



For 10 gals, ice-cream 
... 44 lbs. 
. . . 7J lbs. 



Flavor. — The amount of flavor must be deter- 
mined by trial. The following suggestions may 
help the beginner : 

1-2 teaspoonsful . . Extracts .... 2-4 ozs. 
1 teaspoonful . . . Chocolate ... 7 ozs. 
J-l pt Crushed fruits . 5J lbs. 

If the cream is not rich, the yolks of two to four 
eggs may be added for each gallon of cream. 
When the eggs are used it improves the product 
to heat the cream and eggs nearly to the boiling- 
point but not allow them to boil. The amount of 
crushed fruits may be very materially increased if 
desired. 

This formula is for a good commercial or family 
ice-cream. A great variety of formulas will be 
found in the cook-books commonly available. 



198 



BUTTER -MAKING 



Brine freezing. 

In factory work the brine, cooled by artificial 
refrigeration or made by the use of salt and ice, is 
used in machines arranged for this purpose. A 
temperature of 11 to 13° Fahr. is usually satisfac- 
tory. The use of refrigerating machines to cool 
brine for freezing and to hold ice-cream in storage 
is growing rapidly, because of its great commercial 
economy and saving of labor. 

Ice-cream poisoning. 

The poisoning which is occasioned by eating ice- 
cream is due to ptomaines produced by bacteria 
that are associated with unclean utensils at low 
temperatures. Because milk sours slowly at low 
temperatures, some makers have been careless in 
the matter of cleansing the utensils used for stor- 
ing ice-cream, and this has resulted in the forma- 
tion of products that have caused sickness and 
occasionally death. 

Uses of ice-cream 

Ice-cream finds large use as a dessert at the 
tables in hotels, restaurants and homes, and of 
late has found increasing use at soda-fountains 
and in ice-cream parlors. Most establishments that 
serve it at the soda-fountain are provided with 
paper or other inexpensive, non-returnable pack- 
ages, and have trade that demands a supply of 
ice-cream to be consumed immediately, thus not 
requiring any packing. They make their own ice- 
cream or buy it from a large manufacturer, often 
securing it from a considerable distance. The 
economy of manufacture in large establishments 
has enabled the latter to ship, at a profit, immense 
quantities to the outlying towns. 

The volume of the trade has demanded, first, the 
brine freezer as an improvement over the use of 
ice and salt, and now, the continuous freezer. The 
latter is fed with brine and cooled by artificial 
refrigeration. It receives a continuous supply of 
the cream mixture at one end of the freezer and 
delivers at the other the frozen product at the 
rate of sixty to one hundred and fifty gallons per 
hour. 

Aside from the shock incident to eating large 
quantities of ice-cream quickly, and especially after 
a heavy meal, it is a most healthful food and dessert 
or luxury, for it would seem that it should be 
classed with food since it is rich in the nourishing 
fat and sugar. In sickness, especially in fever 
cases, the physician finds it useful because of its 
cooling effect. The ices and punches are largely 
used as appetizers at meals served in courses, for 
which they are well suited, being acid and lacking 
the butter-fat of the ice-cream. 

Cost of production. 

In the eastern and thickly populated states, many 
ice-cream factories turn to the creameries for their 
cream. They can pay for the cream a price consider- 
ably in advance of what it is worth for butter. 
When ice-cream of medium quality sells for 80 cents 
per gallon, the ice-cream-maker will pay 60 cents per 
gallon for the cream, containing 18 to 20 per cent 



of butter-fat. This will make about 41 J cents per 
pound for the butter-fat in an 18 per cent cream, or 
37i cents in a 20 per cent cream, as compared with 
20 to 25 cents, the price that the butter-maker can 
usually afford to pay for butter -fat during the 
summer months. A gallon of cream costing 60 
cents may make, with the sugar and flavoring-mix- 
tures, 1.6 gallons of ice-cream, and sometimes even 
more, to sell at 80 cents per gallon, netting $1.28 
for the butter-fat, for which the butter-maker pays 
about 40 cents. It must not be forgotten that the 
uncertainty of the weather and the irregular 
demand for the product, the difficulty of disposing 
of the product in cold weather, the losses from 
insufficient packing, the cost of ice for hold- 
ing from day to day, the loss of packers and tubs 
through failures to return, especially if shipped to 
distant points, the labor of delivering to patrons 
and going after the packers when empty, all make 
a large total expense. 

Literature. 

The only literature on ice-cream-making avail- 
able is found in the cook-books and one small book 
by Mai. Miller, entitled "Thirty-six Years an Ice- 
Cream-Maker," which gives many useful hints on 
practice, together with formulas, but little on 
principles. A few good articles have appeared in 
" The Ice-Cream Trade Journal," " The New York 
Produce Review," other creamery journals and the 
confectioners' journals. There are as yet no experi- 
ment station bulletins on the subject. 



BUTTER-MAKING 

By Edwin H. Webster 

Butter is defined as " the clean, non-rancid prod- 
uct made by gathering in any way fat from fresh 
or ripened milk or cream, into a mass which also 
contains a small quantity of other milk constituents, 
with or without salt," and "may also contain added 
coloring-matter." Butter is usually made from 
cream, " which is that part of milk, rich in milk- 
fat, which rises to the surface of milk on standing 
or is separated by centrifugal force." 

The importance of the butter industry is indi- 
cated by the report of the last census (1900), 
when 1,071,745,127 pounds were reported from 
farms and 420,126,546 pounds from creameries 
and factories in the United States. The Canada 
Yearbook, for 1905, reports 105,343,076 pounds of 
home-made butter for the year 1901. 

In this article we will consider first, and at 
length, the making of butter on the farm, and 
second, briefly, the factory methods. Much that is 
said in the first case applies in the second. 

I. BUTTER-MAKiNG ON THE FARM 

Creaming the milk. 

There are two general methods in practice for 
creaming the milk. One is to place the milk in 
shallow pans or deep cans, and allow the cream to 
rise by gravity. The other is the use of the centrif- 



BUTTER -MAKING 



199 




ugal separator. (Fig. 188.) Creaming by the grav- 
ity method is best accomplished by the deep-setting 
system, the cans being submerged in water. 

Advantages of mechanical separation. — Under the 
best usage the gravity method may leave one-eighth 
to one-fourth of the fat in the skimmed milk, while 
the mechanical or centrif- 
ugal separator removes 
practically all of the fat, 
leaving the skimmed milk 
fresh and sweet, and in a 
superior condi- 
tion for feeding 
young stock. 
There are nu- 
merous kinds of 
mechanical separa- 
tors on the market, 
but they differ in 
details of construc- 
tion rather than in 
the principles on 
which they work. 
The dairyman should 
thoroughly under- 
stand these princi- 
ples. 

The principles of 
separation. — The 
force that is used 
to separate the milk 
is known as centrif- 
ugal force. This 
force may be de- 
scribed as the pull that is felt when a weight 
attached to a string is whirled about the hand. 
It is the pull outward, and the faster the weight 
is whirled, the stronger the pull becomes. In the 
old system of creaming, the separation is caused 
by the action of gravity. The fat globules, being 
lighter than the other parts of the milk, are forced 
to the top ; that is, gravity acts stronger or pulls 
harder on the heavier parts than it does on the 
lighter, and the milk is gradually arranged in 
layers, the lighter part at the top, and the heavier 
part at the bottom. The force acting in the sepa- 
rator has precisely the same action on the milk, 
but acts outward from the center of the bowl the 
same as gravity acts downward from the surface, 
only many thousand times stronger, accomplishing 
in a few moments and far more completely what it 
takes gravity several hours to do. 

As the milk goes into the bowl it is at once 
thrown to the outermost parts and fills the bowl 
completely until an opening is reached where it 
will flow out again. The surface of the milk is on 
a line parallel with the center, or axis, of the bowl, 
and is exactly in line with the cream outlet. A 
cross section through the bowl from this surface 
to the outside presents much the same appearance 
as would a pan of milk after the cream has raised 
by gravity. The cream is on the surface, which 
might be called the top, and the heavier parts of the 
milk at the point farthest from the center, which 
would represent the bottom. 



Fig. 188. 

Sectional view of a modern power 

centrifugal separator. 



There are a number of things to be observed 
which influence the separation. The difference in 
length of time required to separate cream by grav- 
ity and by centrifugal force shows plainly that the 
time varies with the amount of force applied. The 
shorter the time, the greater the force must be. 
Skimmed milk from the separator contains less fat 
than that secured by the gravity system, showing 
that the greater force causes more perfect sepa- 
ration. 

From the above statements the following conclu- 
sions regarding the use of the separator may be 
drawn : (1) If the amount of milk that passes 
through the separator in a given time is a fixed 
quantity, any increase in the speed of the machine 
will tend to cause closer skimming because of the 
greater force exerted ; (2) if the amount of milk 
that passes through in a given time is increased 
and the speed remains the same, the skimming will 
not be so perfect, for the centrifugal force is not 
exerted on the milk for so long a time. It is evi- 
dent, therefore, that the closeness of skimming is 
the result of two factors, — time and force. If 
either of these is decreased, the result will be 
poorer work. The temperature and character of 
the milk are also influencing factors. 

Common errors in operating separators. — Two 
errors are made in operating separators because of 
ignorance of the facts just stated. The first consists 
in allowing too much milk to pass through the 
machine. As there is a limit to the speed at 
which the machine can be run safely, it is not 
good practice to try to overcome the error referred 
to by increasing the speed beyond the safe point. 
The feed outlet is usually fixed so that too much 
milk will not run through, but cases have been 
observed in which operators, anxious to shorten 
the time of separation, have enlarged the opening, 
allowing too much milk to pass. This error is not 
so common as the second, which is to allow the 
speed of the machine to become too slow. The slow 
speed does not generate enough force to skim 
properly, and the result is loss of butter-fat in the 
skimmed milk. The number of revolutions per 
minute required by a machine is usually indicated 
on the machine or in the instruction book belong- 
ing to it, and this should be strictly followed. 

Best temperature of milk for separating. — All 
liquids flow more readily when warm than when 
cold. Cream is one of the products of separation. 
It has to flow from the machine through a small 
opening or outlet. The warmer it is the more read- 
ily it will flow. If the flow of the cream is checked, 
more milk will be forced out of the skimmed 
milk outlet, and if the obstruction to the flow 
becomes too great, butter-fat will go out with the 
skimmed milk, because it can not move fast enough 
through the cream outlet. For this reason, the 
nearer the temperature of the milk approaches the 
animal heat the better will be the separation. 

Summary of points to be observed. — To summarize, 
the points in the operation of a separator, given in 
their order of importance as bearing on the quality 
of the work, are as follows : 

(1) The speed of the separator must be uniform 



200 



BUTTER -MAKING 



and up to the standard required by the makers of 
that particular machine. 

(2) The temperature of the milk should be such 
as will make it flow readily ; the warmer it is the 
more perfect will be the separation. 

(3) The amount of milk that is run through the 
machine should remain constant, and should not 
be increased over the amount intended for the 
machine. 

(4) The machine should be set on a solid base or 
foundation, so that there will be no jar or shaking 
about as it is turned, such as would tend to inter- 
fere with the even flow of the milk through the 
bowl and thus to destroy its efficiency in skimming. 

(5) The separator must be kept thoroughly and 
scrupulously clean, particular care being taken 
that none of the tubes through which the milk 
flows become obstructed in any way. 

(6) The test of the cream can be readily changed 
by changing either the cream outlet or the 
skimmed milk outlet. 

In the mechanical operation of a machine, none 
but the best oil should be used, and this should not 
be allowed to gum on the bearings. It is good 
practice to flush the bearings with kerosene occa- 
sionally by making a run with kerosene in the oil 
cups. This will serve to cut out any gum or dust 
that has accumulated in the bearings and will make 
the machine run much freer and easier, thus 
greatly increasing the length of time that it will 
last and do perfect work. 

Ripening the cream. 

Changes in milk. — A study of bacteria (p. 187), 
their habits of growth, food on which they live, 
kind of medium in which they can develop, and the 
temperature most favorable to their growth, reveals 
the necessity for observing cleanliness in all dairy 
utensils and for keeping the milk cold. Bacterial 
life is in evidence everywhere, and only awaits the 
proper food, moisture and warmth to cause the 
bacteria to multiply very rapidly. Just as a grain 
of corn grows when given proper moisture and 
warmth, so the germ life that finds its way into 
milk utilizes the food and warmth found there to 
grow and multiply, causing decomposition. When 
milk is kept free from bacteria it will not spoil. 
When it is heated to a high temperature, most of 
the bacterial life is destroyed. This prolongs the 
life of the milk very materially unless additional 
bacteria find their way into it and it is allowed to 
stand at temperatures favorable to growth. 

Fortunately, many species of bacteria known to 
exist in milk are not harmful. Many are beneficial 
in that they develop flavors desirable in good but- 
ter. From this it appears that the knowledge of 
methods necessary to check or destroy bacterial 
development is but a part of the butter-maker's 
art. He must know how to promote the growth of 
the desirable kinds. Up to the point of ripening 
the cream the whole process is one of retarding 
the development of bacteria by cleanly methods 
and the use of cooling devices. When the ripening 
process begins, the growth of favorable kinds is 
encouraged. 




Fig. 189. 
A tubular aerator and cooler. 



Cream direct from the separator should be per- 
fectly sweet, and if cooled properly will remain so 
for a number of hours. In fact, it can be preserved 
four or five days if kept at a temperature below 
50° Fahr. It might be churned in this condition, 
and a quality 
of butter made 
that is excel- 
lent, but, prac- 
tically speak- 
ing, the great 
bulk of butter 
is churned 
from sour 
cream. Fresh 
sweet - cream 
butter is some- 
what flat and 
insipid, but im- 
prove s with 
age, up to a 
certain point, 
if made from 
pure, clean cream. A tubular type of cooler for 
factory use is shown in Fig. 189. 

The starter and its use. — The dairyman may 
ask, if it is necessary to sour the cream, why 
take so much pains to keep it sweet. The trouble 
with ordinary souring is that it may not be of the 
desirable kind. Cream must be handled in such a 
way that desirable flavors will be developed and 
the undesirable ones kept in check. This can be 
done only by starting with a perfectly sweet cream 
and controlling the souring process. This control 
is secured by introducing into the cream what is 
known as a "starter." A starter is nothing more 
nor less than nicely soured milk either whole or 
skimmed. It will contain those kinds of bacteria 
that will develop the good flavors wanted, and not 
those that cause putrefaction, gassy fermenta- 
tions, and similar undesirable changes. As has 
already been stated, the greater number of bacte- 
ria present are the favorable kinds, and when milk 
is handled in a cleanly manner practically all that 
find entrance are of these kinds. To secure a starter 
containing desirable bacteria, the dairyman has 
simply to set away some skimmed milk as it comes 
from the separator and await developments. If the 
milk is kept at a temperature between 70° and 80° 
Fahr., it should sour within twenty-four hours and 
form a solid curd. A test of this curd shows whether 
or not the dairyman has kept his milk clean. If the 
taste is found pleasant and mildly acid, and the 
curd readily breaks up when poured from one vessel 
to another, becoming creamy, and showing no hard 
lumps that will not break down, he has a good 
starter. On the other hand, if the curd is stringy, 
or will not break with a square, sharp cleavage, 
but seems to be granular, or if a clear whey is 
formed on the surface, it shows that bacteria of a 
harmful species are present. The formation of this 
curd is caused by the development of acid in the 
milk. If the souring continues too long and too 
much acid is formed, the starter becomes sharp and 
unfit for use. After a certain amount of acid is 



BUTTER -MAKING 



201' 



formed its further development is checked, but this 
does not occur until the milk is too sour for a good 
starter. 

The starter is at its best just as the curd becomes 
firm, and the dairyman should plan to have this 
occur at the time he wants it to put into the cream. 
A glass jar is the best vessel in which to make a 
starter. The glass surface, being smooth, is easily 
cleaned, and the butter-maker can see what action 
is taking place while the milk is souring. If there 
are gas-producing bacteria in the milk, little bubbles 
of gas will form in the bottom and along the sides 
of the jar. If these are formed the starter should 
not be used, as gas fermentations always indicate 
impurity. 

The amount of starter that should be used in the 
cream will vary under different conditions. Ordi- 
narily, if one is churning every day, about one to 
one and one-half gallons of starter in ten gallons 
of cream is the right proportion. If it is necessary 
to hurry the process of souring, more starter may 
be used, and vice versa. The temperature at which 
the cream is set will influence the amount of starter 
to be used. If the cream is cooled to about 60° 
Fahr., it will require more starter than if it is set 
at 70° Fahr. Unless the dairyman has means of 
controlling the temperatures quickly, either by 
very cold water or by means of ice, it is best to 
have the cream as cold as well-water will make it 
(which will usually be 60° Fahr.), when the starter 
is added. If the cream is to be held for the next 
eighteen or twenty hours at this temperature, the 
amount of starter necessary to add can be deter- 
mined after two or three trials. Attempt should 
be made to add just enough starter to have the 
cream soured properly at churning time. No abso- 
lute rule can be depended on for this work. The 
dairyman must use his intelligence and decrease or 
increase the amount of starter and raise or lower 
the temperature of the cream in such a way that 
it will be ripened and ready for churning at the 
proper time. 

If the cream is not to be churned every day, but 
must be held two to four days before enough is 
secured for a churning, either of two practices 
may be followed : a very small amount of starter 
may be added to the first batch of cream, which 
will cause the gradual development of the acidity, 
or the cream may be held sweet for two to four 
milkings, and then the starter added in a little 
larger quantity, with a view to having the ripen- 
ing completed about twelve to eighteen hours after 
the last lot of cream is added. Here again the 
dairyman must use his judgment and experiment 
until he finds just the right quantities and the 
right time to add the starter. 

Whole milk can be used for making a starter, as 
well as skimmed milk, but it is usually considered 
best to use the latter. The surface of the starter 
should be skimmed off for a half inch or so in depth 
and thrown away. This is necessary because in open- 
ing the jar for examination or for any purpose, dust 
may have entered and formed colonies of undesir- 
able bacteria which will be growing on the sur- 
face, but have not reached any depth in the milk. 



When whole milk is used, this skimming is not 
desirable because of the loss of butter-fat that 
would have risen to the surface. 

It is sometimes necessary, in order to secure a 
good starter, to save a number of samples of milk 
and select the best from the lot. When an excep- 
tionally good starter is secured, it can be propagated 
from day to day by adding a little of it to a quan- 
tity of sweet skimmed milk, enough milk being used 
to make the necessary amount of starter for the 
cream to be churned. This controls the souring of 
the milk just the same as the addition of starter to 
the cream controls the souring of the cream. 
When one is churning every day, this is a very 
good method for carrying forward the starter. It 
may be used when but two or three churnings a 
week are made just as satisfactorily, discarding 
the lots on the days when there are no churnings. 

Under factory conditions, when mixed milk from 
a number of herds is used, it is always necessary 
to heat the milk intended for the starter to near 
the boiling point to destroy the bacteria that it 
may contain, and then renew the germ life in it by 
adding a part of a well-ripened starter ; but under 
farm conditions there should be no necessity for 
this. The milk should be so clean and so pure that 
the only decomposition which takes place would be 
that of souring, and it will usually be found that 
this souring gives the pleasant taste to the milk 
that is desirable in the butter. 

When an attempt is made to ripen the cream 
without the addition of a starter the results are 
not usually so good. An example of what takes 
place in cream can be readily seen after one has 
some experience in making starters. Very often 
one sample of milk will not develop the desirable 
flavors, but will become entirely unfit to use in the 
cream as a starter, while another sample, perhaps 
taken from the same day's milking, will sour with 
a fine flavor. The cream, contains the bacteria that 
developed in both of these starters ; each kind has 
equal chance to develop, unless a large quantity of 
the right kind is introduced. These would overcome 
the undesirable kind present and thus control the 
changes which take place. This is the purpose of 
the starter. 

When cream from several separations is col- 
lected, the churning should not be made for a 
number of hours after the addition of the last lot 
of cream. Unless this time is given the fresh 
cream added will not have soured, although it will 
be mixed throughout the mass of sour cream, and 
if churned in this condition much butter-fat will 
be lost in the buttermilk. Time must be given for 
complete and thorough blending of the various lots 
so that they are practically one, the acid being 
developed in all alike. This may be done very 
nicely by taking the previous night's separation as 
the last and churning the next day, thus giving 
ample time for the proper ripening of the last 
cream added. 

During the last few hours of ripening there 
should be taken into consideration the temperature 
at which the cream must be churned. When it is 
completely ripe or has reached that point at which 



202 



BUTTER -MAKING 



the flavor is fine and the aroma good, it should be 
quickly brought to the temperature necessary for 
churning, if not already at that temperature. If it 
has to be lowered several degrees, it should stand 
at the churning temperature for a period of three 




Fig. 190. 



Butter-making as represented in the twelfth 
century in England. 



or four hours before churning. This becomes nec- 
essary because the butter-fat is a poor conductor 
of heat and takes longer to change in temperature 
than the milk serum. 

During the process of ripening, the cream should 
be stirred occasionally to obtain best results. Just 
what is the result of stirring or why it is neces- 
sary, is not entirely understood, but it is known 
that cream stirred frequently ripens with a more 
uniform and finer flavor than cream ripened without 
stirring. 

The acid test. — The only standard that has been 
applied in measuring the ripening of cream is the 
determination of the acid present. The acid test, 
as it is called, is a fair index of the quality and 
stage of ripeness. It is true, however, that two 
lots of cream may have exactly the same amount 
of acid and one of them be good and the other 
bad ; so, after all, the acid test is not infallible. 
There is no step in the whole process of making 
butter when the judgment of the maker is so much 
needed as in ripening the cream. He must culti- 
vate his taste for the desirable flavors and must 




Ancient Arab butter-making. 



know when the point is reached at which further 
ripening must be checked. Neither the butter- 
maker who depends entirely on the sense of taste 
and smell, nor the one who depends entirely on the 
acid test will get the best results. 

Methods of learning to taste and smell, or judg- 
ment in their use, can not be written out. The 
ability must be developed through experience. The 
amount of acid present, however, is capable of 
exact determination by the test. [See page 180.] 

Coloring the butter. — If the butter is to be col- 
ored artificially, this should be done after the 
cream is placed in the churn. Only a harmless 
color should be used. The amount to be used will 
depend on the season of the 
year and the demand of the 
trade. 

The churn and churning. 

No other utensil in connec- 
tion with dairying has re- 
ceived so much attention 
from inventors as the churn. 
Most of the efforts along this 
line have been to get a churn 
that would save time. The 
thirty to forty minutes spent 
in churning has seemed a 
prodigious waste to the am- 
bitious inventor. The one- 
minute churn has been the 
goal. There have been more 
patents issued by the patent 
office on churns than on any 
other one device. A careful 
analysis of the junk in the 
attic or storehouse of the 
average dairyman will reveal 
one or more relics of this kind, due to the persuasive 
powers of an agent who had convinced him that he 
was foolish in spending so much time at the churn. 
Figs. 190-202, and 245 show a few types in the 
evolution of the churn. In spite 
of all this activity for an im- 
proved article, the greater number 
of churns in use today are either 
the old-fashioned dasher churn 
(Fig. 196) or the equally old re- 
volving barrel (Fig. 200, a modern 
hand type) or box churn (Fig. 
198), or its later modification, the 
combined churn and worker (Figs. 
202 and 245). Of- these types, the 
barrel churn is by far the best. 
Practically all factory churns in 
this country are modifications of it. 
The barrel churn. — Taking the 
barrel churn as best for the farm 
butter-maker, he should know how 
to get the most out of it. In this 
form of churn the concussion of 
the cream necessary to do the 
churning is secured by the fall 
of the cream as the churn is re- 
volved. The faster the churn is 




Fig. 192. 

Churn of the end of the 

fourteenth century. 



BUTTER -MAKING 



203 



revolved, the greater number of concussions per 
minute will be secured within certain limits. If the 
churn is whirled so fast that the centrifugal 
force created holds the cream from falling, no 
churning will take place. 




Fig. 193. 



A primitive device, said to have been used 
for churning. 



Cleaning the churn. — Churns are usually made of 
wood, and their care is an important factor. When 
ready to clean, the churn should be rinsed out with 
cold water to remove all buttermilk, salt, and the 
like ; it should then be partially filled with boiling 
water, the lid put on and fastened loosely, so that 
steam can escape, the draining plug withdrawn, 
and the churn whirled. The pressure on the inside 
caused by the creation of steam from the hot water 
will force water into every nook and crevice of the 
churn. After a few revolutions the water should 
be drawn off and another lot, boiling hot, added, 
and the whirling repeated. Empty this out and let 
the churn stand so that it will drain a few minutes 
and then turn the opening up and let it dry. The 
heat in the wood will dry it out rapidly, and there 
will be no chance for mold to grow. An occasional 
rinsing out with lime-water will help to keep a 
churn sweet. 

All other wooden dairy utensils should be rinsed, 
scalded and dried with the same care. 

Churning. — The process of churning is the gath- 
ering into a mass of the butter-fat in the cream. 
The butter-fat exists in the cream in minute glob- 
ules, each independent of the others, and any agi- 




tation tends to bring them together, the force of 
the impact causing them to adhere to each other. 
As the agitation is continued, these small particles 
of butter grow larger by addition of other particles 
until a stage is reached when they become visible 
to the eye ; and if the churning is continued long 
enough all will be united in one lump of butter in 
the churn. 

Temperature. — The time that it takes to churn 
depends largely on the temperature of the cream 
at the beginning. If the cream is warm, the butter 
will come very quickly ; if it is very cold, the 
churning may have to be prolonged, in some in- 
stances for hours, before the butter granules will 
become large enough to free themselves from the 
buttermilk. The temperature at the beginning 
should be regulated accordingly. It is usually con- 
sidered that about thirty to thirty-five minutes' 
churning should bring the butter. With different 




Fig. 194. An adjustable dash chum. 



Fig. 195. Lever-power churn. 

seasons of the year the temperatures will have to 
be varied somewhat, in order to have the butter 
come in this length of time. It is necessary in hot 
weather to churn at a temperature as low as 50° 
or 55° Fahr., while in the winter months, when the 
cows are on dry feed and the weather is cold, it is 
often necessary to raise the churning temperature 
to 60° to 65° Fahr. Cases have been known when, 
under some peculiar feed condition, the tempera- 
ture had to be raised as high as 80° Fahr. in order 
to make the butter gather at all. Trouble of this 
kind rarely occurs when the cows have succulent 
feed in winter, such as silage or roots. Occasion- 
ally some peculiar fermentation takes place in the 
cream, causing difficult churning, but this is a 
result of carelessness somewhere, and can be reme- 
died by a thorough cleaning up of the premises. 

Washing and salting the butter. — It is important 
to know at just what point to stop churning. For 
best results in freeing the granules from the but- 
termilk and incorporating the salt, it is considered 
that the butter granules should be about the size of 
beans or grains of corn. The churn is then stopped, 



204 



BUTTER -MAKING 



and the buttermilk allowed to drain. After the 
buttermilk is well drained from the butter granules, 
an amount of water about equal in volume and of 
the same temperature as the 
buttermilk should be added, 
and the churn given four or 
five revolutions, slowly, so 
that the water will come in 
contact with every particle 
of butter and wash out the 
remaining buttermilk. 

As soon as the wash water 
has drained well from the 
butter granules, salt should 
be added. The amount of salt 
used will depend entirely on 
the demands of the consumer. 
Usually about one ounce of 
salt for each pound of butter 




Fig. 196. 

Old-fashioned dasher chum, 

still in use. 

will be necessary. If 
the ordinary barrel or 
box churn is used, the 
salt may be added in 
the churn. By giving 
the churn a few revo- 
lutions the salt will be 
thoroughly incorpor- 
ated with the butter. 




at once. After the butter has been pressed out 
with the roller it should be divided in the center, 
one part being laid over on the other and the rollers 
passed over again. The process should be repeated 
until the butter assumes what is termed a waxy 
condition. If the working is continued for too long 
a time the butter will become salvy, having the 
appearance of lard, 
and will lose its 
granular structure, 
becoming weak- 
bodied. The firm- 
ness of the butter 
must be taken into 
account in deter- 
mining how long it 
should be worked. 
Usually the firmer 
the butter the more 
working it will , 

Stand and the more **• 199 " Cylmdncal factory churn, 
time it will need thoroughly to incorporate the salt 
and bring out the waxy condition. 

Packing butter. 

Value of appearance. — The size and style of 

package to be used in packing butter will depend 
entirely on the market conditions where the 
butter is sold. While great stress has been laid 
on the quality of butter made, it must also be 
borne in mind that the method by which it is 
packed and the neatness with which it appears 
on the market have practically as much to do 
with its sale as has its quality. In fact, many 
buyers will select a 




Fig. 197. Crank churn, drawn from 
one in use at present. 

It should stand in this con- 
dition for a few minutes, until the salt becomes 
more or less dissolved, before the working is begun. 

Working the butter. 

Table workers. — For working the butter some 
form of table worker is best to use. The butter- 
bowl and paddle never give so good results because 
the butter almost invariably will be greasy, owing 
to the sliding motion of the paddle over the butter. 
The table workers" commonly 
used are of two kinds — one 
having a stationary bed and 
a roller, either corrugated or 
smooth, arranged so that it 
can be passed back and forth 
over the surface of the butter 
(Figs. 203, 204) ; the other, hav- 
ing a movable bed, revolving 
on a center, usually under two 
corrugated rollers. [See Fig. 
193, Vol. L] Both of these 
forms will do good work if the 
operator understands their use. 

Suggestions as to working. — If the salt and butter 
have been mixed in the churn, the butter may be 
placed on the working table and the working begun 





Fig. 198. Box churn. 



Fig. 200. A good type of hand 
churn. 

be necessary to 
say that a pack- 
age of any kind 
must be neat 
and clean in ap- 
pearance, but a 
large part of the 
farm butter that 
comes into mar- 
ket shows that 
a great many 
makers do not 



neat package of 
butter in preference 
to one that is put up 
in a slovenly man- 
ner, even though 
the quality may not 
be so good. It is 
undoubtedly true 
that the average 
consumer will judge 
an article of food 
as much by its ap- 
pearance as by its 
general qualities. 
An unattractive ar- 
ticle does not ap- 
peal to the sense of 
taste. It should not 




Fig. 201. Square factory churn. 



BUTTER -MAKING 



205 




Fig. 202. Combined chum and 
butter-worker. 



realize the importance of this part of their work. 
Many lots of otherwise good butter are sold every 
day at a discount becauseof the careless methods 
of packing. The de- 
mands of the market 
on which the butter is 
sold should be studied 
carefully and the pack- 
age made of a size and 
form that will meet 
those demands. 

Butter in tubs. — If 
the butter is to be put 
up in tubs, the pack- 
ing should be done so 
that the butter will be solid throughout its entire 
mass. Too frequently the butter is thrown in with- 
out sufficient packing, and large holes will appear in 
the body of the butter. While these may not affect 
the quality, they affect the appearance. If a parch- 
ment-paper lining is used in the tub it should be 
put in smooth and the top should be turned neatly 
over the edge of the butter. Coverings that are 
put on the top, whether circles of parchment or 
cloth made for the purpose, should exactly fit the 
top of the package. Care should be taken that the 
tub does not show finger-marks or other dirty 
spots. 

Butter in snail packages. — It is becoming more 
common for the markets to demand that butter be 
packed in small packages, such as pound prints or 
squares. Butter put up in this form should be 
wrapped neatly in parchment-paper. It is an excel- 
lent practice 
for the dairy- 
man to have 
his name or 
label printed 
on the parch- 
ment. This 
helps to es- 
tablish the 
identity of the 
goods, and, if the butter is properly made, it should 
aid the dairyman in finding a permanent market 
for his product. Wooden packages of almost any 
size can be secured for packing the prints. (Pigs. 
208, 209.) These should be used, particularly if it 
is necessary to ship the butter to market. For 
local distribution, light crates or boxes which will 
fit the prints and prevent their getting out of 
shape in hauling should be used. 

Equipment. 

The milk-room. — If milk is placed in a cellar or 
cave where there 
are decaying veg- 
etables or fruits, 
it will quickly ab- 
sorb the odors 
from them. Such 
places are entirely 
unfit for the stor- 
age of milk. The 

Fig. 204. Power butter-worker. dairyman should 




Fig. 203. Hand butter-worker. 





Fig. 205. An excellent 
hand butter-printer. 




Fig. 206. Table butter-printer. 



have a building set apart from the barns or other 

places from which objectionable odors might come, 

for the exclusive use of the dairy. This building 

need not be very large, but 

must be constructed so that 

it can easily be kept clean 

and cool. A cement floor 

should be laid, as it is the 

easiest to clean, is cool, and 

does not rot from moisture. 

If the walls are built of 

stone, brick or concrete, so 

much the better, for such 

walls keep out the heat. 

The roof construction 
should be such that it will 
effectually turn the heat of the sun. If the roof is 
not of concrete, it should be built double, so that 
an air-current will pass between the upper and 
lower parts. Walls 
and ceilings should be 
covered with cement 
plaster, whether wood 
or stone is used in 
their construction. 
This finish, if properly 
put on, is easy to clean 
and does not readily 
become affected with 
mold or decay. 

The water-supply. — 
Provision must be 
made for an abundance of water, and the pumping 
arrangement must be such that the fresh water 
from the well or spring will flow through the 
dairy-house. It should run into a tank built deep 
enough to allow the complete submerging of the 
milk and cream cans. The tank should have suf- 
ficient width and length to hold all that it may 
be necessary to use. A tank built up of concrete 
and finished with a cement surface is the most 
economical in the long run, and is much more sat- 
isfactory. Provision must be made for draining it 
out for purposes of cleaning. Wooden tanks are 
usually a source of trouble from leaks and decay. 
Iron tanks do not last long, because they become 
rusty. 

Cooling arrangements. — If 
the dairyman has ice, the 
problem of cooling is very 
simple. Broken ice can be 
placed in the tank about the 
cans. There are plans for 
building ice-houses with re- 
frigerators connected, but, 
all purposes considered, the 
refrigerator can be built 
with most economy and with better sanitary ar- 
rangement if it is constructed separate from the 
ice-house. The common ice-chest, in which the pro- 
ducts to be cooled are placed in the box with the 
ice, is a very satisfactory way for handling cans 
of milk or cream. For other products it is not so 
satisfactory, as it is not dry enough, and, if the 
articles are small, does not afford shelf-room for 




Fig. 207. 
Lever butter-printer. 



206 



BUTTER -MAKING 




Fig. 208. Shipping box for 
butter-prints. 



them. [See Refrigeration of Dairy Products, pages 
232-246.] 

Use of steam. — In a moderate-sized dairy there 
should be added to the equipment a small steam 
boiler which should be in a room separate from the 
dairy. There is always need of steam, and the 
additional cost involved is but little compared with 
the benefits derived. If steam cannot be provided, 
a small hot-water heater 
of some kind should be 
used. It is essential to 
have plenty of boiling 
water for purposes of 
washing and scalding 
milk-vessels and the 
floors and walls of the 
building. 

Character of utensils. — 
Not all of the bacteria 
that find their way into milk come from the cow or 
the barn. Often milk pails, strainers, cans and 
other utensils used for handling milk are the source 
of such trouble. Faulty construction of these ves- 
sels is very common. There should be no hidden, 
inaccessible places in milk vessels. The seams 
should be soldered over smoothly, inside and out. 
Cheap tinware is not usually well soldered, and if 
such is purchased it should be taken to the tinner to 
have all seams carefully gone over, closing up all 
that are open and can not easily be cleaned. Galva- 
nized iron is sometimes used for milk pails and 
other dairy vessels, but it should not be, as the 
galvanizing is rough on the surface and affords 
hiding-places for innumerable bacteria. Wooden 
vessels should not be tolerated for holding milk, 
under any condition, for it is impossible to keep 
them clean. Rusty tinware, besides its effect in 
imparting rusty or metallic flavor to the milk, is 
objectionable for the same reason. Good tin is the 
only practicable material for milk vessels, and this 
must be kept shining and bright. 

Cleaning the utensils. — The proper washing of 
milk utensils is something that is often misunder- 
stood. All milk should be rinsed from the surface 
of the tin before it comes in contact with boiling 
water, as the heat will cook the milk on the sur- 
face, forming a coating 
very difficult to remove. 
If this coating is not re- 
moved, it furnishes food 
and place for bacterial 
growth. This is especi- 
ally true around places 
likely to remain moist. 
After rinsing the vessel 
free from milk it may 
then be washed in hot 
water. There should be 
added to the water some 
good cleaning compound. 
Some of the so-called washing-powders are very 
objectionable, as grease of some kind is used in 
their make-up. When such powders are used a coat- 
ing of thick grease will be formed around the 
edges of the sink or pan containing the wash- 




Fig. 209. Another type of 
shipping box. 



water. All such compounds should be discarded. 
Powders can be procured that are guaranteed to 
contain no grease, and they are usually excellent 
cleansers. 

For scrubbing the surfaces of milk vessels, a 
good brush should be used. There is nothing more 
objectionable for this purpose than a cloth, particu- 
larly the cloth that has been used for washing the 
dinner dishes, or the pots and pans. A good brush 
can be purchased for a few cents. It is the most 
effective and can easily be kept clean. 

Drying and sunning utensils. — The final rinsing 
of dairy vessels should be in boiling hot water. If 
they are allowed to remain a few minutes in the hot 
water, it is better. The heat will reach every part, 
and should be continued long enough to destroy 
bacterial life. After the rinsing in boiling water, 
the surface will quickly dry and should be allowed 
to do so naturally. Turn the vessel so that it will 
drain, and in a few minutes the heat in the metal 
will dry the surface. A cloth for drying can rarely 
be kept clean, and for this reason does more harm 
than good. It is an excellent practice to stand the 
pails and other milk vessels in the sun so that the 
rays will reach every 
part of the inside. 
Most species of bac- 
teria cannot live in 
the direct rays of the 
sun. For this reason 
milk-rooms and simi- 
lar rooms for hand- 
ling milk products, 
except cold - storage 
rooms, should be built 
so that the sunlight 
can enter in abund- 
ance. Dairy - rooms 
are usually damp, and 
if dark, will permit 
the growth of molds 
and the development 
of bacteria, and will 
speedily become unfit 
places to keep milk. 
The troubles with 
stringy or ropy milk usually occur in places of 
this kind, and can be overcome by a thorough 
cleansing and the admission of plenty of air and 
sunlight. [For further discussion, see article 
Creameries and Skimming Stations, by H. L. Ayres, 
pp. 226-232.] 

II. Creamery or Factory Methods 

Everything pertaining to cleanliness and care of 
utensils in making butter on the farm applies to 
factory practice. The quality of the milk or cream 
received is of the utmost importance. The greater 
part of the present-day trouble with poor butter on 
the market begins back of the factory. The butter- 
maker can not make good butter from bad cream. 
Methods that will produce good butter on the farm 
will produce like results in the creamery, provided 
the butter-maker does his part properly. 




Fig. 210. Wooden-ware for use 
in a butter factory. 



BUTTER -MAKING 



207 



Receiving the cream. 

The man at the weighing-can, where the milk or 
cream is received, should be a good judge of quality 
and bad lots should be rejected. If circumstances 
are such that everything offered must be taken, 
the bad lots should be set aside to be churned by 
themselves. 

Handling the cream before churning. 

There are two general systems of handling the 
cream before churning — one for making pasteur- 
ized butter, and one for making unpasteurized but- 
ter. Pasteurization is becoming more common, and 
for certain pathogenic reasons may ultimately be 
required by law. The secret of pasteurization is the 
maintaining of a constant temperature throughout 
the process of sufficient degree to destroy all patho- 
genic organisms, as well as other varieties that 
may exist in the cream. [See page 184.] Many 
spore-bearing organisms escape destruction in the 
process, but, from the butter-maker's standpoint, 
the few remaining will not materially affect the 
desired results. 

The making of starters has been described (pages 
200-202). Their use is necessary, particularly with 
pasteurized cream. The starter should be intro- 
duced immediately after the cream is put into the 
vat. The cream may be churned immediately or 
left to ripen fully in the vat before churning. 
Recent experiments indicate that for storage pur- 
poses the sweet pasteurized cream, without the 
addition of a starter, may be churned at once, and 
the butter will be of a quality that will keep far 
beyond anything made from ripened cream. The 
details of the process have not all been determined 
as yet, but sufficient work has been done to show 
the practicability of the process. 

Churning. 

Practically all literature on butter-making leaves 
the reader in doubt as to the processes to be em- 
ployed in churning. Too much is left to the judg- 
ment of the maker ; he is led to think that there 
are no fixed laws governing the process of churn- 
ing, and that the results are not capable of control. 
It may be put down absolutely that like conditions 
will bring like results. The object of churning is 
to separate the fat from the milk-serum and to 
secure a butter uniform in texture, color, salt, 
water, and other qualities. The common theory is 
that these factors depend on the acidity of the 
cream, the fat in the cream, temperature of the 
cream, temperature of the wash-water, time taken 
to work, amount of cream in the churn, and the 
like. The butter-maker is left to judge these mat- 
ters for each individual churning. The result is 
butter of varying composition and body, unequal 
salting and uneven color, the degree of these vari- 
ations differing with the ability of the butter- 
maker to guess as to what should be the next step 
in the process. 

The acidity to which cream is ripened, and the 
percentage of fat in the cream, should not vary from 
day to day. The temperature of the churning should 
be such as to secure exhaustive churning, which 



will require the operation of the churn forty to fifty 
minutes. The temperature of the wash-water should 
be the same as the temperature of the buttermilk 
when the churning is complete. There will be 
no uneven coloring if this rule is followed. The 
amount of salt is controlled entirely by the neces- 
sities of the trade using the butter. The butter- 
maker must know the amount of butter-fat in the 
churn, and use the same amount of salt per pound 
of butter-fat each time, and the result will be uni- 
form. The butter should be worked out at one 
working and packed immediately. The working 
should not extend beyond the point where the but- 
ter has a firm, waxy body. Overworking destroys 
much butter. If "these different parts of the pro- 
cess are adhered to absolutely, day after day, the 
result will be a uniform line of butter, without a 
variation of more than 1 per cent in water, which 
will rarely exceed 15 per cent in all. Rigid system 
is necessary. 

Temperature, acidity, and richness of cream are 
not causes of high or low water-content of the but- 
ter. They bear only a modifying influence on the 
amount and method of working, and can be entirely 
eliminated from the calculation of results, if they 
are brought to a constant factor. The water- 
content of the butter is under the control of the 
butter-maker, to increase or decrease within cer- 
tain limits, as he wishes. If these facts constantly 
vary, the results will vary in spite of the skill of 
the worker. 

Records. 

The butter-maker should at all times keep records 
of his work. No success as a high-class operator can 
be secured otherwise. The work of making butter 
is more nearly an exact technique than is usually 
supposed, and the facts are reducible to system ; 
and with system, the facts are sure and true. 

Literature. 

Farrington and Woll, Testing Milk and Its Prod- 
ucts, Madison, Wis.; Fleischmann, The Book of the 
Dairy, Blackie & Son, London ; Gray, Investigations 
in the Manufacture and Storage of Butter, United 
States Department of Agriculture, Bureau Animal 
Industry, Bulletin No. 84; Grotenfelt and Woll, 
Principles of Modern Dairy Practice, Wiley & Son, 
New York ; Hayward, Facts Concerning the His- 
tory, Commerce and Manufacture of Butter, United 
States Department of Agriculture, Bureau Animal 
Industry, Circular No. 56; McKay and Larsen, 
Principles and Practice of Butter-Making, Wiley & 
Son, New York ; Michels, Creamery Butter-Making, 
published by Author, Lansing, Mich. ; Peck, Profit- 
able Dairying, Orange Judd Company, New York ; 
Van Slyke, Modern Methods of Testing Milk, Orange 
Judd Company, New York ; Webster, Butter-Making 
on the Farm, United States Department of Agricul- 
ture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 241 ; Willoughby, Milk 
— Its Production and Uses, Griffin & Co., London ; 
Wing, Milk and Its Products, Macmillan Company, 
New York; Van Wagenen, Farm Butter-Making, 
Cornell Reading-Course for Farmers, Series V, No. 
24, Ithaca, N. Y. 



208 



THE MAKING OF CHEDDAR CHEESE 



THE MAKING OF CHEDDAR CHEESE 

By J, A. Ruddick 

The Cheddar belongs to the class known as the 
"hard" or pressed cheese, which includes such 
other kinds as the Cheshire and the Gloucester of 
England, the Dunlop of Scotland, and the Edam 
and the Gouda of Holland, the Gruyere of Switzer- 
land and certain departments of France, and the 
Parmesan of Italy. There are several varieties of 
semi-hard cheese, the manufacture of which involves 
to some extent the principles employed in the 
manufacture of both the hard cheese and the soft 
moldy cheese. 

It may be stated at the outset -that this descrip- 
tion of the process of Cheddar cheese-making does 
not cover the manufacture of the soft, weak-bodied 
cheeses, which sometimes go by the name of " Ched- 
dar" in the United States. Such cheeses are really 
not Cheddars and should not be described as such. 
The true Cheddar cheese has a firm, waxy, meaty 
texture, which will keep for a year or more in 
good condition at a temperature of 60 degrees. 
The process as herein described, will make a cheese 
of this character from good milk. If a slightly 
softer cheese is required, it is necessary to leave 
rather more moisture in the curd and to prevent 
the development of so much acid. It is recognized 
that modifications of the process are necessary in 
various circumstances, but the principles involved 
are the same in all cases. Cheese cannot be made 
by formula. Experience and judgment on the part 
of the cheese - maker are essential, and he must 
determine, in every case, how much moisture to 
leave in the curd, how much acid to develop, how 



The composition of Cheddar cheese. 

The percentage composition of Cheddar cheese 
varies greatly in different samples. The slightest 
modification in any of the different parts of the 
process of its manufacture, and the age of the 
cheese, are important factors in this connection. 
A cheese when green shows a much higher percent- 
age of water than it will when well ripened, the 
difference often being as much as 5 or 6 per cent. 
The following figures have been compiled from 
various sources and represent an average: 



The Composition of Cheddar Cheese 

Water Fat Proteids 

Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. 

33.90 27.19 33.00 30.70 36.60 27.56 



Ash, etc. 
Max. Min. 

5.55 4.15 



Mi 




Fig. 211. The village of Cheddar, showing the famous cliffs 



much salt to add, and the other factors, and he 
will be guided in his judgment, if he is wise in the 
matter, by the conditions under which the cheeses 
will be cured and the particular market for which 
they are intended. 



Historical. 

The Cheddar cheese derives its name from the 
quaint old village of Cheddar (Fig. 211), in the 
southern part of the county of Somerset, England, 
which place first became famous for its manufac- 
ture. Just how long it has been made in that local- 
ity it is impossible to determine, but most authori- 
ties agree that it dates back over two hundred 
years. The process of its manufacture was brought 
to the United States, probably by English settlers, 
early during the last century, and to Canada some 
years later. In both countries it continued for 
some time to be made only on farms, as it is made 
to this day in its natal county of Somerset. 

The manufacture of cheese has for many years 
been an important industry on the farms in the 
southwestern counties of Scotland. The Dunlop, a 
somewhat softer and higher acid cheese than the 
Cheddar, was the original variety, and takes its 
name from the village of Dunlop, 
in Ayrshire. The farmers of Ayr- 
shire and Kircudbrightshire gradu- 
ally acquired a knowledge of the 
Cheddar process, and "Scotch 
Cheddars" now compete with those 
from the south and west of Eng- 
land, and there is great rivalry 
and close competition at all the 
big British dairy shows between 
the English and Scotch schools of 
Cheddar cheese-makers. 

The factory system. — The cheese 
factory is of American origin, and 
it came into existence about 1854. 
One Jesse Williams, of Herkimer 
county, N. Y., is said to have been 
the promoter. The factory system 
owes its growth to purely eco- 
nomic conditions. It suits the labor 
conditions of America, and its in- 
troduction made possible the rapid 
development of the industry which 
followed. 

There are probably at the pres- 
ent time nearly four thousand cheese factories in 
the United States, the actual number in the last 
census year (1900) being 3,299. Wisconsin heads 
the list, with over 1,200 factories, of which a cer- 
tain number are "Swiss" cheese factories. New 



■J&> 



THE MAKING OF CHEDDAR CHEESE 



209 



York state comes next in number of factories, but 
probably stands first in quantity of cheese produced. 
These two are the principal cheese states. Ohio 
comes next, with only 221 factories in 1900, and 
Michigan and Pennsylvania follow, with 130 and 



N^"V^4^~~Vs 




Fig. 212. A weU-designed cheese factory. 



124, respectively. The other 446 factories that 
were in existence in 1900 are distributed among 
thirty other states. A well-designed factory build- 
ing is shown in Fig. 212. An interior is shown in 
Fig. 213. 

In 1864, the factory system was introduced into 
the province of Ontario, Canada, by Harvey Far- 
rington, of Herkimer county, N. Y., and, as in New 
York state, the factory system was quickly adopted 
by the farmers of Ontario, who up to that time had 
not engaged in the manufacture of cheese to any 
great extent. At present there are about four 
thousand cheese factories in Canada, mostly in the 
provinces of Ontario and Quebec, although cheese- 
making on the factory system is followed in every 
province of Canada except British Columbia. 

In the year 1882, the first Cheddar cheese factory 
was established in New Zealand, pattern being 
taken after the American and Canadian system. 
The latest returns show that there are about one 
hundred and ten cheese factories in New Zealand, 
and some of them are probably the largest Cheddar 
factories in the world, turning out over five hun- 
dred tons of cheese per annum. Cheese-making on 
the factory system has also been introduced into 
the states of New South Wales, Victoria and South 
Australia, in the Australian Commonwealth, but for 
various reason the industry has not become of 
much importance in these last-named countries. 

The cheese-makers of the southwest of England 
do not admit that the so-called Cheddar cheese 
made in other parts of the world is a true Cheddar; 
but the differences on which this assertion is based 
belong more properly to the practice of the art 
than to any real difference in principle. The manu- 
facturing of milk into cheese in large quantities, 
as in the factory system, has necessitated the em- 
ployment of some special appliances and labor-sav- 
ing devices, but the true principles of Cheddar 
cheese-making have not been violated to any great 
extent. As a matter of fact, the actual variation 
in process which is to be found in the different 
C14 



countries now making so-called Cheddar cheese is 
not greater in principle than that which is to be 
found among the cheese-makers in the county of 
Somerset itself. While the English Cheddar cheese- 
maker may have some right to the exclusive use, 
which he asserts, of the term " Cheddar," on the 
ground of origin, we do not think the assertion can 
properly be founded on any real dissimilarity in the 
processes by which the cheeses are made in the dif- 
ferent countries where this system has been adopted. 

The factory system has resulted in producing 
greater uniformity and a better average quality 
of cheese than is to be found in the districts where 
farm cheese-making is still practiced, but it must 
be admitted that the possibilities of making a 
superior article are greater on the single farm than 
they are where the product of several farms is 
pooled in the factory system ; and the results prove 
it. It is well known in southwestern England, and 
in southwestern Scotland as well, that much finer 
cheese can be made on some farms than on others, 
and careful investigations by competent men have 
failed to show why such differences in localities 
should exist, although the superiority of certain 
farms has been generally attributed to the charac- 
ter of the soil and herbage to be found thereon. 
These finer distinctions, which the connoisseur 
easily recognizes, are lost sight of entirely where 
the factory system is followed ; but, on the whole, 
there can be no doubt that the division of labor 
and uniformity of product, which the factory 
system permits, have compensated the American 
dairymen for any disadvantage inseparable from 
that system. 

Many of the factories are cooperative or, at 
least, semi-cooperative, for the true spirit of cooper- 
ation is not often to be found in the cheese-factory 
or the creamery ; but that is another subject. The 
others are proprietary, and the owners charge, as 
a rule, a fixed rate per pound for the manufacture 
of cheese, providing all the equipment and labor 




Pig. 213. Interior of modern cheese factory. 

necessary for the manufacture and marketing of 
the cheese. 

The output of the factories varies considerably 
in different localities. Generally speaking, the 
larger the factory the smaller the actual cost of 
manufacturing per pound, but an output of 200 to 



210 



THE MAKING OF CHEDDAR CHEESE 



300 tons of cheese per annum reduces the cost of 
manufacturing to a minimum and makes a satis- 
factory and convenient size of factory. 

Total production of Cheddar cheese. 

The total annual production of the Cheddar type 
of cheese throughout the world is estimated as 
follows : 

Tons 

United States 135,000 

Canada 122,000 

England and Scotland 100,000 

New Zealand and Australia 14,000 

371,000 

The total value of this annual world's production 
of Cheddar cheese is, approximately, $75,000,000. 

The process of Cheddar cheese-making. 

We have already stated that the principles 
underlying the Cheddar process are more clearly 
defined and better understood than those of any 
other variety of cheese. The Cheddar process dif- 
fers in one essential from practically all others, 
inasmuch as a considerable development of acidity 
is necessary in the milk before the rennet is added, 
and a higher percentage of acidity is allowed in 
the curd before it is finally removed from the whey. 
It is this feature of the Cheddar process which 
makes it so applicable to the factory system, in 
which the milk is most conveniently delivered 
only once a day, and at certain seasons of the 
year there is naturally considerable development 
of acidity in the milk before the cheese-making 
process can be started. 

The methods in vogue in the United States differ 
slightly according to the market for which the 
cheese is intended. The American taste appears 
to favor the soft, quick-ripening cheese, without 
much regard to the real cheesy flavor, which is 
held in such high esteem among the cheese-eaters 
of Great Britain. For export, a firmer, slower- 
ripening cheese is desired, and some modifications 
of the process are necessary to secure these differ- 
ent results. As the English taste typifies the 
highest development in Cheddar cheese, a descrip- 
tion of the process necessary to meet that demand 
will best exemplify the details of the Cheddar 
system. 

True Cheddar cheese should be firm, without be- 
ing dry ; show a meaty, waxy texture when well- 
matured, and develop a clean, cheesy flavor when 
cured at a proper temperature. 

In order to secure this ideal it is necessary that 
the milk should be produced under good conditions 
and kept free from contamination of any kind, or 
infection with the germs of injurious fermentations 
which develop objectionable flavors. During hot 
weather the night's milk, which is kept at the farm, 
should be cooled to a temperature of at least 60°, 
in order to prevent its developing too much acid 
when delivered with the morning's milk at the 
factory. It is generally recommended that the 
night's and morning's milk should be kept in 
separate vessels. 



As the milk is received at the factory, it is 
passed over a weighing machine and delivered into 
a large steam or water-jacketed vat, where the 
temperature is raised by the application of steam 
or hot water until it reaches 86° Fahr. Tests are 
then applied and, if the milk shows the required 
acidity, the rennet is added in sufficient quantity 
to bring about coagulation in thirty to forty min- 
utes. If the cheese is to be colored, the prepared 
annatto or other coloring-matter is added to and 
thoroughly mixed with the milk just before intro- 
ducing the rennet. The extract of rennet which is 
now universally used is prepared from the fourth 
stomach of young calves. About three liquid ounces 
of the standard brands to 1,000 pounds of milk is 
usually sufficient to produce the desired result. 

Ripening the milk. 

If the acidity is found to be too low after the 
temperature is raised to the "setting" (renneting) 
point, the milk is allowed to "ripen," the test 
being applied from time to time, to note the develop- 
ment of the acid. In such cases the common prac- 
tice now is to use a fermentation "starter," of 
one-half to 1 per cent of sour milk, which has been 
specially selected and prepared for the purpose. 
Possibly no other practice in the whole art of 
cheese-making has given rise to so much discussion 
and difference of opinion as has this matter of using 
a starter, owing to a confusion of what is mere 
practice on the one hand, with what is a true 
principle on the other. The principle of the starter 
is correct, but the practice has often been wrong, 
and those making the mistakes have been unable 
to see that they were violating the principle under- 
lying the practice. Others have judged the prin- 
ciple by the results of wrong practice. It has come 
to be generally recognized, however, that a well- 
prepared starter is a great aid to the cheese- 
maker in advancing the acidity of the milk, and 
also in overcoming wrong fermentations, which, 
if allowed to proceed unchecked, will result in 
objectionable flavors. The judicious use of a good 
starter gives the cheese-maker a measure of con- 
trol over the flavor and even the texture of his 
cheese, and this is very desirable. 

The fermentation starter. 

There are two ways of preparing a fermentation 
"starter." The cheese-maker may purchase a so- 
called "pure culture" from his dairy supply house, . 
from which to make his mother starter, or he may 
propagate it himself. (1) If the former method is 
adopted, it will be necessary to secure a quart or 
two of pasteurized milk, to which the pure culture 
is added. This is allowed to stand in a sealed jar 
until it has curdled, when it is added to the right 
quantity of pasteurized milk to provide the neces- 
sary one-half per cent of starter for the next day's 
cheese-making ; hence the name "mother starter." 
Before the starter is added to the milk, a quantity 
is preserved to be added to more pasteurized milk 
for the following day, and so on indefinitely, or at 
least as long as the starter retains its desirable 
flavor and character. (2) The mother starter may 



THE MAKING OP CHEDDAR CHEESE 



211 



be prepared by pasteurizing several separate lots 
of milk, which are afterward cooled to about 70°, by 
pouring or exposure to air, which is as free as pos- 
sible from objectionable taints or odors. By expos- 
ing the pasteurized milk in an atmosphere where 
the chances are best for getting the right class of 
fermentation, the milk is again seeded, and, in 
most cases, with satisfactory results. These sam- 
ples are then kept in sealed jars until curdling takes 
place. It may require several days to reach this 
stage, and it should be noted that practical, experi- 
ence teaches that the lower the temperature, down 
to about 60°, the better are the chances of obtain- 
ing good flavors. The best of the several lots 
should be selected, if any are good enough, and 
the procedure is the same as with the mother 
starter prepared from the commercial pure culture. 

It is a good practice to have a covered box or 
tank, with steam and cold water connections, of a 
capacity to hold one starter can for each vat of 
milk. Each can should contain the right quantity 
to make one-half per cent of the milk in the vat. 
With these conveniences, the heating and subse- 
quent cooling are very easily accomplished. 

The starter will be most effective if used very 
soon after the milk is curdled. Some care and 
judgment are therefore necessary to ensure that 
the right quantity of mother starter is added and 
the right temperature maintained to produce curd- 
ling at the proper time. 

The starter has been abused by ignorant and 
careless cheese-makers. Some have failed to realize 
that if a bad-flavored starter is used it is almost 
certain that bad-flavored cheese will be the result. 
The use of a too large percentage of starter may 
give the cheese an acidy texture. A proper starter 
having a clean, pleasant, acid taste and flavor is a 
great advantage to the cheese - maker, but it 
requires skill and care to prepare and use it. The 
greatest care must be taken to sterilize all vessels 
or utensils coming into contact with it. The starter 
should not be allowed to become too old, because 
putrefactive ferments are likely to gain the ascend- 
ency. 

The acidimeter. 

Nothing has helped more to systematise the pro- 
cess of Cheddar cheese-making than the compara- 
tively recent introduction of acidimetry, or the 
adaptation, for the use of the cheese-maker, of the 
process known to the chemists for determining the 
strength of acids. With this test the cheese-maker 
may learn the exact acidity of the milk as received 
at the factory, and is enabled to regulate the ripen- 
ing, or the addition of starter, in an intelligent 
manner. An accurate guide is also provided for the 
proper development of acidity in the curd, by 
applying this test to the whey. 

For the purpose of making the test, a standard 
alkaline solution is provided and kept in a well- 
stoppered bottle. A burette to measure at least fifty 
cubic centimeters, a white cup or dish, a ten-cubic 
centimeter pipette, a bottle of phenolphthalein 
indicator and a glass stirring-rod complete' the 
outfit. Ten cubic centimeters of the milk or whey 



to be tested is measured into the white cup and a 
few drops of the indicator are added. The alkaline 
solution is now allowed to drop slowly into the 
milk, which is stirred constantly during the opera- 
tion. The phenolphthalein gives no color reaction 
in an acid medium, but as soon as sufficient of the • 
alkaline solution has been added to the milk to 
neutralize the acid, a pink tinge appears.. The 
addition of the alkaline solution is stopped as soon 
as this pink tint is permanent. The number of 
cubic centimeters and fractions thereof, of the 
solution, required to produce the pink color, indi- 
cates the percentage of acidity, each cubic centi- 
meter representing .1 per cent of acid. Milk will 
show, on the average, .19 to .21 per cent of acid 
when ready for the addition of the rennet, but the 
exact percentage can be determined only by expe- 
rience for each locality. The whey, immediately 
after cutting and stirring begins, will show a lower 
acidity than the milk did before the rennet was 
added, because of the acid reaction of the casein 
which is retained in the curd. The percentage of 
acid in the whey immediately after cutting should 
be .14 to .15 per cent, or about .05 per cent less than 
shown in the milk. Any variation from that is the 
guide to the cheese-maker either to hasten or 
retard the subsequent heating and cooking of the 
curd. The whey should be removed when its acidity 
is about .01 less than the acidity of the milk at 
the time of adding the rennet. If it is " working " 
fast, rather more margin should be given. There 
are various modifications of this test, for which 
apparatus and supplies may be procured from 
dealers in dairy utensils. 

Cutting the curd. 

The object of cutting the curd is to facilitate 
the removal of the whey. For this purpose the 
American curd-knives are now most generally used. 
These consist of a set of two (Fig. 214), each hav- 
ing a number of blades held 
in a frame three-eighths to 
half an inch apart.the blades 
running perpendicular in 
one knife and horizontal in 
the other. A later modifi- 
cation of the curd-knife is 
made of fine wires, about 
three-eighths inch apart, 
stretched on a steel frame. 
When the curd is firm 
enough, the perpendicular 
knife is passed lengthwise 
and crosswise of the vat, 
and the horizontal knife in 
one direction only, leaving 
the curd, theoretically, in cubes, the size of which 
corresponds with the distance between the blades of 
the knives. Frequently, the horizontal knife is used 
first. Great care must be exercised in the cutting, 
because the curd at this stage is very jelly- 
like and easily displaced, and there is likely to 
be much unevenness in the size of the cubes and 
loss of solid matter unless the work is done care- 
fully. As the finer the curd is cut the more quickly 





Fig. 214. Curd-knives. 



212 



THE MAKING OF CHEDDAR CHEESE 



it becomes firm, it is obviously important, for the 
sake of uniformity, to have the curd cut or broken 
as evenly as possible. If the milk is over-ripe, it is 
an advantage to cut the curd somewhat finer than 
if the conditions are normal. Some makers follow 
the practice of allowing the curd to stand for a few 
minutes between the two cuttings, while others 
finish the work when once begun, without any 
delay. 

Heating the curd. 

After the cutting is finished, stirring should 
begin, being very gentle at first else the bruising 
of the curd, in its tender state, will cause serious 
loss of the solid constituents. After ten or fifteen 
minutes of careful handling, the curd becomes 
firmer and the freshly cut surfaces more or less 
" healed over," so that the stirring can be proceeded 
with more vigorously. As a matter of fact, it is 
necessary to accelerate the stirring as the heating 
progresses, because, as the curd becomes firmer 
and more solid, its density is increased and there 
is more tendency to settle and pack in a mass in 
the bottom of the vat. Toward the end of the 
heating period, which should cover about forty 
minutes, — at the rate of one degree every three 
minutes, — stirring cannot be too vigorous. 

The "cooking" temperature, so-called, requires 
to be varied according to localities and the char- 
acter of the milk. In some places it has been found 
necessary to raise the temperature as high as 108° 
to 110° Fahr. in order to get the curd sufficiently 
firm and to expel a proper amount of moisture, 
while in other districts much better results are 
obtained at a temperature of 96°. A very common 
rule is to fix 98° as the standard temperature and 
then to vary it according to circumstances. The 
maker must use his own judgment in matters of 
this kind. If he finds that his cheese is turning 
out too firm and dry, a lower cooking temperature 
will have some effect in the opposite direction, but 
there may be other reasons for the dryness of the 
cheese, and that is where the exercise of judgment 
is required. If, on the other hand, it is found that 



Fig. 215. A type of curd-sink. 

the cheese retains too much moisture and is in- 
clined to show excess of acidity, the cooking tem- 
perature may be raised a degree or two and the 
result noted. 

There are several things in the process of cheese- 
making which affect the amount of moisture 
retained in the curd, and success or failure in 
cheese-making hinges on that point. In the first 
place, the size of the particles into which the curd 



is cut or broken has considerable influence. The 
cooking temperature also affects the amount of 
moisture retained in the curd. If a part of the 
whey is removed from the vat as soon as the heat- 
ing is finished, or even before, the increased pres- 
sure on the curd and the extra handling which it 
receives also tend to expel the moisture. 

Drawing the whey. 

It should take two and a half to three hours from 
the time the rennet is added until sufficient acidity 
is developed and the curd has become firm enough 





Fig. 216. Curd-mill. 

to permit of the whey being entirely removed. 
If it takes longer, it is wise to allow the ripening 
of the milk to advance a little farther before 
the rennet is added. If it takes less time, it is 
evidence that the milk is over-ripe, and every 
effort should be made to have it delivered in a 
sweeter condition, and the process should be modi- 
fied on the lines already mentioned, so as to retard 
the development of acidity by hastening the removal 
of the whey. It is the development of acidity 
beyond a certain point in the curd, before it has 
become sufficiently firm or free from moisture, 
that makes a sour cheese. The curd should be 
firm enough to have a slightly elastic consistency 
when pressed in the hand by the time the acidity 
has reached .19 or .20 per cent. 

The " hot iron test " was generally used, until 
recent years, to determine the proper stage for the 
removal of whey, and many cheese-makers still 
depend on it. This test, which is of American origin, 
is simplicity itself, as far as apparatus goes, but 
the difficulty experienced in acquiring the knack of 
applying it usually surprises the novice. 
The test consists in pressing a handful of 
curd, from which the surplus whey has been 
squeezed, against a heated iron surface. 
Given the right temperature in the iron, 
and proper manipulation, the curd sticks to 
it and at a certain stage begins to spin fine 
threads when slowly drawn away. In the 
best practice, the whey is removed when 
these threads may be drawn out one-eighth 
to one-fourth of an inch, which is equivalent 
to about .19 to .20 per cent of acidity as 
shown by the acidimeter. 

As the whey is being removed, the curd is stirred 
and finally placed on racks, which are covered with 
a linen cloth, to facilitate the drainage of the whey. 
The racks may be placed for this purpose on the 
bottom of the cheese vat, or they may be in a 
special frame, technically called a "curd-sink" 
(Fig. 215). One advantage of the sink is that it 
can be fitted with castors and wheeled from place 



THE MAKING OP CHEDDAR CHEESE 



213 



to place, which permits of a different plan of build- 
ing and arrangement of machinery as compared 
with a factory in which the racks are used in the 
vat. Both methods have their advantages and dis- 
advantages, but the choice is one of convenience 
and suitability for a particular building rather 
than for any essential difference as far as the art 
of cheese-making is concerned. In either method, 
a cover should be provided to retain the heat in 
the curd and to prevent its drying on the surface. 
Only experience can teach the right amount of 
stirring or handling of the curd at this stage to 
ensure the proper amount of moisture in the cheese. 
A prominent instructor used to say to his students: 
"Always stir the curd until it 'squeaks' between 
the teeth," and the rule is a very good one. 

Maturing the curd. 

When the curd has been allowed to stand long 
enough for the particles to adhere and form a solid 
mass, it is cut or broken into pieces of convenient 
size for handling, and then turned from time to 
t/me, in order further to facilitate the removal of 
the whey, and to preserve an even tem- 
perature and color. At the second and 
subsequent turnings the pieces are 
usually piled two or three layers 
deep. 

When the curd draws 
about one inch on the hot 
iron, or the whey 
which drains 
from it shows .6 
per cent of acid, 
it is milled (Figs. 
216, 217) and 
then frequently 
stirred until it 
becomes mellow 
and velvety, when the salt is applied at the rate of 
one and one-half to three pounds per 1,000 pounds 
of milk, according to the season of the year, and the 
yield of cheese from the milk, the smaller quantity 
being used in the spring, when the milk is poor, and 
when the cheese is usually wanted for quick con- 
sumption. The whey dripping from the curd should 
test 1 to 1.25 per cent of acid before the salt is 
added. After the salt has been thoroughly mixed 
with the curd, it is allowed to stand for about, 
twenty minutes. 

Pressing the cheese. 

The curd is now ready for the molds or presses 
(Figs. 218, 219). A standard Cheddar cheese has a 
diameter of fourteen and one-half to fifteen and 
one-half inches, varies from ten to twelve inches 
in height, and weighs seventy to ninety pounds ; 
but there is no limit to the size or shape into which 
this cheese may be molded. The varieties in the 
United States take the form of " twins," which are 
of standard diameter, but half the usual height, so 
that two go in a standard box ; "flats," also of 
standard diameter, but shallower; "daisies," smaller 
in all dimensions; "Young Americas" or "Stilton 
shapes," six or seven inches in diameter, weighing 




Fig. 217. Curd-cutter. 



ten to twelve pounds, and many other sizes. For 
show purposes, Cheddar cheese is often made to 
weigh 1,000 to 1,200 pounds. About forty years 
ago, a 7,000-pound cheese was made at Ingersoll, 




Fig. 218. Cheese-press. 

Ontario, and exhibited as a curiosity in England ; 
but the record was reached in 1892, when the 
writer assisted Professor J. W. Robertson, then 
Dairy Commissioner for Canada, in "building" the 
22,000-pound cheese, at Perth, Ontario, which was 
exhibited at the World's Fair at Chicago, the fol- 
lowing year. 

When ready for pressing, the curd is weighed 
into the molds or " hoops " to insure uniformity in 
size, and the pressure applied, lightly at first, but 
gradually increased until the full strength of the 
press is reached. In the course of about one hour, 
the cheese is temporarily removed from the hoops, 
and the bandage trimmed and adjusted so as to 
secure a neat [and attractive finish. The cheese is 
then left under heavy pressure over night. In the 
best factories it is again trimmed in the morning, 
re-pressed and finally removed in time to make 
room for the next day's curd. 

Curing the cheese. 

It has often been said that cheese is only half 
made when it is placed in the curing-room. At any 
rate, the best of cheese is seriously injured in 
quality if exposed to a temperature of over 60°, 
and there is 1 to 2 per cent of unnecessary shrink- 
age. The texture becomes more or less "mealy" 
and objectionable flavors are likely to be developed. 
It has been demonstrated that curing, or ripening, 
will proceed at very low temperatures, even below 
32°, but more slowly as the temperature is reduced. 




Fig. 219. Steel combination cheese-press. 



Extremely low temperatures are inadvisable, 
because, while such practice may result in an 
absence of bad flavor, it also has the further nega- 
tive effect of preventing the development of the 
characteristic cheesy flavor which is an essential 
quality in first-class typical Cheddar. The ideal 



214 



THE MAKING OF CHEDDAR CHEESE 



cheese has a positive as well as a negative quality 
of flavor. On the whole, a temperature of 60° 
seems to be best suited to produce this desired 
result. 

A curing -room with walls slightly insulated, 
with tight-fitting doors and windows and with a 




Fig. 220. Two cheese-triers and one butter-trier (the 
longest one). 

cement floor to utilize the cooling power of the 
earth, will ensure the proper temperature except 
in very hot weather. To remove the moisture 
which exudes from the cheese, and that which 
results from the reduction of temperature, and also 
to insure a proper temperature, it is advisable to 
provide a well-insulated ice-chamber adjoining the 
curing-room, with a provision for the circulation 
of air, under control, between the curing-room and 
the ice -chamber. The air is thus cooled in hot 
weather and the moisture which it collects is 
deposited on the uncovered surface of the ice. If 
properly constructed, the ice-chamber need be only 
about one-third the size of the curing-room in cubic 
capacity, assuming, of course, that the curing-room 
is no larger than is necessary to hold the cheese. 

The cheese factory. 

The early cheese-factory buildings were more or 
less makeshift in character, and usually constructed 
entirely of wood ; but these are gradually being 
replaced by a more permanent and more sanitary 
type of building. The cement floor is very properly 
superseding the wooden floor, both for making- 
rooms and curing-rooms. No cheese factory can 
have perfect drainage unless the floors are imper- 
vious to water, and no ordinary wooden floor can 
remain waterproof for any length of time. The 
cement floor is impervious and permits of proper 
drainage, without which the factory premises can- 
not be kept in a sanitary condition. 

The surroundings of factories have been very 
much neglected, but there is evidence of an 




Butter tubs and cheese boxes. 



improvement in this respect, and owners and 
managers of factories are beginning to take more 
pride in the appearance of the buildings and 
grounds surrounding them. 

The following specifications were prepared by the 
writer, from plans that were recently designed and 
that have proved in actual practice to be very 



satisfactory. [See Report of the Dairy Commis- 
sioner for the Dominion of Canada, 1906, Ottawa.] 

SPECIFICATION FOR A CHEESE FACTORY WITH A COOL 
CURING-ROOM, TO BE CONSTRUCTED OF WOOD. 
(Fig. 222.) 

Materials. 

Wood. — All lumber employed must be thoroughly 
dry and sound, without loose knots or shakes, and 
should be odorless. 

Spruce and hemlock are the best, in the order 
named. Pine is not so suitable for inside sheath- 
ing, because of its odor. 

All boards employed should be dressed as well as 
tongued and grooved. 

Unseasoned lumber must be carefully avoided. 
When building in winter, fires must be kept going, 
so as to have all materials as dry as possible. This 
is very important, as dampness in insulation 
destroys its efficiency. 

Paper. — All papers used to be strictly odorless 
and damp-proof. 

Damp-proof insulating papers can be had in rolls 
of 500 to 1,000 square feet, thirty-six inches wide. 
The following brands can be recommended, viz. : 
"Neponset," "Hercules," "Ko-Sat." 

Tar paper, felt paper, straw paper, rosin-sized 
paper, and all other common building papers, are 
not suitable and should not be used. 

Use double thicknesses in all cases, each layer 
lapping two inches over preceding one. The layers 
should extend continuously around all corners. All 
breaks to be carefully covered. 

Shavings. — Shavings must be thoroughly dry, 
free from bark or other dirt. Shavings from some 
odorless wood, such as hemlock, spruce or white 
wood, to have the preference. 

Bales of shavings received in a damp condition 
should be opened and the shavings exposed to the 
air and stirred occasionally until they are dry. 

The spaces in the walls should be filled gradually 
as the inside sheathing is being put on, and the 
shavings well packed. 

About eight pounds of shavings, closely packed, 
will be required for each cubic foot of space filled. 
For a room 8x8x7 feet, with anteroom 8x4x7 
feet, built on this specification, 3,000 pounds will 
be needed. 

Cinders. — Coal cinders should be used wherever 
possible to cover the earth over area of ice-cham- 
ber, in preference to sand, gravel or tan-bark. 

Construction. 

Foundations. — The building to rest on stone or 
concrete foundations. 

Floors. — Floors throughout the building to be of 
cement concrete. The area under the ice-chamber 
need not be provided with the usual finish or wear- 
ing surface, as it is intended only to give solidity 
to the ice-chamber floor. 

Floor of ice-chamber. — Lay a false floor six inches 
above concrete and fill space between concrete and 
false floor with cinders, dry ashes, tan-bark or 
dry sand. 



THE MAKING OF CHEDDAR CHEESE 



215 




Fig. 222. Detail of construction for frame building. (Buildings shown in Figs. 222-227, designed by J. A. Ruddick ) 



Fix 2 x 12-inch joists as shown on plan. Cover 
with two courses of matched lumber, with two-ply 
of damp-proof paper between. Cover the whole 
with galvanized iron, with soldered seams, and 
flashed along the walls about eight inches. 

The main floor of the ice-chamber should have a 
slope of one inch in every four feet, to a gutter 
connected with the drain, to carry off the water 
from the melting ice/ 

The drain must be trapped to prevent passage 
of air. 

Drainage. — Provision for drainage to be made 
by forming the usual gutters in the cement floor 
of the making -room and press-room. The floor 
should be made with a slope of one inch in every 
four feet toward the gutter. A glazed tile drain 
with cemented joints should be provided, to carry 
all drainage to a safe distance and thus 
avoid creating a nuisance near the fac- 
tory, or running the risk of contami- 
nating the water-supply. 

Walls. — Set up 2 x 6-inch studding, 
and cover outside with one course of 
matched lumber, two ply of damp-proof 
paper and siding, or clapboards. For 
inside finish of making-room, line up 
with matched lumber. For finish of 
curing-room, cover inside of studs with 
two courses of matched lumber, with 
two ply of damp-proof paper between. 
For inside finish of ice-chamber, set 
up another row of 2x6- mch studs, 
to alternate with outside row, as 
shown in the detail of Fig. 223. Cover 
inside of studs with two courses of 



matched lumber, with two ply of damp-proof paper 
between. Over this lay another ply of damp-proof 
paper, one-inch furring-strip and finish with one 
course of matched lumber. The inside row of studs 
should be placed so as to leave a space of twelve 
inches for shavings between the inside and the 
outside sheathing. 

Partitions. — Partition between making-room and 
drying-room to be of 2 x 4-inch studs with one 
course of matched lumber on both sides. Partition 
between drying -room and curing -room to be of 
2 x 6-inch studs with two courses of matched lum- 
ber and double ply of damp - proof paper on each 
side of studding. Partition between ice-chamber 
and curing-room to be same as walls of ice-chamber. 

Ceilings. — Ceiling of making-room to be vaulted 
by laying one course of matched lumber on under 

DE.TAJU OF FRAME CONSTRUCTION. 




T4S BOAROINB I 



Fie.5. WALL OF CURING ROOM. 



P&PER 
INCH SPACC 
T.JiG SHCCTINg 

WALL OF ICE CHAMBER 
DETAIL OF BRICK CONSTRUCTION 



T.e,G.BOAROiN& 
-PAPER. 

■ra&SHECTjNe 



ilir^BmcK 

^^•INCH Sf 




:*G.3HCETIN& 
WALL Or CURING ROOM. 



WALL OF ICC CHAMBER. 

Fig. 223. Detail of wall construction. 



216 



THE MAKING OF CHEDDAR CHEESE 



side of rafters and cross-pieces fixed at suitable 
height. Ceiling in drying-room to consist of one 
course of matched lumber on under side of joists. 
Ceiling of curing-room to consist of two courses of 
matched lumber, with two ply of damp-proof paper 
between. Ceiling of ice-chamber to be the same as 




Fig. 224. Longitudinal section of wood-construction cheese factory, a, Detail of racks; 
b, detail of posts and brackets; c, door fastening. 

walls of ice-chamber. On upper side of joists lay 
two courses of lumber, with two ply of paper 
between, over area of ice-chamber ; over curing- 
room and drying-room one course of matched 
lumber. 

Spaces to be filled. — Fill all spaces between joists 
and studs in walls, floor, ceiling and partition of 
ice-chamber, and all spaces between studs and joists 
in walls, ceiling and partition of curing-room, with 
planing-mill shavings, as shown on plan. 

Windows in curing -room. — Should not be over 
two feet square, and placed between the rows of 
shelving, close to the ceiling, as shown on plan. 
The sash should be double and each double-glazed, 
and be carefully fitted. They should be hinged at 
the top. Each window should be fitted with a 
wooden shutter to keep out direct rays of the sun, 
but not to keep out the light. 

Curing-room doors. — 
Doors to be built up 
with two-inch skeleton 
frame, covered on both 
sides with two courses of 
matched lumber, with 
two ply of damp-proof 
paper between. Edges to 
be beveled and covered 
with felt. Doors to be 
fitted with a wrought- 
iron door fastener, as 
shown at Fig. 224. 



SPECIFICATION FOR A CHEESE FACTORY WITH A COOL 
CURING-ROOM, TO BE CONSTRUCTED OF BRICK OR 
CEMENT AND WOOD. (Fig. 226.) 

The specifications for materials are the same as 
for wood construction. 

Foundations and floors. — [See specifications for 
wood construction, p. 214.] 
Floor of ice- chamber. — 
Lay over concrete bed six 
inches of dry coal cinders 
and ram solidly to make a 
firm bearing on which to 
place one layer of four- 
inch hollow brick, laid in 
cement. Finish with one 
inch of cement, covering 
the surface well with neat 
cement to make it as nearly 
damp-proof as possible. The 
floor should slope one inch 
in every four feet to a gut- 
ter on one side, connected 
with the drain, to carry 
off the water from the 
melting ice. The connec- 
tion with the drain must be 
trapped to prevent passage 
of air. 
Drainage. — [See wood construction, page 214.] 
Walls. — The brick or cement walls will need no 
interior finish in the making-room, press-room, dry- 
ing-room, wash-room and engine-room, except a 
smooth coat of plaster, preferably of cement. Such 
a finish is sanitary, durable and easily cleaned. 

For the insulated rooms, i. e., the ice-chamber 
and curing-room, it is very desirable that the inside 
surfaces of the brick or cement walls should be 
waterproofed by coating with pitch (not tar), 




Fig. 225. Plan of ground floor of wood-construction factory. 



Double doors should be fitted to all openings 
into the ice-chambers. These doors, which are not 
often opened, should be provided with a special 
fastener consisting of bolts with a long thread 
and tail-nuts, in order that they may be screwed 
up tight. 



asphalt or paraffin wax. These substances are not 
easily applied, especially in cold weather, because 
of their quality of hardening very quickly. A 
plastering of cement improves the damp-resisting 
quality of brick or concrete walls. 

For the insulation of the curing rooms, lay one- 



THE MAKING OF CHEDDAR CHEESE 



217 



inch furring-strips on wall, and nail thereon one 
course of matched lumber. Set up a row of 2x4-inch 
studs and finish with two courses of matched lum- 
ber, with two ply of damp-proof paper between. 
The space between studs w _ _ _ _ m 

to be filled with shavings. 
(Fig 223, lower right- 
hand section). 

For insulation of ice- 
chamber walls, lay one- 
inch furring-strips and 
cover with one course of 
matched lumber. Set up 
one row of 2x4- inch 
studs against the sheath- 
ing, and another row to 
alternate with first row, 
with outer edges twelve 
inches from the sheath- 
ing, so as to form a space of 
twelve inches for filling with 
shavings. Nail on studs two 
courses of matched lumber, with 
two ply of damp-proof paper be- 
tween. Over this lay another ply of damp-proof 
paper, one-inch furring-strips, and one course of 
matched lumber, leaving a one -inch air-space, 
which is for the purpose of checking the dampness 
that comes from the ice, and that must be kept out 
of the insulation. (Fig. 223, lower left-hand sec- 
tion). 

If the inside surface of brick or cement is made 
thoroughly damp-proof, as described, the furring- 
strips and single course of matched lumber may be 
dispensed with, and also the first row of studs next 
the wall of the ice-chamber, if the construction 



will permit, as they are not necessary to the 
insulation. 

Partitions. — Partition between making-room and 
drying-room to be of brick or cement. Partition 
between drying-room and curing-room to be the 
same as curing-room walls. Partition between cur- 
ing-room and ice-chamber to be the same as walls 
of ice-chamber. 




Ceilings. — [See specification for wood construc- 
tions, page 214.] 

Spaees to be filled. — Fill all spaces between studs 
and joists, in walls, ceilings and partitions with 
dry, planing-mill shavings. 

Windows in curing-room. — [See specification for 
wood construction.] 

Curing-room doors. — [See specification for wood 
construction.] 

It is important that the doors should make an 
air-tight joint when closed. The slightest opening 
will result in unnecessary consumption of ice, and 
at the same time allow sufficient warm moisture- 
laden air to enter to cause dampness and an unduly 
high temperature. 

For literature, see page 219. 




Fig. 226. Detail of construction for brick building. 



218 



OTHER VARIETIES OF HARD CHEESE 



OTHER VARIETIES OF HARD CHEESE 

By Charles Thorn, and others 

The number of varieties of cheese, grading from 
hard through semi-hard to soft, is almost innumer- 
able, inasmuch as slight variations in the processes 
of cheese-making greatly influence the character of 
the product. For the same reason, there is much 
variation in the quality and character of a given 
variety, depending on the details in its making. 
The same cheese may be put up in different forms, 
in order to reach special markets. Thus, we have 
several modifications of the common Cheddar 
cheese — the young America, pineapple, picnics, 
truckle — small hard cheeses, made in different 
forms. Then there are the English varieties — the 
Leicestershire, Gloucester, Derbyshire, and Wiltshire, 
modifications of the Cheddar cheese that are sel- 
dom found in America. Sage cheese is not essen- 
tially different from the Cheddar, except that it is 
flavored with sage extract or sage leaves. The 
American home-trade, or stirrcd-curd cheese, is very 
similar to the Cheddar in the details of its manu- 
facture ; and yet a slight modification, by which 
more moisture is retained, results in a very dif- 
ferent cheese — one that is softer and milder. By 
removing fat from the milk, we get skimmed or 
partially skimmed cheese. Prepared cheeses are fancy 
brands made by softening and reworking good com- 
mon cheese, with the addition of butter or other fat 
and some flavoring substance. 

In this way the gradations from one type of 
cheese to other entirely different types might be 
traced. One can readily see the almost infinite 
number of types or varieties that might result. It 
would be to no purpose to mention all of these. 
We add here a few of the other hard cheeses that 
are recognized as such on the American market. For 
fuller notes on these and other types, the reader 
should consult the references given on page 219. 

English dairy. 

English dairy or imitation English dairy cheese is 
one of the modifications of the hard cheese that has 
been developed in recent years. Considerable cheese 
is now made under this name. It reaches a special 
trade that demands a cheese having some approach 
to the texture and flavor of the choice British varie- 
ties. The makers have developed a practice on 
English lines which produces cheese for a trade that 
is comparatively limited, but which may be expected 
to enlarge with the increase in the demand for the 
finer flavored varieties. Its market name suggests 
its approach to the qualities sought, without using 
the name of any particular type of English cheese. 

Swiss {Schweitzer) Emmenthaler or Gruyere. 

The most important European cheese in the 
American market is the Swiss. Although distin- 
guished into Emmenthaler and Gruyere by the 
expert, the ordinary trade recognizes only a general 
type of Swiss cheese, for which any of these names 
is commonly used. These cheeses are large, weigh- 
ing fifty to one hundred and twenty-five pounds, or 
even more. The cut surface shows numerous holes 



throughout the cheese. These vary in size up to an 
inch in diameter. They result from fermentation 
induced in making the cheese. The cheese itself is 
rather hard or firm in texture, mild but character- 
istic in flavor. 

The product of the Swiss factories has won a 
place in all the markets of the world by its supe- 
rior qualities. Its importation probably exceeds all 
other varieties that reach the American market. 
It is the best known of all the foreign cheeses to 
the native American. The demand for this cheese, 
coupled with the settlement of Swiss farmers in 
many parts of America, has resulted in the estab- 
lishment of numerous factories, especially in New 
York and Wisconsin, for the manufacture of domes- 
tic or imitation Swiss cheese. Although the product 
has thus far failed to equal the characteristic flavor 
of the imported cheese with sufficient uniformity 
to rival it in price, the production of domestic 
Swiss has outstripped, in recent years, all other 
varieties, except American Cheddar, and is rapidly 
increasing, with every prospect of equaling the im- 
ported cheese in quality within a few years. 

Edam. 

Edam, as an imported cheese, comes from north- 
ern Holland. The cheeses are round, painted red, 
weigh about three pounds each, and are rather 
hard. Although whole milk is supposed to make the 
best cheeses, Edam, as it reaches the trade, is usually 
partially skimmed. In texture it is compact, and 
often very dry. In flavor, it is a mild type of cheese, 
although ripened for several months. Its keeping 
quality makes it familiar on all large markets, since 
there is no loss in handling. 

Cheeses labeled " Edam " are made to some ex- 
tent in America, and resemble closely the imported 
article, although distinguished by experts. 

Gouda or Pantegras. (John W. Decker.) (Fig. 228.) 

Gouda cheese originated in South Holland, and 

takes its name from the city of Gouda. It is made 




Fig. 228. A, Gouda or Pantegras cheese; B, Gouda mould 
C, bottom of mould into which, D, the top fits. 

to some extent in America for shipment to the 
West Indies, where it is known as Pantegras cheese. 
It is larger than Edam, and pressed as flattened 
spheres. It is a sweet-curd cheese, which is salted 
in brine and cured in the same manner as Edam. 



OTHER VARIETIES OF HARD CHEESE 



219 



It must be made from good milk, as gassy fermen- 
tations spoil it. In the hot summer months its 
manufacture is dispensed with for this reason. It 
is packed four in a case, the case having little 
holes covered with wire screen for ventilation. 

Minister. 

Munster is one of the softer varieties of hard 
cheese, imported from Germany in a small way, 
but made on a considerable scale in America. It is 
made in small sizes, with a smooth, slightly open 
texture. It is ripened for a short time, and then 
sold. It is a mild cheese, intermediate, perhaps, 
between the Cheddar type and such cheeses as 
Brick. (Page 224.) 

Parmesan, Grana and others. 

The Italian hard cheeses, Parmesan, Grana, Ro- 
mane, Reggiano and other varietal names, are 
imported in considerable quantities, and reach all 
of the large markets. These cheeses are large, 
very hard and dry, being ripened for long periods, 
two to three years commonly. In this ripening an 
even distribution of small gas-holes is secured by 
particular ferments. The ripening commonly gives 
a sweetish flavor. As a market article these cheeses 
satisfy the taste of the Italian immigrant, and an 
increasing native demand for a cheese suitable for 
grating and use in cooking, especially with maca- 
roni. No attempt to manufacture this cheese has 
been made in America. 

Cococavallo, Scamorze or Buttiro. (John W. Decker.) 
For this Italian cheese, the milk is skimmed and 
then coagulated with rennet, and the curd is firmed 
and allowed to settle to the bottom of the vat. 
The whey is then drawn off. The curd is cut into 
pieces and piled on a draining-table. After a num- 
ber of hours of draining, it is cut into small strips 
and thrown into a vat of hot water. The small 
strips of curd melt together into a mass resembling 
taffy. The cheese-maker then draws it out in a 
string and molds it by hand. The usual shape is 
that of "Indian clubs," but it may be in the forms 
of animals. Each form, as fast as made, is thrown 
into a vat of cold water, to set it in the shape into 
which it has been drawn. After a number of hours 
in this cold water, it goes into a brine bath for 
salting. After salting, it is hung up by a string to 
cure. It may be marketed green, or may be 
cured several months. A small cheese may weigh 
only a pound, a large one five or six pounds. A 
small ball of butter is sometimes worked into the 
curd, when it is termed Buttiro cheese. The cheese 
is shipped in barrels. 

Italians coming to America have brought with 
them their methods of cheese-making. In Sullivan 
and Orange counties, New York, and in Geuga 
county, Ohio, there are factories making such 
cheese. 

Eieotte. (John W. Decker.) 

This is an albumen cheese made by heating the 
whey drawn from the former cheese, to about 200° 
Fahr. The addition of sour whey helps to coagulate 



the albumen, which is skimmed out and put into 
perforated tin cylinders about six inches in diame- 
ter. These tin molds are slightly tapering, and are 
set one into another for pressure. The albumen 
block is then rubbed with salt and set on a shelf to 
dry for weeks. A steam-heated kiln may be used 
to facilitate the drying. The cheese is wrapped in 
parchment paper, and packed in barrels for ship- 
ment. 

Other varieties and brands. 

An increasing number of special articles reach 
the trade under factory names alone. These vary 
from skilfully made skimmed cheeses, which satisfy 




Fig. 229. Italian (Scamorze) cheese, hung from attic 
rafters to cure. 

the demand for a mild-flavored cheese at a moder- 
ate price, to the elaborate and attractive packages 
of processed cheese, which bring fancy prices. In 
the absence of standards and type names of known 
significance, these may be said to appeal to the 
appetite for variety among foods — the special 
market rather than to the regular market for 
standard products. 

Literature on hard cheeses. (J. A. Ruddick.) 

The literature of cheese -making is not exten- 
sive, nor is the fact surprising, considering that 
the knowledge of the subject was almost wholly 
empirical until within the last twenty-five or 
thirty years. As a matter of fact, the only lit- 
erature of much practical value to the cheese- 
maker has appeared within the last ten or fifteen 
years. The publications of the United States and 
the Canadian Departments of Agriculture and the 
agricultural experiment stations of New York and 
Wisconsin and other cheese - making states, are 
among the most important contributions to the 
present-day cheese literature. 

John Oliver, Milk, Butter and Cheese ; Aikman 
and Wright, The Book of the Dairy, Translated 
from the German of Fleischmann ; James Long, 
Elements of Dairy Farming ; H. D. Richmond, 
Dairy Chemistry ; F. J. Lloyd, Cheddar Cheese- 
making ; M. A. Callaghan, Dairying in All Its 
Branches ; J. H. Monrad, A B C of Cheesemaking: 
J. W. Decker; Cheddar Cheesemaking ; H. H. Wing, 
Milk and Its Products ; H. H. Dean, Canadian 
Dairying ; L. L. Van Slyke, Testing Milk and Its 



220 



SOFT CHEESES IN AMERICA 



Products ; H. W. Conn, Bacteria in Cheesemaking ; 
Parrington and Woll, Testing Milk and Its Products, 
Alvord, Cheesemaking on the Farm, Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 166, United States Department of 
Agriculture. 

SOFT CHEESES IN AMERICA 

By Charles Thorn 

One definition would describe soft cheese as 
cheese containing so high a percentage of water 
as either to be soft from the start or to become 
semi-fluid or buttery in the ripening process. This 
statement is ample for many varieties, but becomes 
inadequate in examining certain others (such as 
Roquefort) whose method of making or ripening 
allies them most closely with this group. Another 
definition describes soft cheese as a cheese pro- 
duced by curdling milk at low temperatures (not 
above 32° C. or about 90° F.) without a subsequent 
heating of the curd to expel the whey. Curd so 
made, in some types is cut and partially drained 
and in others is dipped directly into hoops. In all 
cases, soft cheeses are allowed to drain without 
using a press. Such cheese, then, is made of soft 
curd as distinct from curd which has been hardened 
by extra heat after curdling. Yet this definition 
would exclude most varieties of Cottage cheese. 
Used, however, in its most general sense, the des- 
ignation "soft cheese" may be applied to any 
cheese that is soft when in the proper condition 
for consumption, either from the water remaining 
in it or from the action of ripening agents ; or, to 
any cheese made from soft or unheated curd and 
put together without pressure. 

Most varieties of soft cheese consist, in the 
freshly made condition, of 45 per cent or more of 
water, with the remainder variously divided into 
fat, proteid and ash. More characteristic still for 
the ripened cheeses is the completeness of the 
breaking down or digestion of the proteids (casein 
and the like), brought about by the agents of their 
ripening. The nitrogenous constituents of the 
fully ripe soft cheeses are highly soluble in water; 
i. e., a well-marked digestion of the casein has 
taken place. They may be designated as predigested. 
On the other hand, most, if not all, hard cheeses 
contain, even when freshly pressed, less than 40 
per cent of water, and undergo in ripening much 
less complete digestion of the proteid. 

Some varieties might be classed as either hard 
or soft cheeses. Roquefort, for example, when 
ripe shows the water content and solidity of many 
true hard cheeses, but its making and the com- 
pleteness of its ripening process show it more 
truly a soft cheese. Gorgonzola and Stilton are 
closely allied to Roquefort, whereas Brick and 
Limburger, with the texture and, to a large extent, 
the ripening of soft cheeses, are allied by their 
making process to the hard cheeses. 

Home cheese-making. 

Soft cheese -making in America, as a factory 
industry, is of comparatively recent origin, although 
home cheese-making has been and still is widely 



practiced. The kinds of soft cheese made in the 
homes are as various as the sources of our won- 
derfully mixed population. The common Cottage 
cheese, under its various names, is a well-known 
article of family use in dairy regions. In the dif- 
ferent parts of the country, persons of different 
stock vary the making process widely, however, 
and have introduced their national varieties of 
home-made cheese. With comparatively few excep- 
tions, the home manufacture of soft cheeses hardly 
affects even the local markets except as it forms 
the foundation of a demand for the imported or 
the factory product. 

Importation. 

The importation of the European varieties of soft 
cheese has been largely a growth of the last gene- 
ration. Even so, the growth of this trade has been 
limited to a comparatively few choice varieties, 
although numerous varieties are imported in small 
amounts. Of these cheeses, the Roquefort has now 
become familiar in all our larger markets, and is 
not uncommon in the hotels and grocery stores 
even of our smaller cities. Camembert is widely 
used in the larger cities, but is almost unknown in 
the smaller cities. Gorgonzola reaches the large 
cities and those places where a special Italian trade 
demands its importation. English Stilton can be 
found in a very few markets. Of the remaining 
French cheeses, Port du Salut, Pont L' Eveque, Brie 
and Coulommier are imported in a small way to 
New York city. Norwegian Gammelost is rarely 
found. Of the German forms, Limburger and 
Munster are well-known in the American market, 
although the imported forms of both are largely 
displaced by the domestic product. Of the multi- 
tude of varieties of soft cheese found in the Euro- 
pean markets, only a small percentage, therefore, 
reaches America, and even of these but two or 
three constitute the larger part of the entire 
importation. 

The total importation of cheese given for the 
year 1906 (Yearbook, United States Department of 
Agriculture, 1906, p. 670) was 27,286,866 pounds, 
invoiced at prices averaging fifteen and three- 
fourth cents per pound. Of this total, not more 
than one-fourth can be given as soft cheese. Com- 
parison of this with our exportation of 16,562,451 
pounds of cheese, at prices averaging eleven and 
three-fourths cents per pound, shows the disparity 
of market values between the higher-priced Euro- 
pean cheeses and the American hard cheese, our 
only export article. 

An important barrier to the increase of trade in 
imported soft cheeses is the very perishable nature 
of the choicer varieties. Many of these cannot 
be imported at all unless shipped unripe to with- 
stand the conditions of transportation, and conse- 
quently the ripening is often abnormally completed. 
Trade standards, therefore, are difficult to establish, 
since products from equally reliable makers or even 
from the same maker often differ very greatly. In 
spite of these difficulties, however, the trade in the 
better varieties of cheese is still growing rapidly. 

As found in the American market, the various 



SOFT CHEESES IN AMERICA 



221 



types of soft cheese may be separately discussed. 
It is noteworthy that only the ripened varieties of 
soft cheese are actually imported, and of these only 
the best. These few varieties have so established 
their reputation that a review of the markets of 
several countries of Europe shows the same cheese 
commanding the higher prices in each market 
examined. (United States Department of Agricul- 
ture, Bureau of Animal Industry Report, 1905, p. 
108). 

Cheeses always eaten fresh. 

The soft cheeses that are eaten fresh are entirely 
of domestic make. Although appearing under vari- 
ous trade names, there are three types already com- 
mon, namely: Cottage cheese, domestic Neufchatel, 
and Cream. 

Cottage cheese. — Of these, Cottage cheese is 
largely a home product. As a home product, Cot- 
tage cheese is made from milk curdled by natural 
souring, then skimmed, heated to expel the whey, 
strained by hanging in cloths, and salted to taste 
with or without the addition of cream or butter. 
Some makers add caraway seed, anise, or other 
flavor. The variations are as numerous as the 
places of making. In the factories, large amounts 
of Cottage cheese are made by curdling separated 
milk with rennet. This skimmed milk curd is then 
drained in cloths, packed and shipped to the general 
market, where it is worked over and sold in various 
styles of fancy packages under trade names, often 
as Neufchatel. At best, the trade in Cottage cheese 
has never been more than as a by-product of other 
dairy work. Its possibilities have scarcely been 
touched as yet. It is also known as Dutch cheese, 
schmierkase, and pot cheese. 

Domestic Neufchatel. — On the other hand, Neuf- 
chatel and Cream constitute a really profitable 
industry of considerable magnitude in the states of 
Vermont, New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, 
and in parts of Illinois. The use and manufacture 
of these varieties of cheese is spreading over wide 
areas in the northern states and Canada. New 
York produced nearly 2,000,000 pounds of Neuf- 
chatel in 1906. 

As these cheeses appear in the market, Neuf- 
chatel is found in rectangular packages wrapped 
in paper and tinfoil. These weigh about three 
ounces and retail at five cents each, as a rule. The 
cheeses of different brands differ greatly in com- 
position ; no standard proportions are recognized 
for water, fat, and protein, although they commonly 
contain about 50 per cent of water. Neufchatel is 
always a factory product, depending for its accept- 
ability on the attractiveness of the package and 
the smoothness and palatability of the cheese itself. 

In the making, milk of varying fat test is curdled 
in several hours with a very small amount of ren- 
net. The resulting granular curd is strained in 
cloths, cooled to avoid loss of fat, pressed, and 
finally molded by machinery to produce an excep- 
tionally smooth texture in the package. European 
Neufchatel is a different product, and is not 
imported. 

Cream. — Cream cheeses are produced in exactly 



the same manner as Neufchatel, except that a 
larger amount of butter-fat is usually incorporated 
in the cheese. The better grades test 35 per cent 
of fat, or more, although brands differ so widely 
that some makes of Neufchatel are superior to the 
poorer grades of " Cream " cheese. Cream cheeses 
may be wrapped in paper and tinfoil, making square 
packages, or in many cases molded to fit white jars 
closed by sealed covers. Packages of four ounces 
sell at ten cents, making the common price per 
pound forty cents or more. The trade in Neufchatel 
and Cream cheeses has been limited to the cooler 
months of the year. It is gradually enlarging to 
become one of the most profitable of dairy manu- 
factures. With its large yield of cheese from one 
hundred pounds of milk, at good prices, great 
increase in such manufacture may be expected in 
the future. Such extension will depend largely on 
the multiplication of cold-storage facilities in the 
retail trade, which will make handling the product 
safe and profitable for a longer part of the year. 

Ripened cheeses containing green mold. 

Roquefort. — Roquefort cheese is imported from 
France. It is made from sheep's milk, with at times 
slight admixtures of goat's milk or cow's milk. 
This cheese is about eight inches in diameter 
and three inches thick, and weighs about five and 
one-half pounds. The ripe cheese presents a clean, 
white surface, but when cut is found to have an 
open texture with all its numerous air-spaces lined 
with green mold (Penieillium roqueforti, Thom), 
giving the cut surface a marbled appearance. 
Associated with this marbling is the peculiar 
piquant flavor due to the mold. It is to this ripening 
and its unequaled flavor that Roquefort owes its 
preeminence as the best known of all varieties of 
ripened cheese. 

The industry centers in the department of Avey- 
ron in southern France, and extends over an irregu- 
larly defined district, perhaps one hundred miles in 
diameter, reaching to the island of Corsica. From 
time immemorial the cheeses produced on the farm 
have been taken to the village of Roquefort, and 
ripened in caves which extend far into the rocky 
cliff, along whose sides cluster the dwellings and 
shops of the workers. In the past century, how- 
ever, the industry has been thoroughly organized, 
so that at present a few companies control the 
larger part of the factories and all of the caves 
used in ripening the cheese. So complete has 
been this organization, and so thorough the study 
of methods of making and ripening, that the cheese 
bearing the name of Roquefort has earned the 
highest reputation for uniformity in quality where- 
ever it is known. 

" In the making of Roquefort cheese the milk is 
curdled at 24° to 28° C, in one and one-half to two 
hours. The curd is cut with curd knives into lumps 
the size of a walnut. After the whey has partially 
separated, the curd is emptied into vessels covered 
with cloth to hasten the draining, where it is 
shoveled over to equalize the cooling and draining. 
After the whey is removed, the hoops are filled with 
the curd and allowed to drain with absolutely no 



222 



SOFT CHEESES IN AMERICA 



pressure. While the curd is going into the hoops 
it is well sprinkled with spores from a powdered 
bread culture of the Roquefort Penicillium. This is 
done with an instrument resembling a pepper-box, 
at the rate of ten grams of bread to about one 
hundred kilograms of cheese curd. Such a 
cheese is turned three times during the 
draining process on the same day. In three 
to five days the cheeses are sufficiently hard 
to be handled freely. On these days the 
cheeses are turned three times each day, 
and the hoops washed once a day. The 
cheeses may now go at once, but are com- 
monly allowed to accumulate a few days, 
and are then crated and carted or shipped 
to Roquefort. 

" In the caves the cheeses are salted at 
least twice with a coarse hard-grained salt. 
In this process they are first salted on one 
side and then laid in piles of three for the 
salt to diffuse into the cheese. At the second 
salting the other side receives the salt. They 
are allowed to drain some time after salt- 
ing. After the surface has dried somewhat, 
they are run through a brushing machine, 
which leaves a clean surface. They then go 
through the prickle machine. This machine has 
a disc set with long, parallel, needle-like spikes, 
which make numerous holes through the cheese to 
let in the air for the growth of mold. 

" Roquefort cheese when a few days old is hard 
enough to stand handling and transportation. In the 
salting process the cheeses remain in piles of three 
without support and without change of form. In 
section, as far as determined, they show air spaces: 
that is, the pieces of curd are not completely 
welded together by the treatment while making. 
When the cheeses drain, these spaces are left as 
the whey runs out, and the cheese is thus from the 
first specially suitable for the entrance and growth 
of mold. It may be noted here that these large 
firms employ trained men and furnish them well- 
equipped laboratories to study the technical phases 
of the work. 

" When the cheeses are ready for ripening, they 
may be sent to the caves at once or be put into 
refrigerators. If the cheeses are intended for the 
immediate market, they go at once to the caves ; 
but if they are to be held for the season when no 
cheefe is made, they are sent to the refrigerator. 
In the latter case the cheeses are wrapped closely 
in tinfoil and carried into great storage-rooms, 
where the refrigerating machines run constantly 
to maintain a temperature of about 3° or 4° C. 
The makers declare that a cheese may be kept in 
this way for five months with very little ripening. 
This does not entirely stop all changes, but the 
changes are at least very much retarded. When 
needed to fill the demand, the cheeses are taken 
from the refrigerator, the tinfoil is removed, and 
they are placed in the caves. 

" In the cave the cheeses stand on edge on the 
shelves. They are there exposed to a moist atmos- 
phere at a temperature of 15° C, or lower in some 
cases. Here the development of flavor takes place. 



In so moist an atmosphere there is very little dry- 
ing, but the cheese becomes heavily coated with a 
yellowish or reddish slime, which is probably mostly 
bacteria and Oidium lactis. No development of 
other surface molds is allowed. The surface is 




Fig. 230. Lead vats in Stilton cheese factory. England. 



scraped once or twice while the cheese is in the 
cave. A cheese coming from cold storage will show 
flavor in three to four weeks. It is then scraped 
clean, wrapped again in tinfoil, and sold." (Charles 
Thorn, Soft Cheese Studies in Europe, U. S. Dept. 
Agric, Bureau of Animal Industry, 1905.) 

Although some experimental work has been done 
on the making of this general type of cheese (by 
the Dairy Division, United States Department of 
Agriculture and the Storrs Agricultural Experiment 
Station, at Storrs, Conn.), no Roquefort is at pres- 
ent known to be produced for sale in America. 
Certain brands of potted cheese, labeled Roquefort, 
have been prepared and widely sold, and resemble 
the imported cheese closely in flavor. 

Gorgonzola. — Gorgonzola is a cow's milk cheese 
imported in large amounts from northern Italy. 
The name comes from the village of Gorgonzola, 
but little or no cheese of this kind is now made 
there. Gorgonzola cheese-making is spread over a 
wide area extending from the neighborhood of 
Milan to the pasture regions of the Italian Alps. 

The cheeses are about twelve inches (30 cm.) in 
diameter by six to seven inches (18 cm.) in thick- 
ness, and weigh fifteen to twenty pounds (7-10 k.). 
Before they are sent to the market these cheeses 
are painted to form a hard crust of a red-colored 
substance (said to be barite and tallow) which 
prevents evaporation in shipment. When cut, a 
cheese of this kind is rather firm and close in tex- 
ture, streaked or marbled with green mold which 
follows the holes made by a punching instrument 
and such natural openings as remain in the curd 
itself. In flavor, Gorgonzola at its best very nearly 
equals Roquefort and resembles it closely, but lacks 
that friable buttery texture which distinguishes 
Roquefort. It is not so carefully made, nor so 
uniformly ripened, but is commonly of very uneven 
texture and often shows areas of marked injury 
from bacteria. 



SOFT CHEESES IN AMERICA 



22;-: 



Descriptions of Gorgonzola cheese-making differ 
widely as given by different authorities. The 
industry is not closely organized but rather, in 
large measure, follows local practices handed down 
for generations. All agree that whole milk is used, 
is curdled with natural rennet, that the curd is 
cut, thoroughly drained, and dipped into hoops 
where it drains without pressure. After several 
days draining, during which the cheeses are turned 
each day in the hoops, they are taken out and 
rubbed with salt on alternate days for about two 
weeks. They are then carted or shipped to the 
ripening establishments built in the cool valleys of 
the Alps, many of them near Lecco. In these 
buildings, the cheeses are ripened for a period of 
three or four months. "While on the shelves, such 
cheeses are turned repeatedly during the early 
stage of ripening. 
At the end of the 
first month, they 
are punched with 
an awl-like in- 
strument several 
inches in length, 
so that holes reach 
every part of the 
cheese and allow 
the green mold to 
enter. The cheeses 
are not inoculated 
with mold, but the 
mold finds its way 
into the cheese 
after the punch- 
ing has been done. 
When ready for the market the cheeses are painted 
over twice to cover them thoroughly with a hard 
crust, and shipped. 

Stilton. — Stilton cheese is made from cow's milk 
in the midland counties of England. The 
curd is cut, drained thoroughly and then 
soured over night. The sour curd is kneaded 
with the hands, salted, put in hoops fifteen 
inches high and seven inches in diameter, 
and allowed to drain without pressure. 
Several days are necessary for a cheese to 
assume a firm enough texture to be taken 
from the hoop, rubbed, wrapped with a 
cloth and placed on the shelf to ripen. 
The ripening period is four to six months, 
during which time more or less constant 
2are is necessary. (Figs. 230-232.) 

A ripe Stilton has a heavy rind, commonly 
infested with cheese-mites for the outer one- 
half inch. As brought to America this rind 
is usually carefully trimmed off and the 
cheese painted over with a greasy, red or 
yellow substance. When cut, a Stilton should 
show streaks and seams filled with green 
mold (Roquefort mold); it is usually of 
rather firm texture, and, at its best, com- 
pares favorably with Roquefort and Gorgonzola in 
flavor. 

Stilton cheese-making centers in the regions 
about Leicester and Melton -Mowbray, and con- 




Fig. 231. Stilton cheese. 



tinues from April first to October first. Although 
Stilton has been produced in Canada to some extent, 
little practical success has been made with it in 
America. Except as satisfying special demands, 
little Stilton reaches America. It is obtainable, 
however, in the larger markets, especially of the 
Atlantic states. Stilton is largely excluded from 
the general market because it is generally inferior 
in quality to Roquefort and Gorgonzola, although 
sold at the same or higher prices. 

Gammelost. — Gammelost, the old cheese of Norway 
and Sweden, is imported in small quantities by 
dealers with a large Scandinavian patronage. It is 
a dry, hard, crumbling cheese, streaked and discol- 
ored with masses of mold. The whole mass is more 
fully penetrated by several species of mold than 
other types of mold-ripened cheese, making a prod- 
uct much less attractive to the general consumer. 
In some cases, cheese-mites were also found through- 
out the cheese. Among these agents, the Roquefort 
cheese mold is common. 

Among other types of cheese containing green 
mold, some Hungarian Brinse (Brindse or Brimse) 
is imported, but thus far only in small amounts. 

Cheeses with moldy rind only. 

Camembert and Brie. — Of the imported soft 
cheeses, Camembert is second in popularity only to 
Roquefort. In less than twenty years the annual 
importation has risen from 60,000, in 1890, to over 
3,000,000 in 1905-6. Since 1900, Camembert has 
been produced successfully in New York state, first 
by a single French factory, and more recently by 
others. The present production may be estimated 
at little less than 1,000,000 per year. The nearly 
related French Brie was introduced by the same 
factory, and has been made successfully by them. 
So closely similar are these cheeses that, aside from 
their measurements, the same description will 




Fig. 232. 



Interior of Stilton cheese curing-room. 



answer for both, although produced by slightly 
different making processes. 

Camembert cheeses ars made in two sizes: 
Camembert, four and one-fourth inches (10-11 cm.) 



224 



SOFT CHEESES IN AMERICA 



in diameter, and half- Camembert, about three 
inches (7.5 cm.) in diameter ; both sizes about one 
and one-fourth inch in thickness. Brie is usually 
slightly thinner than Camembert but larger in 
diameter, being made in several sizes from nine to 
eighteen inches. Each Camembert cheese is always 
| enclosed in a close-fitting wooden box to protect 
the ripened cheese during shipment. 

" The cheeses of this group are superficially recog- 
nized by their moldy rind. In the earlier stages of 
ripening this is white, cottony with the mycelium 
of a species of Penicillium (Penwillium camemberti, 
Thorn). At the end of one or two weeks the color 
becomes a gray -green from the ripening of the 
fungus spores. Frequently whole cheeses are fairly 
uniformly covered with this mold in a few days. 
After the first two weeks the mold ceases to grow 
actively on the surface. The delicate fibrous 
mycelium is largely torn away later by the hand- 
ling of the cheese in the cellar. The places so 
exposed become centers for rich developments of 
bacteria and Oidium laetis in reddish-brown areas, 
which sometimes entirely cever and obliterate the 
penicillium. The rind may then vary from a surface 
comparatively dry, moldy and gray, through every 
stage to entirely viscid, slimy and red or reddish- 
yellow, with scarcely a visible trace of mold. 
Internally, at first, the cheese should be a fairly 
firm, homogeneous mass of curd soured in one or 
two days by lactic organisms ; then a digestion 
and softening of this curd, beginning just under 
the rind, should gradually progress inward until 
the entire mass is changed. The extent of this 
change is readily visible, so that in a cut cheese 
the exact stage of ripening is at once apparent. 
The texture of the resulting ripe cheese varies 
exceedingly with the conditions. In certain brands 
of Camembert imported to America, wrapped in 
tinfoil, the interior, when ripe, is so soft that when 
cut the entire mass flows out of the rind as a 
liquid. In other brands, and, so far as seen, uni- 
versally in France, the cheese is so ripened that 
the texture is waxy or buttery soft, to be spread 
easily on bread with a knife, but solid enough never 
to 'run,' never liquid. The very soft brands nearly 
always have very high flavor, even' sharp and 
biting. The waxy brands are much milder, not so 
intense, and with less odor." (U. S. Dept. Agric, 
Report of the Bureau of Animal Ind., 1905, p. 82.) 

In Camembert cheese-making, a very firm curd is 
secured from cow's milk in one and one-half hours. 
The hoops, four and one-fourth inches in diameter 
and five inches in height, are set closely on mats 
covering the draining tables. The curd is dipped 
into the hoops with long-handled dippers. The 
greatest care is taken to break the curd as little 
as possible. Two quarts of curd are required to 
fill each hoop, making nearly one-half pound of 
fresh cheese. Cheeses so made are allowed to drain 
very slowly without pressure. When sufficiently 
firm to handle, they are salted by sprinkling them 
with, or rolling them in, coarse salt, allowed to 
drain once more, then placed in the ripening-room, 
where they obtain their moldy rind. This mold may 
be inoculated on the cheese by the maker, or, in the 



presence of many well-molded cheeses, will propa- 
gate itself with ample rapidity to accomplish the 
same end. The ripening-rooms are best maintained 
at a temperature of 54° to 58° Fahr., with fairly 
moist atmosphere. Placed on shelves in such a room 
and turned repeatedly, such cheeses should ripen in 
four to six weeks, according to the temperature 
and the water-content of the cheese. 

Camembert cheese-making in France is practiced 
throughout the region of Normandy from Caen to 
Rouen, and in many places east of Paris. Some 
Camembert is also made in parts of Germany. 
Whole milk, or milk from which less than one-half 
per cent of fat has been removed, is used for this 
cheese in France. In Germany, skimmed milk, or 
partly skimmed milk, is used, and produces a much 
lower grade of cheese. Some German Camembert 
is imported in tins. 

Brie cheese is made in the districts east of Paris, 
Brie, Seine et Marne, and elsewhere. Both Brie and 
Camembert are used in enormous quantities in 
France. 

Coulommier. — Coulommier is closely similar to 
Camembert and Brie cheeses. It is made in the dis- 
tricts of France, north and east of Paris. It differs 
from Camembert in the larger diameter of the 
cheese (between Camembert and Brie in size) and 
in the absence of salt. It has been imported on a 
very small scale into New York city only. 

Cheese ripened mainly by bacteria. 

Brick-cheese (John W. Decker). — Brick-cheese is 
made mostly in Wisconsin. It gets its name from 
being pressed into "bricks" under weight of one or 
two bricks. A Brick -cheese weighs five or six 
pounds. It is made from sweet milk, coagulated by 
rennet, cut with curd knives and heated in the 
whey to firm it. The temperature to which it is 
heated depends on the acidity of the milk, since 
acid hastens the expulsion of the whey. Very 
sweet curd must be heated to 118° or 120 Fahr., 
while riper curds can be firmed at lower tempera- 
tures. Brick -cheesa should be made from curd 
showing no strings on the hot iron before pressing, 
but enough acid for firming easily is desirable. If 
it feels firm when squeezed in the hand, nearly all 
the whey is drawn off, and the curd is dipped into 
wooden molds placed on a draining-table. These 
molds are 5 x 10 inches in size, and without bot- 
toms. The draining-table is covered with draining- 
boards with holes in them, and they are raised half 
of an inch above the table. A linen strainer-cloth 
covers these boards. The wooden molds are set 
close together on the cloth. The curd is filled into 
them, and the whey drains out while the curd set- 
tles together. A wooden follower is placed on top 
of the curd and a brick put on for weight. The 
cheese is pressed in this way for twenty-four hours, 
then goes to the salting-table where it is rubbed 
with salt. After two to four days of salting it goes 
to the curing-cellar where it is rubbed and washed 
and turned one to three or four times a week. At 
the end of a month it is ready to ship. Each brick 
is wrapped in a manila paper and packed in a box 
holding a little over one hundred pounds of cheese. 






SOFT CHEESES IN AMERICA 



225 



The cheese is mild in flavor and of moderately 
close texture. The milk from which it is made must 
be of fine quality, as gassy fermentations will spoil 
it. It is easily made and the equipment necessary 
is simple. It is best cured in cellars where the 
temperature and moisture can be regulated. 

Limburger cheese (John W. Decker) — Limburger 
cheese is made much like Brick-cheese. The differ- 
ence is in the extremely moist conditions in which 
it is cured, and which cause a characteristic fer- 
mentation. 

It is coagulated with rennet, the curd cut as in 
Brick-cheese, but the firming temperature is lower, 
about 95-98° Fahr. The curd is put into molds 
like those for Brick-cheese, which are 5 x 20 inches. 
The follower and brick pressure are omitted. When 
the curd has settled together into a solid cake, the 
mold is removed and the cake cut into four blocks 
five inches square. These blocks are then removed 
to a draining-table, where each two cheeses are 
separated by wooden partitions to prevent spread- 
ing. After draining and cooling for twenty-four 
hours, the blocks are salted, as is Brick-cheese, by 
rubbing, on several different days, with salt. After 
salting, the blocks are removed to the shelves, 
where they are dipped in water each day and kept 
under very moist conditions. In a few days a red- 
dish yellow mold begins to grow on the surface, 
and the hard, white curd softens and turns yellow. 
In the course of a month the change works to the 
center of the block. Each block is wrapped in 
manila paper and then in tinfoil, and packed in a 
box 5 x 20 x 36 inches, for shipping. 

Limburger cheese is popularly known by its odor, 
but this odor is not prominent in the curing-cellar. 
The odor is developed by higher temperatures. 
Limburger cheese is largely made in Wisconsin by 
German makers. 

Frontage d' Isigny, Fromage de Brie (domestic). — 
Numerous factories in New York, Michigan, Iowa 
and Wisconsin produce a type of cheese variously 
labeled as Fromage d' Isigny, or Fromage de Brie, 
or even both names combined on a single label. 
Perhaps the name " Isigny " alone would best des- 
ignate this style of cheese, which is said to have 
originated in New York state as far back as 1866. 
Although bearing the name of a French town and 
resembling several styles of French cheese, such as 
Pont 1' Eveque and Livarot especially, Isigny may be 
called an American product or adaptation, at least. 

An Isigny cheese is made about one and one- 
fourth inches in thickness and five inches in diame-. 
ter. Different brands vary from skimmed milk to 
whole milk cheese. In manufacture, a hard curd 
is made, as for Camembert cheese, dipped into 
hoops about five inches in height and permitted to 
drain without pressure. The resulting cheese should 
consist of smooth, close-grained curd. It is rolled 
in coarse salt, allowed to drain and then placed in a 
ripening room or cellar at, or nearly at, 60° Fahr. 
In this cellar the cheese is washed from time to 
time. Colonies of mold are scraped from the sur- 
face. It is ripened by the agency of various spe- 
cies of surface bacteria and Oidium laetis, which is 
always present to some extent. In a period of 

C15 



three to five weeks, Isigny becomes partially or 
sometimes completely softened, almost buttery, 
acquiring at the same time a pronounced odor and 
characteristic strong flavor. Exactly the same 
process has been used in making and ripening the 
cheeses labeled Fromage de Brie. These are made 
merely with a larger diameter and are often colored 
more deeply. Practice differs in different factories. 
One brand is commonly ripened for a longer time 
than the other. Such differences as appear are dif- 
ferences in the stage of ripening and intensity of 
flavors produced, not in the character of ripening 
or flavor. It must not be confounded with the 
French Brie. 

The same cheese, made four and one-fourth inches 
in diameter, with its ripening completed in little 
wooden boxes, has been labeled Camembert in cer- 
tain factories. The use of the names Camembert 
and Brie for cheeses of this type is unwarranted 
by any character except the size and shape of the 
package. The use of the name " d'Isigny " is the 
arbitrary appropriation of a French name without 
significance. 

Exactly the same cheeses in different sizes and 
shapes are labeled lunch, miniature, and other 
names. 

Unripened Isigny. — In addition to the ripened 
Isigny, there is a large trade in unripened Isigny. 
These cheeses are commonly made from separated, 
or partly separated milk, curdled and drained in 
the same way as the other, but shipped at once to 
the market. Such products are said to go mostly 
to the Jewish trade, since they conform to the 
requirements of the Mosaic law, and are, there- 
fore, "Kosher" or "clean." They combine the 
cheapness of skimmed milk with high proteid con- 
tent, hence form an economical, though not espec- 
ially attractive form of nitrogenous food. 

Port du Salut. — Port du Salut is a cow's milk 
cheese, imported to some extent from Normandy. 
The same type of cheese is made by the Trappist 
Fathers, near Montreal, with much success. 

Port du Salut is a cheese of smooth, fairly firm 
texture, made in discs one and one-half to two 
inches in thickness and eight to twelve inches in 
diameter, ripened with a thin, yellowish or colored 
but smooth rind, showing Oidium laetis and bacte- 
ria. With the same odor as d'Isigny, it has a mild 
flavor that is much praised where well known. 

Pont I'Eveque is but little imported, and only 
to New York city. No attempt has been made to 
introduce its making. It appears as cheeses almost 
square (three to four inches), with rounded corners, 
and one inch or less in thickness. The milk used in 
making it is partly skimmed and curdled at 34° to 
35° C. The curd is kneaded with the hands and the 
cheeses are ripened, by the action of the bacteria 
and Oidium laetis, to a semi-solid, smooth texture 
and very fine flavor. Such varieties offer large 
possibilities in the disposal of partly skimmed milk. 

German breakfast cheeses. — The brands of ripened 
cheese made from milk which is partly skimmed, 
or even separated, are multiplying. Most of these 
bear German names and appeal to communities of 
German descent. They appear in numerous styles 



226 



CREAMERIES AND SKIMMING STATIONS 



of package, as the biscuit-shaped "hand" cheeses, 
well-sprinkled with caraway seeds, which resemble 
the Hartz Ka»e ; the disc-shaped Sierra cheese ; the 
rectangular forms, Romatur and Friihstiick Kaese, 
bearing their well-known continental names. The 
different makes vary widely in the fat test of the 
milk used, in the shape and style of the package, 




Fig. 233. A tasteful dairy building or factory. (Dairy-farm of 
J. H". Givens, Aiken, S. C.) 

and the extent of ripening. Their ripening is due 
to bacteria and Oidium lactic, and is commonly 
associated with strong odors resembling Limburger. 
Except the German communities, especially in the 
larger cities, the market for such cheeses has been 
strictly limited, and many forms of them are made 
on the farm for purely local use. 

Ripened Cottage cheese. — Among the German com- 
munities in Pennsylvania, a ripened Cottage cheese 
is made on the farm. In this the milk is allowed 
to curdle by souring, is thoroughly drained, then 
set away to ripen for several days, and stirred 
frequently. When ripened to taste, the vessel is 
placed in boiling water and the curd melted. Cream 
and butter are added, to the taste of the maker. 
Some cheeses produced in this way suggest Camem- 
bert in texture and flavor. Although this may be 
very acceptable for home use, the practice does 
not admit of factory extension without practically 
changing the product. 

Other soft cheeses. 

Other varieties and brands of soft cheese, as 
Lancashire and Wensleydale, are found in the 
markets, but in limited amounts. It seems prob- 
able that with the standardization resulting from 
better factory organization and wider general 
acquaintance with the really choice varieties, the 
number of kinds of soft cheese manufactured 
will not increase rapidly, but the best kinds 
will be better made and handled. A critical re- 
view of actual products indicates that among the 
hundreds of described kinds of cheese very many 
are little more than local trade names for minor 
differences of manipulation, or merely for differen- 
ces in size or shape of package, and do not repre- 
sent real differences in the product. With the 
enlargement of production and market, trade names 



will multiply exceedingly, but the less attractive 
styles of whole-milk cheese can not compete with 
the better ones, such as Roquefort, Camembert, 
Domestic Neufchatel and Cream. A greatly in- 
creased market, however, may be anticipated for 
the better grades of skimmed-milk cheese, which 
are a source of proteid food, whose value hitherto 
has been very little appreciated in America. 

Literature. 

In addition to the references given on page 219, 
the reader should consult the following : Charles 
Thorn, Fungi in Cheese Ripening, United States 
Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal 
Industry, Bulletin No. 82; Charles Thorn, Soft 
Cheese Studies in Europe, same, Report, 1905. 
Current dairy texts may also be consulted. 

CREAMERIES AND SKIMMING STATIONS 

By H. L. Ayres 

A creamery is a building equipped for receiving 
and skimming milk, ripening and churning cream, 
and working and packing or printing butter. The 
term is sometimes applied to plants which sell milk, 
cream, butter, baker's cheese and Cottage cheese. 
Gathered-cream creameries receive and manufacture 
the cream that has been separated on the farms. 

Importance of the creamery. 

The creamery ranks high in the agricultural 
economy. Sections in which dairying prevails are 
noticeable for their prosperous condition. The 
manufacture of butter is centralized by the cream- 
ery and a more uniform product is secured. Each 
patron has the record of the amount of milk pro- 
duced, and its value and test, thereby stimulating 
competition in the breeding of better cattle and 
the production of more and richer milk. The high- 
est prices are secured, and the patrons are given 
their money regularly. A center of interest is also 
formed in communities. In encouraging and enlarg- 




ing. 234. A creamery building in Ontario. 

ing dairying, the fertility of the farms is improved 
by returning to the land much of the product of 
the land in the form of manure. Considerable 
money is realized by feeding to calves and pigs the 
skimmed milk that is returned ; authorities place 
the feeding-value of skimmed milk at fifteen to 
twenty-five cents per hundred pounds. 

Location of the creamery. 

To insure success, a creamery needs to be assured 
of the milk of at least three hundred cows. The 



CREAMERIES AND SKIMMING STATIONS 



227 



es' 



1 

1. 






r 




' v- r. 


15 

! 


U3 


a 






^ 




it 




* ! 


& 


I r ■ 










14 








9 


U 





Fig. 235. Floor plan of a creamery. 1, Receiving platform; 2, weighing-can and 
scales; 3, receiving-vat; 4, milk heater and pump; 5, separator; 6, pasteurizer; 
7, cream-vat; 8, combined churn and worker; 9, refrigerator; 10, office; 11, 
storeroom; 12, engine; 13, boiler; 14, shop; 15, coal-room. 



building should be placed where it will be conveni- 
ent for the largest number of patrons, but, if 
necessary, this may be sacrificed for a location 
where a large supply of pure water — at least thirty 
barrels daily, and more if possible — and good drain- 
age can be secured. Ice should also be secured 
readily, unless mechanical refrigeration is used. 
The ideal water-supply is from springs located 
sufficiently above the creamery to force the water 
through the building without pumping. When pro- 
tected against surface water and other contami- 
nation, wells are satisfac- 
tory if the supply of water 
is sufficient. A spring- 
water stream also fur- 
nishes good water if a well 
or reservoir is dug a few 
feet from the stream so 
that the water is filtered 



Fig. 236. Weighing- or receiving-can. 

in passing through the soil, and the water pumped 
from this reservoir. 

Drainage may be into a stream, on a field, or 
through a septic tank. If a septic tank is used, 
the clear water may be discharged elsewhere and 
only milky water run into the tank. Experiments 
have shown that the tank should hold ten day's 
sewage ; or ten small tanks might better be used, 
each holding a day's sewage. The purpose of the 
septic tank is to hold the sewage until fermenta- 
tion reduces the soluble part of the solid matter to 
liquid form. This is accomplished by having a 
double tank. The first tank is called the receiving- 
or settling-tank. When the sewage in it rises to 
the height of the outlet connecting with the second 
tank, a few inches of the liquid is drawn from the 
top through an automatic siphon. The second tank 
is also fitted with a siphon discharge, this latter 
outlet being continued with glazed tile to the point 
where it is desired to dispose of the water. At this 



point the unglazed tile should be 
used and laid without cement, with 
joints open three-eighths of an 
inch. These latter tile may branch 
in various directions and need be 
only three-inch. Horse-shoe tile 
may also be used. With either, the 
joints should be covered with a 
loose-fitting cap to permit the dis- 
tribution of the liquid through the 
soil. A manhole should be con- 
structed at the top of each tank for 
the purpose of cleaning. Cement is 
the most satisfactory material for 
the tanks. The laws are very strict 
regarding the emptying of sewage 
into creeks, lakes and rivers, when 
the water is used for household 
purposes, and the health commis- 
sion should be consulted if there 
It is an advantage to have the 





is any doubt, 
building shaded. 

If the gravity system is used in receiving milk, 
the creamery should be built on a hillside,, so that 
milk can be received on the high side. If the 
pumping system is used, it 
should be built on level 
ground. The gravity sys- 
tem is that which receives 
the milk on a higher level 
than the work-room, caus- 
ing the milk to flow from 
the receiving-can, in 
which it is weighed, to 
the receiving-vat, where 
it is stored. From this 
vat it flows through the 
heater to the separator on a lower level. Leaving 
the separator, the skimmed milk flows into a tank 
from which the patrons draw their shares. The 
cream from the separator flows into cream-vats on 
the same level. The churn is on a lower level, so 
that the cream will flow from the vats to the churn. 
In the pumping system the receiving platform is 
elevated to allow the milk to flow from the receiv- 
ing-can to the receiving-vat, all the other work 
being done on one level and pumps used for elevat- 
ing the milk to the heater, the skimmed milk to a 
storage-tank, and the cream into the churn. The 



Fig. 237. Simple milk- 
tester, for few samples. 
Adapted for home use. 




Fig. 238. Turbine milk- 
tester with stand. 



Fig. 239. 
Steam Babcock tester. 



228 



CREAMERIES AND SKIMMING STATIONS 




Fig. 240. Milk- or cream-vat. 

skimmed-milk tank is usually placed in the attic, 
and the milk drawn through an automatic weigher 
by the insertion of a proper-sized check, given the 
patron by the operator. 

Construction. 

The construction of a creamery has much to do 
with'the cost of maintaining and operating it. The 
building should be convenient, warm, and well 
ventilated. It should have seven rooms, namely : 
Work-room, office, refrigerator, boiler- and engine- 
room, store-room, workshop, bath- and laundry- 
room. In Fig. 235 is shown a floor plan of a 
creamery differing slightly from this arrangement. 
In place of the bath- and laundry -room a coal- 
room is shown. 

The ground should be excavated to a firm founda- 
tion for the walls and floor. The walls should be of 
concrete, plastered smooth with portland cement. 
The walls are better if built hollow. They should 
extend three feet above the floor. 

The floor should be laid with four inches of con- 
crete, made of four parts of gravel, two parts sand 
and one part portland cement. Before this sets, 
the finish coat, made of two parts clean, sharp sand 
and one part of portland cement, should be laid one 
inch thick on top of the concrete, and made 
smooth as it is setting. The floor should slope one 
inch in three feet toward a gutter running through 
the center of the floor and discharging into a six- 
or eight-inch tile drain through a trap. A basin 
twenty inches square should be formed around the 
entrance of the drain, into which the gutter may 



discharge. The gutter should be six inches wide, 
very shallow at the beginning and gradually deep- 
ening to the point of discharge. The corners where 
the floor and walls meet should be rounded, and all 
other corners of cement, such as of walls and steps, 
should be neatly rounded. 

The receiving platform and steps are best made 
of cement. The remainder of the building above 
the walls may be of frame structure, but cement 
is very desirable for the entire building. Smooth, 
plain doors, and the absence of all ledges, window- 




Fig. 241. A type of power separator. 

sills, and other projections are desirable, so as to 
have as few places as possible to catch dust. 

Equipment and its use. 

The essentials in the equipment of a creamery 
are, receiving-can, scales, 
milk-receiving vat, cream- 
vat, milk -heater, separa- 
tor, skimmed-milk tank, 
skimmed-milk weigher, 
combined churn and worker, 
Babcock tester, boiler, en- 
gine, milk- pumps, water- 
pump, sterilizer, and the 
necessary tinware, glass- 




Fig. 242. A continuous pasteurizer. 



CREAMERIES AND SKIMMING STATIONS 



229 



ware, and small utensils. A pasteurizer may be 
added, if desired. 

The receiving-can may be round or square, about 
thirty inches high by thirty to forty inches in 
diameter, with a three-inch faucet or gate at the 
bottom. (Fig. 236.) This is used on the scales for 
receiving and weighing the milk. The weight is 
recorded. The samples of the milk, taken as it is 
received, are put in glass stoppered bottles, which 
contain preservatives, usually corrosive sublimate, 
with a coloring matter to warn against their use 



greatly increasing the relative difference in the 
specific gravities of the milk and the cream, 
therefore the immediate and complete separation. 
[See page 199.] Leaving the separator, the cream 
is conducted to a pasteurizer, if it is desired to 
pasteurize the cream (Figs. 242, 243) ; if not, it 
goes directly to cream-vats or a cream ripener. 
(Fig. 244.) The latter is a vat fitted with mechani- 
cal means of agitating and controlling the tempera- 
ture of the cream. In the vats or ripeners, the 
cream is held at 6S° to 75° Fahr., and 5 to 25 per 



-^fej 




— F/Qffot-m*- 



JU, 



aaas 



Fig. 243. A regenerative pasteurizer, showing principal dimensions for installing. 



as food : or bichromate of potash may be used. 
Usually composite samples are tested at the middle 
and end of each month. Testing machines are 
shown in Figs. 237-239. 

From the receiving-can, the milk is conducted to 
the receiving-vat, which is an oblong tin vat with 
either a flat or rounding bottom, and a faucet at 
its lower end. The vat may be either skeleton or 
enclosed in a wooden jacket. (Fig. 240.) 

From the receiving-vat the milk runs or is 
pumped through a heater, which raises the temper- 
ature to 85° to 90° Fahr. This aids in complete 
separation. The milk next passes into the separa- 
rator. (Fig. 241.) A separator consists of a frame 
fitted with delicate bearings, in which a steel bowl 
revolves at a speed of 6,000 to 14,000 revolutions 
per minute. The high speed has the effect of 



cent of pure culture starter is added. This treat- 
ment develops lactic acid, and flavors desired in 
eight to twelve hours. The temperature is then 
quickly lowered to 50° to 54° Fahr., and held there 
for three to twelve hours. The cream is then trans- 
ferred to the churn or combined churn and worker. 
(Fig. 245.) 

The churn consists of a large wooden cylinder or 
box with tightly fitting doors, containing shelves 
or other devices to increase the concussion of the 
cream, and having a suitable gearing to revolve it. 
The combined machines have corrugated wooden 
rollers or something similar in effect, which are 
brought into use, causing the butter to be worked 
before removing from the churn. The buttermilk is 
then drawn off, and the butter washed and salt 
added. Working thoroughly incorporates the salt, 



230 



CREAMERIES AND SKIMMING STATIONS 



and gathers the butter in a mass, making it ready 
to be packed in tubs or printed. 

Any kind of steady power may be used. A fif- 
teen or twenty horse-power boiler with an eight 
horse-power engine is very satisfactory. 
Water-wheels, electric-motors and gasoline- 
engines may be used. Gasoline is objection- 




Fig. 244. A cream ripener. 

able because of the strong odor, which taints the 
butter if it comes in contact with the milk, cream 
or butter. 

The pipes conducting steam and water should be 
of ample size and jacketed with coverings to 
decrease condensation and change of temperature. 
All valves should be of a kind that are quickly and 
easily repaired without removing from the pipe 
lines. 

Organization. 

Creameries may be proprietary, joint stock 
company, or cooperative. In the first, the owner 
usually buys the milk and returns the skimmed 
milk, in other instances buying the whole milk and 
making the skimmed milk into cheese — Cottage or 
baker's cheese, — or casein. Sometimes the same 
price is paid for all qual- 
ities of milk, but usually 
the milk is tested and the 
fat contained in the milk 
is paid for. This is the 
more just way. The but- 
ter may also be made and 
sold for a certain price 
per pound. 

A joint stock company 
may buy the milk or make 
the butter in either of the above ways. 

The cooperative creamery is owned by the farm- 
ers who bring the milk. It is an association 
which has adopted certain by-laws, and elects offi- 
cers or directors — usually five or seven in number 
— to conduct the business. The board of directors 
elect from their number a president, vice-president, 
secretary, treasurer and manager. In some in- 
stances, the board is allowed to elect officers out- 
side of their number, but stockholders in the 
association. These officers have the care of the 
property, hire the butter-maker, secure the sup- 
plies, sell the products, compute the monthly 
payments for milk, and pay the patrons. The 
cooperative method of payment is to deduct all 
expenses from all money received for products, and 




Fig. 245. A churn with 
worker attachment. 



divide the remainder by the pounds of fat furnished 
by the patrons. This gives the price per pound of 
fat. The weight of each patron's milk is multiplied 
by the test to obtain the number of pounds fur- 
nished by the patrons. This result is multiplied by 
the price per pound of fat, to determine the amount 
due each patron. The more butter made the less 
the cost per pound for making. 

If a creamery pays for pounds of fat, the price 
per pound will be higher than if it pays for pounds 
of butter, for the same amount of money is divided 
by a less number of pounds. Sometimes the ex- 
penses of the creamery are deducted and the 
remainder divided by the pounds of fat or butter 
in order to arrive at the price. 

In most places the amount of milk produced at 
different seasons of the year is so varied that it 
causes the cost of making a pound of butter to vary 
so much that it 
is usually advis- 
able for the as- 
sociation to 
make butter for 
a stated price 




Fig. 246. Side-bar milk-bottle flUer. 



per pound, and 
once a year to 
declare a divi- 
dend to the 
stockholders, 
pro rata, on the 
amount of stock owned. Once a year a stock- 
holders' meeting is held, when the officers report 
on the finances and directors are elected for the 
ensuing year. 

The first item in the management of a creamery 
is to secure the milk. The marketing is equally 
important. Regularity in the time of paying 
patrons, proportionate distribution of skimmed 
milk, a diplomatic maker, careful buying and con- 
stant guarding against leaks and losses, all go to 
make a successful creamery. 

Gathered-cream creameries and centralizers. 

In parts of the West-Central states the farm 
separator and the gathered-cream creamery have 
superseded the whole-milk creamery almost entirely, 




Fig. 247. Sanitary milk-bottle filler. 

and there is little likelihood of the latter ever com- 
ing back into use. There has also been developed 
in the same section, within recent years, a class of 
creameries that are called centralizers. These are 



CREAMERIES AND SKIMMING STATIONS 



231 




Fig. 248. Galvanized iron sterilizers 
for creamery use. 



now an important factor in the development of the 
dairy industry in these states. These factories are 
located, not in the small towns, but in the large 
cities. Their cream supply is received entirely by 
rail, and in some cases is shipped two or three hun- 
dred miles. This cream either is shipped directly 
from the producer, or, when a supply in a given 
locality is larger, the company has an agent who 

receives the 
cream, pays 
for it, and 
forwards it to 
the factory. 
A considera- 
ble part of 
the butter 
n o w manu- 
factured in 
Kansas, Ne- 
braska, South 
Dakota and 
Missouri, is made in such plants, and they are also 
doing a large business in the better developed cream- 
ery states, such as Iowa, Minnesota and Wisconsin. 
This practice has the advantage of giving the 
dairyman the skimmed milk -for feeding while it is 
fresh and sweet, and not mixed with other milk, as 
it would be at the creamery. It makes the amount 
to haul much less. No time is lost at the creamery 
waiting for skimmed milk, and the creamery is 
saved the handling of the skimmed milk. There are 
also disadvantages with this system. The care of 
the separator makes extra work. In many cases 
considerable fat is left in the skimmed milk by 
farmers who are not trained in the use of separa- 
tors. There is a tendency to hold the cream for 
two or more days instead of delivering it every day, 
which results in butter of poorer quality. Milk 
will hold over better than cream. 

In the larger centralizing plants, and in some of 
the smaller ones, too, the cream is graded and paid 
for according to grade. If each producer could 
carry a good clean starter, and add 5 per cent to 
the fresh cream, it would check many of the unde- 
sirable germs and flavors that grow in the cream 
while it is held for delivery. The cream from skim- 
ming stations handled in this way reaches the 
central plant in much better condition. 

Skimming stations. 

Skimming stations are equipped much the same 
as creameries, except they do not have ripening- 
vats, churns or but- 
ter-workers, the 
cream being taken to 
the creamery to be 
ripened and churned 
and the butter fin- 
ished. The purpose of 
a skimming station is to collect milk that is pro- 
duced at too great a distance to be delivered at the 
creamery. The cost of equipping and running a 
station is considerably less than for a creamery. A 
more uniform product is secured by being all fin- 
ished in one plant, A skimming establishment is 




Fig. 249. A power bottle-washer. 



an intermediate station between the farm and the 
creamery. 

Cost of building and equipping creameries and skim- 
ming stations. 

The amount necessary to invest in a creamery 
varies with the requirements. An ordinary cream- 
ery at the present time costs $3,000 to $6,000 for 
building and equipment. For a creamery costing 
$3,000, the cost would be divided about as follows : 

Building, including ice-house, refriger- 
ator, etc $1,300 00 

Boiler 600 00 

Engine 125 00 

Separator 300 00 



Churn 

Vats 

Milk heater 

Pumps , 

Scales 

Shafting, pulleys and belts 

Pipe and valves 

Tester 

Small utensils , 



200 00 
150 00 
50 00 
60 00 
40 00 
75 00 
50 00 
25 00 
25 00 



The value of a 
about as follows : 



3,000 plant would be divided 



Building, including ice-house, refriger- 
ator, etc $2,600 00 

Boiler 900 00 

Engine 200 00 

Two separators 1,000 00 

Churn 250 00 

Cream ripener 400 00 

Milk heater 80 00 

Pumps 60 00 

Scales 40 00 

Shafting, pulleys, and belts .... 100 00 

Pipe and valves 100 00 

Tester . .' 30 00 

Vats 90 00 

Automatic skimmed milk weigher . . 100 00 

Small utensils 50 00 

These estimates do not include site, water-supply 
and drainage. The $6,000-plant might have a less 
expensive build- *? 

ing, and no ice- ]| 

house, but sub- 
stitute artificial 
refrigeration. 
This would be 
desirable in lo- 
calities where 
ice is expensive 
or uncertain. 
The $3,000- 
creamery is suit- 
able to handle 
the milk of 400 
to 600 cows; by 
adding another 
separator, the milk from twice that number of 
cows could be handled, but two churnings of but- 
ter per day would be necessary. The $6,000-plant 
could handle the milk of 800 to 2,000 cows, but, 
for the latter amount, another cream ripener or 
cream vat would need to be added. 




Fig. 250. Steam turbine bottle- 
washer. 



232 



REFRIGERATION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS 



As a skimming station requires a much smaller 
building, and only part of the machinery necessary 
for a creamery, its cost is much less. From $300 
to $600 might be invested in the building, and $700 
to $900 in the machinery. 

Literature. 

McKay and Larsen, Principles and Practice of 
Butter-Making ; H. H. Wing, Milk and Its Products; 
Russell, Outlines of Dairy Bacteriology; Farrington 
and Woll, Testing Milk and Its Products ; Van 
Slyke, Modern Methods of TestingMilk. [See Butter- 
making, page 198.] 



REFRIGERATION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS 

By Oscar Erf 

It has been conservatively estimated that 25 per 
cent of the original value of dairy products on the 
farm is lost by deterioration due to the lack of 
proper refrigeration. Dairying has become one of 
the chief industries of the United States, hence it 
is essential that proper refrigeration be applied to 
this industry. 

Refrigeration of dairy products may be classed 
under three heads, namely : (1) Refrigeration on 
the farm ; (2) Refrigeration in dairy manufactur- 
ing concerns, as, for example, creameries, cheese 
factories, milk-distributing plants, ice-cream factor- 
ies, and the like ; (3) Refrigeration in cold-storage 
plants. 

I. Refrigeration on the farm. [See page 241.] 

Refrigeration on the farm includes the cooling 
of milk and cream, and, when made on the farm, 
of butter also. For average farm conditions the 
only practical method of refrigeration is by means 
of natural ice, which has been harvested in winter 
from lakes, ponds or streams and stored in ice- 
houses for summer use. This is practicable only in 
places in a latitude where ice freezes in winter to 
such a thickness and with such certainty as to 
make its harvesting profitable. Such a latitude 
depends somewhat on the altitude and location 
with respect to large bodies of water. The southern 
limit in eastern and central parts of the United 
States is about 38° N. On the shores of the Pacific 
ocean conditions are not favorable for harvest- 
ing ice south of parallel 49° N. However, in this 
particular country, snow-capped mountains lying 
close to the shore furnish an abundance of cold 
water, the temperature of which will preserve 
dairy products to a great extent. When the har- 
vesting of ice is practiced, economical refrigeration 
can be applied on farms of any size by means of 
storing ice in ice-houses. 

A different problem confronts the farmer in the 
South, where the temperature is seldom low enough 
to freeze water. This problem can be solved con- 
veniently by erecting artificial ice-plants in connec- 
tion with the creamery plants, thus producing ice 
for farmers to cool their milk or cream. The ice is 
delivered to the farmer by the creamery or milk 
wagon. This wagon makes a circuit daily or every 



other day, delivers the cream or milk to the cream- 
ery, returns with the empty cans and delivers the 
ice. This is impracticable in countries that are 
sparsely settled and where the ice must be delivered 
long distances. Well-insulated refrigerators and 
cooling-tanks are very necessary where this system 
is in vogue. 

(a) Farm ice-houses. 

It is essential that northern farmers should pro- 
vide themselves with a properly constructed ice- 
house that will preserve the ice, so as to allow the 
cooling of dairy products throughout the warm 
season of the year. In building ice-houses there 
are two conditions to be considered : First, the 
cost of the ice in the ice-house in winter ; second, 
the cost of constructing the ice-house. In localities 
where the harvesting of ice is expensive, it is 
advisable to spend more money in well-constructed 
and insulated ice-houses. In localities where ice is 
comparatively inexpensive and can be secured in 
abundance, it would be more economical to build a 
cheaper but larger structure, and harvest a greater 
quantity of ice. This is true when ice-houses are 
located on the shores of large streams or lakes 
where it is not necessary to transport the ice. The 
hauling and transporting of ice is the most expen- 
sive part of the ice-harvesting business. 

The size of an ice-house in relation to cost. — The 
larger the volume of ice to be stored, the cheaper 
will be the cost of constructing an ice-house per 
ton of ice stored, providing it has the proper dimen- 
sions. Theoretically, the best form for an ice-house 
is spherical, because it has the least possible num- 
ber of square feet of surface in proportion to its 
volume. The heat can penetrate only through the 
outer surface ; hence, the smaller the outer surface 
in porportion to the volume the better the con- 
struction. The next best form for an ice-house 
would be cylindrical. The best practical ice-house 
for small farms, however, is built in the form of a 




irasm 



f HI&H GROUND. 





II 1 1 iji 1 

i I fi- 

1 -F,„„ j 


\ 


' 


r ! \ ■ ' e 

n : n j | jb ■ f 



Fie. 251. 

Smallest practicable dalry- 

faim ice-house. 



cube. The smallest practical dimensions for a dairy- 
farm ice-house are 10x10x10 (Fig. 251). The 
greater the increase of these dimensions, the more 
economical the house will become in proportion to 
the amount of ice it will contain. With a fixed 



REFRIGERATION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS 



233 



volume, the nearer the form of a cube an ice-house 
approaches, the less surface it will have. 

The cost of insulation is usually figured by the 
square feet of wall surface. The top and bottom of 
an ice-house, if properly constructed, cost propor- 
tionately the same as the walls with insulation ; 
hence, it is practical to estimate the cost of such 
an ice-house by the square feet of surface in the 




Fig. 252. To show differences in surface areas for same 
volume in different forms. 

cube. The following illustration demonstrates the 
economy of building an ice-house of the greatest 
capacity needed for a particular place: 

An ice-house 10 feet long, 10 feet wide, and 10 
feet high contains 1,000 cubic feet. A cubic foot 
of ice weighs 57 pounds ; if well piled in an ice- 
house, it is estimated that it will weigh on an 
average of 40 pounds per cubic foot ; hence, in an 
ice-house 10x10x10, containing 1,000 cubic feet, 
there would be 40,000 pounds of ice, or 20 tons. 
There being six sides to a cube, there is required 
600 square feet of insulation, which, at 10 cents 
per square foot, would cost $60. Assuming that 
the ice-house is increased in size to 12x12x12, 
containing 1,728 cubic feet, it would contain 69,- 
120 pounds of ice, or approximately 34J tons. This 
ice-house has 864 square feet of insulating surface, 
which, at 10 cents per square foot, would cost 
$86.40. If the ice-house be increased to 15 x 15 x 
15, it would hold 135,000 pounds of ice, or approxi- 
mately 67J tons. Such a structure would have 
1,350 square feet of insulating surface, which, at 
10 cents per square foot, would cost $135. The 
ratio of the volume to the cost of construction 
would be as follows : For the ice-house 10 x 10 x 10 
the construction costs $3 per ton ; for the ice-house 
12 x 12 x 12 the construction costs $2.50 ; for the 
ice-house 15 x 15 x 15 the cost per ton would be $2. 
The ratio decreases proportionately as the size 
increases. 

Relation of cost to volume in different forms. — 
(Fig. 252.) Assuming that an ice-house, instead of 
being built in the form of a cube, is constructed 
14 x 14 x 8 feet 10 inches, this having approxi- 
mately the same volume as the one 12 x 12 x 12, 
the number of square feet of surface on this form 
would be 886, while the number of square feet of 



surface on the one built in the form of a cube is 
864. There would be a difference of 22 square feet, 
which would allow the meltage of that much more 
ice, and it would cost $2.20 more for construction. 
However, this form is used in large ice-houses, over 
60 x 100 feet, it being impracticable to hoist the ice 
very high in order to form a cube to prevent 
meltage. 

An ice-house built in the form of a parallelo- 
piped, 18 x 12 x 8, would have 912 square feet of 
surface to the same volume as the cube 12 x 12 x 12, 
or 48 square feet more than the surface of the 
cube, costing $4.80 more for construction. Conse- 
quently, the best and cheapest form is to build an 
ice-house as nearly a cube as is practicable. 

The location of an ice-house. — An ice-house should 
be located in a convenient place so as to avoid the 
transportation of ice any great distance. It is best 
to have it near or in connection with a storage- 
house. The house should be built on dry ground, 
and, if possible, on a high place. Ice-houses are 
sometimes built in connection with residences. 
While this is a great convenience, if the ice is to 
be used in the house, it is not advisable, for ice is 
always more or less damp and, naturally, increases 
the humidity of the air in the house. If it is to be 
built close to a house it is better practice to have 
an open space between the ice-house and the resi- 
dence, or have a cold-storage room or a storeroom 
connecting the two. 

Underground versus surface ice-houses. — The first 
ice-houses were built below the surface of the 
ground (Fig. 253), but, owing to the great amount 
of meltage in such structures, they have been 
abandoned and at present are being constructed 
above the ground. This affords better drainage, is 
more convenient for securing ice during the sum- 
mer, and prevents an excessive loss of ice because 
of the earth being 
such a good conduc- 
tor of heat. 

It may seem 
strange that icemelts 
faster in ground stor- 
age than in surface 
storage, for during 
the summer the tem- 
perature of the soil 
is much lower than 
the . temperature of 
the air, and it would 
naturally seem that 
ice would keep better 
in the ground than in 
a surface structure. 
This would be true 
were it not for the 
fact that the earth is 
a good conductor of heat. Experience proves that 
ice-houses built in the ground must be more thor- 
oughly insulated, and therefore are far more costly 
than the surface ice-house. The temperature of 
the earth ranges from 49° to 54° Fahr. under 
average conditions. This is approximately 20° 
higher than the freezing point of water. It is 




Fig. 253. Ice-house built below 
surface of ground. 



234 



REFRIGERATION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS 



estimated that north of the parallel of 38° there 
are two hundred and ten days in the year in which 
the average temperature is not above 52° Fahr. 
There are one hundred and fifty days in the year 
during which the ice will melt less in a surface 
storage from actual contact with the air than in 
the underground ice-house. Furthermore, we find 
that the conductivity of the earth is two and one- 
half times greater than that of the air, depending 
somewhat, however, on the nature of the soil. This 
proves the necessity of having good insulation 
when ice-houses are built below the surface. 

Underground ice-houses are practicable only when 
there is a lack of room. They cost more for con- 
struction, besides the expense for excavating and 
the extra amount of labor required to pull the ice 
to the surface; while in the surface building it can 
be thrown down out of the ice-house. 

Foundation and floor. — The three essentials in 
constructing the foundation and floor of an ice- 
house are as follows : (1) The foundation and floor 
should be so arranged that they will rapidly drain 
away the water melted from the ice. (2) The floor 
should consist of some insulating material that will 
insulate the ice from the earth. (3) Air currents 
should not be allowed to circulate in the insulation 
at the base of the house, as this frequently causes 
a great amount of meltage. (Fig. 254). 

The foundation proper may be made of concrete 
(which is the cheapest and best), stone or brick. It 
should be deep enough to prevent the building from 
settling. The depth may range from a foot to two 
and one-half feet, with a thickness of one foot to 
eighteen inches. It is advisable to place a porous 




cur STRAW 
rye chaff 
Saw Dust, 
plancr shaving- 






'.JMO. 



Fig. 254. Ice-house with proper insulation at base. 

tile drain along the side of the foundation or 
through the center of the floor to take care of the 
ice-water. 

The floor should be porous sand, crushed rock or 
cinders ; it should be tile drained, and the tile 
should be imbedded in a layer of porous material. 
At the end of the drain, coming through the ice- 



house, there should be a trap to prevent the ingress 
of the air through the tile. The best material to 
put on top of the first six inches of sand or fine 
crushed stone is locomotive coal sparks. If these 
are not available, light cinders are the next best 
thing. It is ab- 
solutely neces- 
sary that this 
materialshould 
be very light, 
for it then con-? 
fines air, which 
produces the 
insulating ef- 
fect. At the 
same time, it 






■>■ -u — ; 
















1 

1 


,— 


— . — '•■"■■" ■ 







Fig. 255. Detail of small farm ice-house. 



does not decompose, and allows the ice-water to 
pass off rapidly. But when ice-water passes 
through coal sparks or cinders, they lose their 
insulating efficiency. It is advisable, then, wherever 
practicable, to place a thin coat of cement over the 
cinders, not allowing the ice-water to pass through 
the cinders, and thus making a better insulator. 
This adds to the expense of construction, however. 
In this case, proper drainage must be provided by 
having outlets in several parts of the building. On 
top of the cinders should be placed the insulation, 
to the thickness of at least one foot, depending 
somewhat on the material used, whether it be 
chaff, cut straw or sawdust. In all cases the base 
of the ice-house on the inside should be at least six 
inches above the outside surface, and the outside 
surface near the foundation should always be a 
foot or so higher than the immediate ground 
surface, in order to drain water away from the 
building. 

The construction of ice-houses. — For an ice-house 
of the size suggested above for a small dairy-farm, 
12' x 12' x 12' outside measurement, the following is 
the most convenient construction (Fig. 255): The 
frame should be made of timbers, 2x4, laid on the 
sills, the sills being constructed in a box-sill form. 
The house may be lined inside with rough boards, but 
it is not absolutely necessary. The outside may be 
sided with drop siding or with up-and-down siding, 
and battened to cover the cracks. If there is an air 
space between the rough boards and siding it 
should be filled with some good insulating material, 
such as coal sparks, planer shavings, sawdust or 
the like. A felt or shingle roof may be put on, with 
2x4 rafters, on which are laid the rough boards 
which support the roofing material. On one side of 
the building there should be a door through which 
the ice may be put in and taken out. This door 
should extend from the top of the building to 
within four or five feet of the base. It is not wise 
to extend this door too near the ground, as more or 
less air will get into the base of the door and melt 
the ice unless it is perfectly sealed, which makes it 
more or less expensive. 

Ventilation. — Good ventilation should be pro- 
vided by making two lattice windows on either side 
of the gable, or a ventilator on top of the roof. 
This is very necessary if the ice is to be well kept, for 
the heat frequently penetrates the roof by the 



REFRIGERATION OP DAIRY PRODUCTS 



235 



direct rays of the sun, and by means of this venti- 
lator the heat is readily removed. 

Insulating materials used for ice-houses. — The 
best insulating material should possess the follow- 
ing qualities : (1) It should be the best non-con- 
ductor ; in other words, it should contain the 
greatest number of small air spaces, for it is the 
confined air that insulates. (2) It should be a 
material that absorbs the least amount of moisture. 
(3) It should be a material that does not decay or 
burn. An insulating material possessing all of these 
qualities to the highest degree would be very expen- 
sive. Probably the best insulator we have that will 
comply with the above conditions, and one that can 
be secured at a reasonable price, is coal sparks. 
Coal sparks are the cinders that pass through the 
flue and fall on the front end of a locomotive. They 
are very light and porous, and poor conductors, but 
in some cases it is difficult to secure them. It is 
advisable, therefore, to use materials that are more 
practicable for farm conditions and that can be 
found on almost every farm — namely, the husks of 
wheat or wheat-chaff. Cut rye-straw or cut wheat- 
straw is a very good insulator. Cut swamp-hay, 
when it is in abundance, is somewhat better than 
cut wheat-straw. When sawdust is available it is a 



possible, when the water is frozen quietly, to form 
a crust of ice to prevent the air entering the lower 
strata ; for it is generally due to the wind blowing 
over the surface of the water, forcing it on in 





Fig. 256. An ice planer. 



very good material for insulating purposes. Planer- 
shavings may also be used. 

The harvesting of ice. — Ice should be cut from a 
stream or pond that is not stagnant. Lakes or 
rivers are more desirable to cut from than ponds, 
but when fresh, running water enters the pond, so 
that it can be renewed often, there is no danger of 
harvesting impure ice from such places. Disease 
can be transmitted very readily by the use of ice 
harvested from stagnant ponds. If no ice can be 
secured from clear-water streams or lakes, and a 
pond is the only place from which to harvest, due 
care should be taken that the pond is drained and 
cleaned late in the autumn ; and, if possible, a few 
showers should be allowed to wash the pond before 
it is again dammed. 

There is a great difference in the quality of har- 
vested natural ice. Those who have had experience 
have noticed that in some cases fully half of the 
ice is of a light color, while the remainder is clear 
and solid. The white ice contains much air, which 
causes it to have that color, while the clear ice is 
perfectly solid and transparent, and will last longer 
and give better results than the white ice. Hence, 
in harvesting ice it is advisable to choose a time, if 



Fig. 257. An ice plow. Fig. 258. Twin-cut ice plow. 



frozen sheets, or to snow falling on the ice, forming 
slush and freezing again, that this white ice is 
formed. If it is quite impossible to secure clear, 
solid ice, this objection can be overcome by the use 
of a planer (Fig. 256). By this method, a certain 
section of ice is planed down to where it assumes 
a clear color. The shavings are then removed and, 
if the ice is not thick enough, it is allowed to freeze 
for a time before it is cut. This will give a per- 
fectly clear ice, and consequently a better quality. 

Ice should be cut in square or rectangular blocks. 
It is essential that these blocks be perfect in shape, 
so that when set together in the ice-house they will 
leave a minimum amount of air space. This is done 
most conveniently by means of an ice-plow (Figs. 
257, 258). However, if such an instrument is not 
at hand, a hand saw can be used (Fig. 259). A plat 
of ice that has first been thoroughly cleaned, 
should be marked off into squares and sawed by 
means of cross-cut saws. 

Filling the ice-house. — Before laying the first 
layer of ice it is very essential to have a well-pre- 
pared floor to insulate the heat coming from the 
earth, for a poorly insulated floor is the most waste- 
ful part of an ice-house. As has heretofore been 
explained, the ground is a good conductor of heat, 
and hence, by placing ice on the ground directly, 
the ice is wasted by cooling the ground beneath it. 
After applying the insulation as explained in the 
paragraph under "Foundation and floor" (p. 234), it 
is essential to place on the cinders at least twelve 
inches of insulation, and it is better if more is used. 

When the insulation has been properly leveled, 
a layer of ice should be placed on it, with the 
cakes laid flat- 



ID* 



Fig. 259. Ice tools.— Axe, ice-chisel, 
ice-bar, saw. 



wise and close 
together. Due 
care should be 
taken that the 
first layer is 
level. On top 
of this place 
tiers of cakes 
set up edgewise, completing each pier and smooth- 
ing the top of it with an adz to allow the proper 
setting of the next tier. Each tier should be set 
some distance from the edge of the house, de- 
pending somewhat on the insulation. There should 
be at least eighteen inches of insulation between 
the outside board and the ice, the amount of insu- 



236 



REFRIGERATION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS 



lation between the ice and first board depending 
on the construction of the ice-house. In some 
instances the wall is packed with some good in- 
sulating material a foot thick, while in other cases 
merely the outside wall is permanent. Ice-houses 
having the walls permanently insulated by being 




Fig. 260. Use ol ice-water tank m cooling milk. This house 
is built of cement walls, inside and out, filled with baled 
straw. 

boarded up on the inside possses an advantage 
over the nouses constructed without insulation, 
in that they do not allow the insulation to fall on 
top of the ice, which becomes exceedingly thick 
when near the bottom of the bin; and it is a source 
of annoyance to remove so much of the insulation 
to get at the ice. The insulation between the wall 
and ice should be packed as firmly as possible, so 
that it will not permit the tiers of ice to give way 
as it is gradually being built up, and not allow 
any large air spaces. 

(b) Dairy refrigeration as applied on the farm. 

When the farmer is provided with the proper 
facilities for storing ice, it becomes an important 
point properly to apply the cooling effect to his 
products without the loss of a great amount of ice. 
It is necessary, then, to provide receptacles, the 
form of which depends on the nature of the prod- 
uct to be cooled. 

Milk- and cream- refrigeration. — The most effect- 
ive way to refrigerate milk, cream or any perishable 
liquid dairy product is to cool it in ice-water. In 
this case, a tank (Figs. 260 and 261), which holds 
ice-water and in which the milk can be placed in 
a receptacle that is a good conductor of heat, is 
the most effective method of refrigerating. The 
tanks holding the ice-water should be well insulated 
either by constructing them of a thick plank of 
porous wood, or by two thicknesses of thinner 
wood, the space between the two being filled with 
some insulating material, such as coal sparks, rock 



cotton or some other insulator that does not absorb 
moisture to any great extent. Cement tanks may 
also be used for this purpose. If, however, a cement 
tank is to be built, it should be insulated thoroughly 
on the inside with some non-conducting material, 
such as coal sparks or cinders. 

Milk-refrigeration in cold stor- 
age without application of water 
is not accomplished so effectively 
and economically, for the reason 
that air is a good non-conduc- 
tor, while water is a good conduc- 
tor. It is a common practice for 
milk-supply men to make their 
first attempt to cool their bottled 
milk in dry-air refrigerators. In 
nearly every case this proves to 
be a failure, unless the milk has 
been cooled previously to an equal 
or lower temperature than the 
temperature of the dry air of the 
refrigerator. To cool bottled milk 
effectively and thoroughly it is best to place crushed 
ice around the bottles when packed in this tank. 

Butter- and cheese-refrigeration. — For refriger- 
ating dairy products such as butter, cheese and the 
like, a refrigerator is necessary. In constructing 
a refrigerator there are several factors to be taken 
into consideration. 

(1) The form. — The same principles that hold 
true with an ice-house hold true with a refriger- 
ator. It should be as near the form of a cube or 
a cylinder as practical, for the most efficient work. 

(2) Insulation. — A refrigerator should be thor- 



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Institution:- IFi. ttiicJO. 
packed sawdust I 



i 



Fig. 261. Plan of refrigerator in which ice-water is used to 
cool the milk. The milk, in cans, is placed in the ice-water 
tank. 

oughly insulated to allow as small an amount of 
heat as possible to penetrate the walls. 

(3) Dryness. — It is very essential that the refrig- 
erator should be so constructed as to allow the 
proper circulation of air to keep it dry. 

Insulating materials for a refrigerator. — Insulat- 



REFRIGERATION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS 



237 



ing materials used for small refrigerators are 
numerous. (Fig. 262.) There are some very impor- 
tant requisites that need to be taken into consider- 
ation when selecting insulating materials for a 
refrigerator: (1) 
They must possess 
the power to resist 
heat, or should be 
non-conductors of 
heat; (2) they should 
have a minimum 
capacity for absorb- 
ing moisture ; (3) 
they should not fer- 
ment, disintegrate or 
decay; these requis- 
ites being similar to 
that of the insulat- 
ing material of the 
ice-house. In con- 
nection with these, 
they should be odor- 
less, so as not to 
taint the products 
that are stored in 
the house ; (4) they 
should not pack or 
settle down, thus 
leaving an air space 
above; (5) they 
should be reasonably 
cheap, and lend to 
practical conditions. 

The materials that 
comply with these 
conditions are rock 
cotton or mineral 
wool. Granulated 
cork is very effect- 
ive and charcoal is 
also used with a 
great degree of suc- 
cess. Hair felt is a 
good insulator, and 
planer-shavings be- 
come exceedingly 
practical because of 
the cheapness a t 
which they can be 
secured. Sawdust is 
also good, but does 
not prove to be so 
effective after a 
year's use as do 
planer- shavings. 
Paperhas frequently 
been used, but is not 
to be recommended 
for all conditions. 

Air spaces are frequently built in refrigerators 
for the purpose of insulation. While air may be 
confined to a particular place, it is very important 
that the air should be made perfectly "dead" in 
order to prevent circulation. Variation in tempera- 
ture induces air to circulate, and the greater the 



variation, the more rapidly will it circulate. The 
more rapid the circulation, the poorer will be the 
insulating effect. Furthermore, air spaces built for 
insulation are very expensive and impracticable. 



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Thermal Units transmitted per d;iy, per degree of difference of temperature. Cooper's test. 

Circulation of air in refrigerator. — A refrigera- 
tor should be so constructed as to induce the 
greatest amount of circulation, for the faster the 
air circulates in the refrigerator the dryer will be 
the air and the more thorough will be the refrig- 
eration. Confined air is a non-conductor ; hence it 



238 



REFRIGERATION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS 



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is necessary to bring the air into circulation in 

order to produce a cooling effect. 

Bacteriology applied to refrigeration. — Decay is 

due to the disintegration of material by inherent 

ferments or by 
bacteria. Bac- 
teria are micro- 
scopic livingor- 
ganisms which 
actundercondi- 
tions similar to 
large organ- 
isms, namely, 
where there is 
food, moisture 
and warmth. 
Some ferments 
do not grow at 
all at freezing 




To illustrate this and to show its practical working, 
we will suppose that air is cooled by ice to MS" Fahr. 
At this temperature it will hold less water than at 
50° Fahr. If at 50° Fahr. it was saturated 90 per 
cent, at 38° it would have more water than it 
could carry. The excess would be condensed and 
deposited on the ice. This is well illustrated in 
warm weather when a glass of cold water is drawn, 
when the outside of the glass quickly becomes cov- 
ered with moisture and is said to "sweat." This 
moisture comes from the air because the air imme- 
diately surrounding the glass is cooled to a point 
where it is saturated, and the excess of water is 
condensed on the cold surface of the glass. In just 
the same way rain is brought about, and the excess 
of moisture of the air in the refrigerator is depos- 
ited on the ice. This cold air, now being heavier, 
drops down and produces a vacuum, which throws 
the other and warmer air on the ice. Dryness ?s 



Fig. 263. Section showing insulation 
for a frame building. 



temperatures, and the few 
that do, develop very slowly. 
This is why refrigeration pre- 
serves perishable products. 
When conditions are such 
that moisture, to a certain 
extent, can be withheld, the 
preservation can be brought 
about by higher temperature. 
This can be applied only on 
such products as are not 
liquid, such as butter and 
cheese. It is feadily seen, 
then, that, if a refrigerator 
can be kept extremely dry, 
butter can be kept equally 
well at a somewhat higher 
temperature than if moist. 

Temperature governs the 
percentage of humidity of the 
air. As the air immediately 
surrounding the ice is chilled, 
it becomes heavier and at the 
same time its capacity for 
holding moisture is lessened. 
Air that has all the moisture 
that it can carry is said to be 
saturated, or to have 100 per 
cent of moisture. The per 
cent of saturation does not 
refer to the actual amount 
of water per cubic foot in 
the air, but only to the pro- 
portion of water to the capac- 
ity at any given temperature. 



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Plan of cool storage, with ice-house placed on side of storage chamber. 



REFRIGERATION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS 



239 



essential in a refrigerator for preserving butter, 
cheese and the like. 

The size of a refrigerator. — The same laws that 
govern the size of an ice-house govern the size of 
a refrigerator. A refrigerator should be built of 
such a size as to supply the maximum storage 
capacity. The size may be determined by the out- 
put of the creamery or dairy. Butter should be 
shipped every week unless it is to be placed in 
storage at extremely low temperature. It should 
then be shipped twice a week. The maximum time 
for storage should be three weeks. For average 
conditions, cold-storage rooms in creameries need 
not be much larger than to hold a week's output of 
butter, besides the extra room required for hand- 
ling the packages. 

For a creamery refrigerator, it is essential and 
convenient to have an anteroom before the entrance 
of the refrigerator in order not to allow any more 
of the cold air to escape than is necessary. By this 
method, when entering the refrigerator through 
the anteroom, the anteroom door should be closed 
before the refrigerator door is opened. This ante- 
room can be used conveniently for printing butter. 
Light. — It is not desirable to have a window in 
the cold-storage room. A window may be put in 
the anteroom, however. If light is necessary in the 
storage-room a lamp or candle should be used. 

Insulation. — The walls, ceiling and floor of the 
refrigerator should be thoroughly insulated, includ- 
ing the anteroom. All lumber used in connection 
with the refrigerator should be thoroughly dry and 
free from odor. The ceiling on the inside, and the 
siding on the outside, should be free from knots. 
Spruce, box-elder or hemlock is the best wood for 
the inside. Soft pine, free from odor, may also be 

used, but it is 
generally not 
suitable for the 
inside sheeting 
because of its 
odor. However, 
it may be used 
on the outside. 
The ceiling on 
the inside should 
be well dressed, 
matched and 
grooved. Lum- 
ber should be 
dry in order 
that it may not 
form cracks, 



265. Diagram of improperly con- 
structed ice cold-storage. 

which will allow the air to circulate in the dead- 
air spaces, and at the same time make it likely to 
crack the paper. 

All papers used in connection with refrigerators 
for butter and cheese should be strictly odorless 
and waterproof. Such papers as tarred, felt, straw 
and resin papers are not suitable for this purpose. 
Only refrigerator paper is suitable for refriger- 
ating work. It is advisable to use a double thick- 
ness of paper in all cases, and each layer should 
overlap the preceding one at least six inches, 
preferably more. The layer should extend contin- 





uously around all corners. Care should be taken 
that no breaks occur in the paper, and if a break 
is made it should be covered with another sheet. 
Dead-air spaces may be made for insulating pur- 
poses, but, owing to the expensiveness of construct- 
ing an air space, it is advisable to use some 
insulating material such as rock cotton, asbestos, 
mineral wool, 
liner felt, cork, 
charcoal, or 
planer-shavings. 
The shavings 
must be from 
some odorless 
wood, such as 
spruce or hem- 
lock. 

The thickness 
of insulation de- 
pends on the ma- 
terial used and 
the construction 
of the walls. In 
using rock cot- 
ton, at least four 
inches should be 
placed in the 
wall, including 
three air spaces 
that would 
range as fol- 
lows: One-inch 
air space, two 
inches of rock 
cotton, two-inch 
air space, two inches of rock cotton, and one-inch 
air space. When asbestos is used, at least six 
inches should be put in the wall, with an air space 
of one inch on each side. When planer-shavings are 
used, an eight-inch air space should be filled, with 
no dead-air spaces. For chaff or cut rye-straw, ten 
inches should be used. 

Construction. — The foundations should be made 
of stone, brick or concrete, and built high enough 
to allow good drainage to the lower insulation. 
The floor of the refrigerator should be well drained 
and then covered with at least eighteen inches of 
coal cinders. If cinders are not available, coarse 
sand may be used, or crushed limestone. Place on 
this a very light, thin coat of cement. On this 
place joists, which are supported at the ends and 
are of such size as is necessary to carry the weight 
of ice and the products stored. Between the joists 
fill the space with insulating material. On the 
joists place an inch thickness of lumber, then some 
insulating material and lastly flooring. (Fig. 263.) 
Or, place two thicknesses of paper on insulating 
material, with a layer of fine sand, on which place 
two inches of cement. The cement should be well 
turned on the sides of the wall, and the floor should 
have proper slope of one inch to every two feet, 
with a gutter on the entrance side of the room to 
allow for drainage from the melting ice. The drain 
from the gutter should be trapped to prevent the 
air entering the refrigerator. 



Fig. 266. Overhead ice, with go id 
air circulation. 



240 



REFRIGERATION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS 






The walls should be constructed of 2x4's set 
alternately and united top and bottom, with two 
thicknesses of lumber on the inside. The outside 
should be covered with two thicknesses of lumber, 
with two ply of paper between. The inside should 
also have two ply of paper between the two thick- 




Fig. 267. A satisfactory large cold-storage building, in which the ice for the 
year is placed as cut. 

nesses of lumber, and the last course of lumber 
should be matched ceiling. 

The insulation should be made according to the 
plan adopted. The insulation of the ceiling in the 
refrigerator is not so essential as the insulation of 
the floor, because cold air is heavy and hovers at 
the lowest point, hence the variation in tempera- 
ture at the ceiling is less than around the base 
of the refrigerator. While the same construction 



should be applied on the inside of the refrigerator 
and the same amount of insulation used, it is not 
necessary to put on the last course of outside 
lumber. 

The doors entering the cold-storage room should 
be insulated in the same way as the walls. The 

edges should be beveled 

closely to fit the door 
frame. Projections should 
be left on the door, which 
should receive a covering 
of leather, felt or rubber, 
and should be provided 
with fasteners so as to 
allow no possible chance 
for the air to escape. The 
inside of the room should 
receive a coat of shellac 
or a coat of refrigerator 
paint to prevent any odor 
arising from the wood. 

Styles of refrigerators. 
— Refrigerators are built 
in two styles with refer- 
ence to the air space and 
to the ice-chamber, to in- 
duce the proper circula- 
tion of the air. The first is 
when the ice-chamber is 
placed above the storage 
room and connected with 
ducts, so as to allow the 
warm air to rise from one 
duct and be deposited on 
the top of the ice, where 
it is cooled and falls down 
another duct into the 
chamber, where it is again 
warmed by the products 
in the storage room and 
rises to be cooled by the 
ice above. The second 
(Fig. 264) method is when 
the ice is placed on the 
side of the storage cham- 
ber. In this case the air 
cooled in the chamber 
enters the room through 
the lower bed course, and 
the vacuum above draws 
in the warm air, thereby 
inducing a circulation. 

To induce an air circu- 
lation in a refrigerator it 
is necessary to build flues 
so that the down flow of 
the cold air will not be interrupted by the upward 
flow of the warm air. (Fig. 265.) The air being 
warmed by the products stored in the refrigerator, 
it raises the saturation point, which brings on the 
power for it to take up more moisture. It should 
then have a chance to rise on the warmest side of 
the refrigerator through a flue to the top. Here 
the ice should be located, and as the warm air 
becomes cooled from being in contact with the ice, 



REFRIGERATION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS 



241 



it reduces the saturation point and deposits some 
of its moisture on the ice. As the air becomes cool 
it becomes heavy and has a tendency to flow down, 
hence it is very necessary to provide for a flue in 
the downward passage of the air. (Fig. 266.) 

II. Refrigeration in dairy manu- 
facturing concerns. 

There are two methods of pro- 
ducing refrigeration in creamer- 
ies : (1) By natural ice. (2) By 
mechanical means. While it is 
impractical to use mechanical 
refrigeration on the farm, it can 
be profitably applied, however, in 
creameries, depending somewhat 
on the location. In northern coun- 
tries where ice never fails, and 
where absolute sanitary ice is not 
necessary, if a creamery is so 
located that ice can be stored di- 
rectly from ponds or streams, it 
may be cheaper to produce refrig- 
eration by means of natural ice. 
Following is an experiment con- 
ducted by the author to determine 
the profitableness of refrigeration 
by the use of natural or artificial 
means. The question is one that 
is frequently discussed by cream- 
erymen of the present day ; but, 
because of the varying conditions 
in the different localities within a 
small radius of country, it is very 
difficult to arrive at even an ap- 
proximate conclusion. An exam- 
ple is here given by which the 
comparative cost of the two sys- 
tems may be computed. 

Natural-ice refrigeration. — As a 
basis for our calculations a cream- 
ery was chosen, handling, on an 
average, 10,000 pounds of milk 
per day. This milk is supposed to 
contain 4 per cent of butter-fat, 
from which about 450 pounds of 
butter are made daily. It is esti- 
mated that the temperature of the 
refrigerator must be maintained 
at 36° or 37° Fahr. for 250 days 
per year; or, in other words, there 
are only 115 days in a year in 
which the mean temperature re- 
mains below 32° Fahr., and during 
which time no ice is required. It 
was also estimated that the mean temperature 
during this time was about 66° Fahr., or a differ- 
ence of 30°. From the 10,000 pounds of milk, 200 



the refrigerator is so small that it requires refilling 
once a week in order to maintain the temperature 
at 36°, the first cost of building the refrigerator is 
reduced, but the labor is increased decidedly, as 
extra expense is incurred for constructing an ice- 
house to store ice for the season. On the other 



c5?e Drtails 




tt 



£ 




gallons of cream are produced daily, which re- 
quires sufficient refrigeration to reduce the tem- 
perature 30°, as milk is usually separated at 80° to 
85°, and the cream churned at 50° to 55° Fahr. 

The advantages and disadvantages of refriger- 
ating with natural ice depend somewhat on the 
construction and size of the refrigerator. In case 

C16 



Fig. 268. Details of building shown in Fig. 267. 

hand, if a refrigerator is built of sufficient size to 
store the required ice for the year, the first cost of 
construction would be comparatively great, but the 
cost of filling for the year would be materially 
reduced, as the ice is harvested and placed directly 
in the refrigerator at the time when labor is cheap- 
est, and when ice has comparatively little value in 
our northern regions. This kind of refrigerator 
once filled completes the work and the expense of 
refrigeration for the entire year. (Figs. 267, 268.) 



242 



REFRIGERATION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS 



In the past, a few of these large-style refrigera- 
tors were built by creamery companies, but nearly 
all failed to accomplish the intended results below 
the latitude of 38°. The practicability of these 
large refrigerators depends on the thoroughness 
of the insulation and the latitude in which they are 
located. They are practical only when walls are 
built so that not more than seventy-five heat units 
per square foot are radiated in twenty-four hours, 
which would necessitate a wall-construction similar 
to that indicated in Fig. 268. Under these circum- 
stances the cost of such large refrigerators would 
be too great for the average creameryman. It is, 
therefore, not appropriate to consider them in this 
work. 

There is a risk to run in depending on natural 
ice for the year, unless one is situated in a favor- 
able locality where the ice crop has never failed. 
As a rule, the ice contains a certain amount of im- 
purities, especially when harvested from a stagnant 
pond, in which case the air in the refrigerator be- 
comes polluted with the impurities set free by the 
melting of the ice. In natural-ice refrigerators the 
air is always heavily laden with moisture, making 
it favorable for the growth of mold on butter-tubs, 
which is a serious objection. The lowest tempera- 
ture secured by means of melting ice in a refriger- 
ator during the summer months ranges from 33" to 
45° Fahr., depending on the insulation. The better 
the insulation the more efficient the refrigerator. 
The cost, therefore, varies with the insulation as 
well as with the size. 

Since the specific heat of butter is .405, the cool- 
ing of 450 pounds of butter 30° would require 
thirty-nine pounds of ice daily, or 9,750 pounds for 
250 days. About 25 per cent must be allowed for 
cooling tubs and packages, which amounts to six 
tons of ice for cooling 450 pounds of packed butter 
per year during the 250 days. The space occupied 
by the 450 pounds of butter packed in thirty-pound 
and sixty-pound tubs is fourteen cubic feet. If the 
butter made in one week is to be stored, it requires 
a refrigerator having 250 square feet of wall sur- 
face for heat radiation. The number of pounds of 
ice that must be stored in a refrigerator over and 
above the amount required for cooling the butter 
depends again on the insulation, construction of the 
walls and wall surface. The illustrations accom- 
panying (Figs. 269-272) are sections of walls 
showing the manner of construction of the average 
creamery refrigerator. We find that the average 
cost of ice in the manufacture and cooling of but- 
ter is 18.1 cents per hundred pounds. The average 
cost per ton of ice placed in a refrigerator is $2.09. 
In obtaining these results it was the aim to secure, 
as nearly as possible, the average conditions of 
northern countries. In Fig. 273 is indicated a 
creamery with ice refrigeration. 

Mechanical refrigeration. — Taking up the disad- 
vantages of mechanical refrigeration, we have : 

(1) The large capital invested. 

(2) It necessitates daily or continual operation, 
unless provided with large storage-tanks. 

(3) The operating expenses for labor, coal, oil, 
ammonia and repairs. 



(4) The excessive dryness in such refrigerators, 
often causing a great shrinkage in the product. 

(5) Great risks for accidents that might happen, 
such as the breakage on machines and the delay 
for repairs. 

(6) The expense of pumping water for condens- 
ing ammonia. 

The advantages offsetting these disadvantages 
by using machinery for refrigeration, as compared 
with the use of natural ice, follow : 

(1) No risks to run in securing cold whenever 
needed. 

(2) Practically no variation in cost for produc- 
ing cold from year to year. 

(3) The refrigeration is under better control. 

(4) Practically any temperature may be obtained 
above zero. 

(5) The atmosphere is drier in the refrigerator ; 
hence, butter is less susceptible to mold. 

(6) Less disagreeable labor, such as the handling 
of the ice. 

(7) The cold-room can be kept clean. 

(8) It does away with the impurities imbedded 
in river- and pond-ice. 

(9) It provides a more nearly perfect method of 
cream ripening, resulting in a better product. 

(10) It secures economy of space in the cool- 
room, which lessens the radiating surface for the 
same amount of refrigeration. 

The cost of a mechanical refrigerating plant 
under similar conditions, and for the same purpose 
as the natural-ice refrigerators, was obtained from 
the results of a test made on a six-ton compression 
refrigerating plant, which has been in operation 
for over two years. (Fig. 274.) The capacity of the 
machine is usually considered appropriate for a 
creamery that handles 10,000 pounds of milk daily; 
for, with this capacity, it does not necessitate a 
longer daily run than the time required for operat- 
ing the factory to do the necessary refrigerating 
work. 

From the average results obtained from this test 
it is found that one pound of coal produces a 
refrigerating effect equivalent to 4.7 pounds of ice. 
This may seem to be a small degree of cold to 
secure from the use of a pound of coal, yet as near 
as it can be estimated, it fairly represents the 
average amount of work of a small creamery 
refrigerating plant. This inefficiency, however, 
must not be entirely attributed to the compressor; 
in fact, the greatest loss occurs in the method of 
firing, and inefficient boilers and engines. Cream- 
eries seldom have high-class engines, and many 
are exceedingly inefficient ; but since the exhaust 
steam is utilized for heating the skimmed milk and 
water, this loss of power cannot be considered as 
waste of fuel. 

Repairs have not been taken into account in 
either case. The estimates on these are very dif- 
ferent, depending somewhat, in the first case, on 
the materials of which the refrigerator and ice- 
house are built, and on the machine, as well as on 
the skill of the attendant for operating such 
machines, in the latter case. However, it is fair to 
consider the cost of repairs nearly equal in both 






REFRIGERATION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS 



243 




6E.CTION though coRNtt or WALL. 



'xrr~ 



;7r, "•""'' 






2 ; -",'. '/';// ;s////////;;s/;»A'/:$$. 



£"xV 6T.RI P6, {<■ 



INSULATING-PAPER. 
i DOUBLE.- i THICKNMs: 

^'FLOORING, ft 

%' BOARDS. {% 



Qplhrtps construe fa/ 
same a^s tA/atfc. 




r y sr r r 
Qnp foot scale. 



Op?" spacp. 



Fig. 269. Sections of wall and floor of the average creamery refrigerator. 

; i .. iii i i -i 'rarTi I H I I I 'i . I " L ~ l " l " « 



(SECTION. THROUGH CORNER Of WALL. 




•■■ ~- " ■■''.-£ Qnaf'rr<3: ia"c/eep:' 



• ■ . ■■..;. 



Fig. 270. Sections ana details of the average creamery refrigerator. 



244 



REFRIGERATION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS 




(SUCTION THROUGH CORNLRor WALL. 



Q/Tf foot scat? 



' , : I ,_. 



_-" 




L_ , 

" : - -/ -V"""-~- 



% FLOORING. (; 
■2." AIR SPACES, i 
q "AIR 8PACE. ( 
Z"'Z' 6TRIP6. C 
2.Vf"<5TRIP,5. J. 

„,, "Tr^^^' B0ARD5. if. 

\ I N5ULATING PAPER 
DOUBLE THICKNESS. 




wa/?s 



Fig. 271. Further details of the average creamery refrigerator. 



SUCTION through corner or VtyAtL 



z-yM'ii^A^ /Z'W^^^yTZ 



^yy^/yy^yy^y^^^^Z^7777?y///^ /M^^^£M?, spaces (Sg 

5?"L>'' fyrc W\\ X INSULATING PAPERf^^^y 

^^.L^ sw> ^^_^_ i ^^ rffrS ^fL_ afSf DOUBLE THICKNESS IM-fci — - 
-&&f%W. . W '"'' : '- "c'm, & T'^ : l&^$^ 1?§S ' >: ~\ , " ■ ttCe/tofs ctmtnxtft/ same as «, 



■fr^^f'-: ^|l; r : }.'' • 5?oSp: "/<y^^^^ : "-<V. : ."'y ,-.". •^Os**^ ww™' •saw « "a 7 ''' 5 : 

Fig. 272. Details of floor and wall construction of the average creamery refrigerator. 




-, 



REFRIGERATION OP DAIRY PRODUCTS 



245 



cases. This may slightly favor the refrigerating 
machines. The storage capacity of the refrigerator 
is slightly increased by the artificial system com- 
pared with the natural-ice refrigerator. The greater 
part of the space occupied by ice is utilized by the 
brine-tank, in which brine is stored to absorb the 
heat which is conducted through the refrigerator 
walls, while the compressor is not in operation. 

Summary. — The difference in cost to cool 100 
pounds of packed butter to 30° Fahr., including 
the cooling of cream during the manufacturing 
process, between the natural-ice system and the 
artificial-refrigerating system, is as follows, with 
the use of various kinds of insulations in refriger- 
ators, as indicated in the illustrations : 

Fig. 269 Pig. 270 Fig. 271 Fig. 272 

Natural-ice system 

(Fig. 273) . . . 20.1c 18.2c 17.5c 17.1c 

Mechanical refrig- 
erating system 
(Fig. 274) . . . 17.8c 17.1c 16.9c 16.8c 

Per cent favor me- 
chanical system 12% 6% 4% 2% 

There is no doubt that the artificial system is 
the most practical for refrigeration in a creamery 
handling 10,000 pounds of milk per day, in any 
part of the country in the same latitude as the 
state of Illinois (where the experiment was 
made), except, perhaps, in the extreme northern 
part, where the cost of refrigeration in cream- 
eries may become equal by both systems. But even 
if this be true, the advantage of refrigerating 
by artificial means overbalances the natural-ice 
system. 

The fact must not be lost sight of that the pro- 
portionate cost of refrigerating by the artificial 
system increases when the output of the creamery 
decreases from the illustrations used above. This 
is due to the increase in capital invested per ton of 
refrigerating capacity for a small ice-machine. 

The construction of creamery refrigerators. — The 
same conditions that hold true in constructing farm 
refrigerators also hold true with creamery refrig- 
erators, except that possibly it becomes more 
economical to use a heavier insulation. Refrigera- 
tion in connection with such plants need not neces- 
sarily be at lower degree than is produced 
by ice, unless the creamery is connected 
with a cold-storage plant, which will be 
mentioned later. 

Refrigeration in cheese factories. — With „ 
the present system of making it, cheese is 
hardly practical to provide for any exten- 
sive refrigerating rooms for the purpose of 
curing the cheese. As cheese is made at the 
present time, it needs only to be stored until 
a sufficient quantity accumulates to allow it 
to be transported to some large cold-storage 
room, where the proper curing of Cheddar 
cheese may be done. Hence, a small cheese 
curing-room, provided with a small ice-cham- 
ber to keep the temperature at 45 to 48 degrees, 
similar to that of Fig. 264, is all that is neces- 
sary in connection with refrigeration for cheese 
factories. 



Milk-bottling and distributing plants. — In nearly 
all of the large cities at the present time some of 
the milk is shipped from the farm in bulk to a 
bottling plant, where it is filtered or pasteurized, 
cooled and bottled. For a large milk -bottling 




Fig. 273. Creamery with ice refrigeration. 

plant, mechanical refrigeration is the most practi- 
cable method, but for smaller plants ice may be used. 
After the milk has been treated as desired, either 
filtered or pasteurized, it should be run over a 
cooler, which reduces the temperature to 36° to 40° 
Fahr. This is the most important step in the pres- 
ervation of milk in bottling plants. It may then be 
placed in dry cold-storage rooms for distribution ; 
but the most effective practice is to cool the milk 
to a moderate degree, bottle it, put the bottles in 
cases and fill the cases with crushed ice. 




Fig. 274. Creamery with mechanical refrigeration. 
III. Refrigeration in cold-storage plants. 

For butter. — The object of the small refrigerator 
in a creamery is to allow enough butter to accu- 
mulate for shipment to cold-storage houses or for 



216 



MEATS AND RELATED PRODUCTS 



direct distribution. Further storage room is not 
necessary for creameries. To produce refrigeration 
effectively, for the purpose of storing butter for a 
period of nine months or a year, an extremely low 
temperature is required, which necessarily must 
accompany a well - insulated room. Butter stored 
for this period of time requires a temperature of 
at least five to eight degrees below zero. This 
temperature is difficult to secure in any way except 
by mechanical refrigeration. However, for storage 
rooms in which butter is stored for a shorter 
period of time, the temperature need not be so low. 
Five degrees above zero is probably the most prac- 
ticable under such conditions. This refrigeration 
can be secured by a freezing mixture, such as 
crushed ice mixed with salt. Crushed ice and salt 
may be placed in tanks containing a series of pipes, 
which are connected with a second series in the 
refrigerator. The circulation induced by placing 
the cold-brine tank above the refrigerator induces 
a circulation of brine in the pipe and reduces the 
temperature in the refrigerator. The latter method 
is known as the Cooper system. (Fig. 275.) Here, 
again, when ice must be used it is practicable only 
in places where it can be produced cheaply. 

For cheese. — It has been demonstrated absolutely 
that the only perfect way of curing cheese is in 
cold-storage rooms. The temperature affects the 
period of curing ; the colder the temperature, the 
longer time it takes to cure, but the better the 
quality. The best temperature at which to hold 
cheese ranges from 36° to 40° Fahr. This is easily 
produced by ice, and when such a plant is erected 
for the purpose of curing cheese alone, ice becomes 
a cheaper and better refrigerator than mechanical 



methods. But with a combined cold-storage plant, 
where butter and other perishable products are 
stored, it becomes equally profitable to provide for 
rooms in which to hold cheese at 40 degrees tem- 
perature. 

The same laws that govern the form of ice- 
houses and small refrigerators should govern the 




Fig. 275. Section through Cooper gravity-brine system 
of refrigeration for creamery. 

construction of a cold-storage room. The room 
should be built of such a size as to supply the 
maximum storage capacity, as estimated by the 
products to be purchased from the community. 

Literature. 

The following references should be consulted : 
Seibel, Compend of Refrigeration ; Cooper, Practi- 
cal Cold Storage. [See pp. 265-270, Vol. I.] 



CHAPTER IX 



MEATS AND RELATED PRODUCTS 

By W. D. HOARD 

SAT-PRODUCTION IS ABOUT TO' UNDERGO A GREAT CHANGE in North 
America, consequent on the change in farming conditions. It is evident to all 
intelligent observers that the evolution of American farm-life will make 
several marked changes in the supply of meat. The great ranges where cattle 
and sheep can be raised cheaply to a certain stage, are fast being eliminated. The 
supply of hogs has always come from the corn-growing and dairy-producing 
districts. In such districts the people will be ready for the exercise of a more 
scientific and economic judgment in order to meet the commercial demands of the 
meat supply. At the bottom lies the factor of profit to the meat-producer. If he can not 
produce meat at a profit, then the working of the merciless laws of economics will rele- 
gate him to the rear, as it haslione very largely in England, and the United States will 
become an importer of beef and mutton from the great ranges of South America, Aus- 
tralia, and Siberia. 

We must determine whether there is any way that the American farmer can produce 

good beef at a fair profit — whether the American market will hold its prices, so as to- 

give such certainty to the future as will warrant him in organizing his farm on a special meat-producing 

basis. The question of demand and supply regulates very greatly the question of price. Quality is an 

additional factor. It is very evident that there is not wide profit in producing a low grade of beef or 




MEATS AND RELATED PRODUCTS 247 

mutton. The best profit lies with the best quality. We must determine, then, how this quality is to be 
secured with profit. 

First of all, is the question of breed. On this point there has been a much greater advance in judg- 
ment and understanding than on the matter of economic feeding. We have clear and decided breeds of 
beef cattle and mutton sheep, and no man need stumble or go far wrong in this direction. 

The second element in the profitable production of high-quality meats concerns the question of economic 
feeding, of reducing food-production on the farm to its lowest percentage of waste, as well as of cost, and 
thus expending that food with the highest efficiency in meat-production ; these two problems are as yet 
but imperfectly understood by the American farmer. Grass and corn are the foundation of all meat- 
production in North America. Therefore, the meat question involves the other question as to whether 
the American farmer can produce grass and corn profitably — whether he can grow grass and corn more 
successfully and profitably than he is now doing. About forty per cent of the meat-producing power of 
the corn-plant is wasted at present, in all of the great corn-producing sections. This forty per cent is 
contained in the stalk. If the entire plant is cut at the glazing stage and housed in silos, we are con- 
vinced that it would prove a very cheap and efficient food for the production of beef and mutton. But 
this view of the case calls for a thorough reconstruction of the farmer's ideas of farm economics. The 
silo has long been known as one of the most efficient and profitable methods for reducing the cost of 
milk, provided that the silage is properly fed to a cow that can produce milk profitably. The same law 
applies with equal force in meat-production. 

The wonderful spread of alfalfa-culture east of the Missouri in the last ten years has added immensely 
to the possibilities of cheap milk-, beef- and mutton-production. No more efficient or cheaper ration can 
be found for meat-making than good field-corn silage and well-cured alfalfa hay. If the animals are 
comfortably and healthfully housed, a ration of thirty-five to forty pounds of corn silage and ten pounds 
of bright alfalfa hay requires but fifty per cent of the ordinary grain ration fully to complete the circle 
of the ration. 

Here, in my belief, lies the mode of solving the problem of profitable beef- and mutton-production from 
the American farm standpoint. Meat-production must become a farm operation, with good supplemen- 
tary feeding, rather than a range or mere pasture practice. We must apply to it, therefore, the careful 
and intensive methods of modern agriculture. The more the American farmer studies economical grass, - 
corn- and alfalfa-production, economical and healthful stabling, and the science of feeding, together 
with the use of the silo, the more fully will he put himself in possession of the essentials of economic 
and profitable meat-production. Many other considerations group themselves about this central effort, 
as the proper lighting and ventilating of stables, guarding against tuberculosis and other diseases, for 
the more we increase the animal population on a given area the greater are the chances for infection 
and disease conditions. 

Ultimately, therefore, it is a question of the education of the American farmer out of his wasteful, 
unscientific practice and attitude of mind. If the same exhaustive economy of management were prac- 
ticed in the raising of beef cattle as is practiced by the packers in their slaughter, this country could 
produce meat profitably and abundantly from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and meat-production would not be 
a mid-western practice alone. The limits now assigned for meat-production are based on lack of under- 
standing of scientific and economic methods, rather than in the real nature of things. As a nation of 
farmers, we are as yet handicapped with pioneer methods of crop-production, and the curing and prepa- 
ration of crops for animal-feeding. The great mass of farmers have wasted the fertility of their soil to 
the extent that crop-production is doubled in expense. It is primarily necessary to cheapen and organize 
crop-production. Most men look at the market end only, considering the price, which they can not control ; 
but they should look first at the farm end, the cost of production, which is largely within their control, 
if they could but see it. Herein lies very largely the solution of the question of profitable production of 
either meat or milk on the North American farm. 

The general change in the meat situation is indicated in the following editorial in the Wall Street 
Journal for November 27, 1907 ; and this editorial is significant as expressing the professional financial 
judgment on some of the principles governing agricultural investment : 

" The life of a western state in which agriculture is the chief source of wealth, presents certain 
phases of investment interests which apply to no other portion of the country to the same extent. The 
sources of rural wealth of such a state as Missouri, whose annual agricultural report is at hand, are live- 
stock and grain. Their present state of production shows that the old order of farm industry has passed 
"way and that the new has become well established. 



248 DRESSING, CARING FOR AND PRESERVING MEATS 

"The new system of meat-production, for instance, is based upon exact observation of the kind and 
quantity of feed as a factor in preparation of animals for market. It is not only a question of quantity 
of product, but, also, one of quality. The feeder of cattle must know at what weight at selling time the 
maximum net profit emerges. This illustrates the way in which scientific experiment enables the 
grower of live-stock to find the point of largest return, for, it is this principle that controls the question 
of breeding, feeding and marketing every variety of stock which the western farm puts upon the 
market. 

"The same principle of maximum average net returns governs the investment in dairying as a 
branch of the cattle industry. Here the efficiency of the dairy cow, as compared with the beef steer as 
a producer of human food, is in constant competition. It has been found from Missouri's experience, 
that, in this race between the two types of food supply, the beef industry is the first to go. One reason 
for this is that among meat products the costliest is beef, with mutton a close second, and pork third. 
It is the experience of more than a quarter of a century that, in marketing-values, hogs are the best 
sellers, sheep ranking next, and cattle below either. Here again is a cause why investment in beef- 
production is gradually narrowing its territory and yielding to more profitable lines. It is because the 
margin between producing-cost and selling-price, in an agricultural region like that of the Mississippi 
valley, is lower in beef than in any other of meat animals. 

"Applying the same principle to meat-producing animals, as compared with dairying stock, the rela- 
tive costs are found to be in favor of the latter and against the former. It is found that dairying thrives 
better in hard times, and the beef business best in prosperous times. As land becomes higher priced, the 
work of raising cattle for fattening on the farm must be relegated to the grazing lands of the West. 
But as these lands disappear it is evident that the cost of young stock production must be increased, 
making feeders too expensive for profitable purchase. Then the western farmer in such states as Missouri, 
Illinois and Iowa has before him the choice of selling his grain or of utilizing his products in dairying 
as the more profitable line of the two. 

" It thus becomes apparent that within the surplus corn belt, the whole central problem of farm 
investment revolves around the question of the function of live-stock in high-grade farming. On lands 
worth $100 an acre, or perhaps more, no vacillating policy will meet the needs of successful manage- 
ment. To get the largest net profit per acre, the line of production upon which farm efforts center 
must have the character of permanent profitableness. Yet it must preserve in itself such a degree of 
adaptability to changes as to be able to substitute the low for the high elements of cost whenever profits 
are imperiled. 

" Thanks to the experiment stations, maintained jointly by state and federal outlay, each state is 
experimenting in advance of actual farming experience, so that by the time the problem becomes 
acute in farm practice, these stations have already demonstrated the path along which the more rather 
than the less profitable investment lies. No other business really has a surer foundation for the present 
and the future than one in which foresight is demonstrated so completely as to solve its problems in 
principle by the time they have developed in practice. The meaning of all this to the business world lies 
in the fact of permanent stability in agricultural welfare combined with a progressive spirit of 
American farming." 

DRESSING, CARING FOR AND PRESERVING jects of rendering tallow, and the making of soap 
MEATS and candles, are given notice at the end. 

By Andrew Boss Selection of animals. 

Cleanliness should be the motto of everyone who The selection of animals for meat is of vital im- 

attempts to dress and cure meat for human food. portance. Healthy animals in at least fair condi- 

All arrangements for slaughtering and for cutting tion as to fatnes"s are the most desirable. If suffer- 

the carcasses should be made with a view to pro- ing from fever or any constitutional derangement 

viding clean, wholesome food. Dirty carcasses and of the system, the flesh from even a fat animal will 

slovenly handling of the cut pieces are extremely not be wholesome food. Frequently animals are 

objectionable. Not only are they objectionable to killed that are known to be slightly infected with 

the sense of sight, but dirt and blood are a detri- actinomycosis (lumpy jaw), tuberculosis (consump- 

ment to the keeping qualities of the meat when tion), cholera, fevers, and other diseases affecting 

curing is attempted. the muscular structure. While there is little direct 

The important factors concerned in the proper evidence that meat from such animals is harmful 

handling of meats are discussed in this article. to health when properly cooked, it is almost impos- 

Somewhat full notes are given on the curing of sible to distinguish between the incipient form of 

meats for different purposes ; and the related sub- disease and the fully developed form, or to know 



DRESSING, CARING FOR AND PRESERVING MEATS 



249 



when the disease becomes virulent or harmful. It 
is safer, therefore, to use for food only meat from 
animals known to be in perfect health. Flesh from 
animals that have only recently recovered from an 
attack of fever or other disease is not likely to cure 




Fig. 276. Beef type. Champion Shorthorn heifer, 
Lady Amy 7th. 

well, nor to keep well after curing ; neither is the 
flavor of such meat of the best. Bruises, broken 
bones, or like injuries have the same effect on 
the meat as ill-health, and unless the animal can be 
bled and dressed immediately after such an acci- 
dent, it is not best to use the flesh for food. A rise 
in the temperature of the animal just previous to 
slaughtering is likely to result in stringy, gluey 
meat that cures badly, frequently souring in the 
process. 

Condition. 

A reasonable amount of fat is desirable in meat 
to give juiciness and contrast in flavor. Within 
certain limits, the fatter the animal the better the 
meat. Common practice has perhaps put a safe 
limitation to the degree of fatness that should be 
attained, by dictating the selling or slaughtering 
of the animal as soon as it ceases to make profita- 
ble gains on good food. It is a common observation 
among butchers that an animal that is gaining 
rapidly in flesh and weight usually makes good 
meat. One that is no longer gaining flesh or that 
is losing flesh rarely returns meat of good quality 
or texture. Meat from the first-described animal 
stands up firmly under the knife, while that from 
the latter shrinks in volume when cut, through the 
loss of water, and when cooked becomes tough and 
dry. 

Age. 

Age affects the flavor and texture of meat to a 
great extent. While it is not possible to fix the age 
at which an animal will be best for meat, it is well 
known that meat from old animals is more likely to 
be tough than that from young animals. Meat 
from extremely young animals, however, lacks 
flavor and is not so nourishing and substantial as 
that from animals that are fully matured. Veal is 
often taken much too young. An old animal well 
fattened and in good physical condition would be 
preferable to a young one in poor condition and 
thin in flesh. 



Quality. 

The best quality of meat is usually secured from 
well-bred animals. Scrub and native stock are fre- 
quently coarse in bone and texture of flesh, and do 
not fatten so readily as stock that has been brought 
to a better standard of quality by several gene- 
rations of selections for a specific purpose. Animals 
that are low and smooth in frame, wide in propor- 
tion to depth, and thickly fleshed, generally yield 
a larger percentage of dressed carcass than ani- 
mals of an opposite conformation. (Fig. 276.) In 
addition, such animals trim out less bone and yield 
a larger proportion of meat from the choicer cuts 
of the carcass. It is usually found, also, that the 
thick-meated types of animals, when properly grown 
and fed, furnish a more nicely " marbled " flesh (Fig. 
67), that is, a better mingling of the fat and lean, 
and that the bundles of muscle fibers composing 
the lean part of the meat are finer in texture, larger 
in volume and bound together with proportionately 
less connective tissue. Such meats are found, 
therefore, to be more tender and palatable. 

Equipment for handling. 

Only a few simple tools are necessary for dress- 
ing and cutting farm meats. A six-inch curved 
knife for skinning, a six-inch sticking knife, a 
steel, an axe, a pritch, a candlestick scraper, and a 
twenty-eight-inch meat saw are sufficient tools for 
rapid and effective work. A twelve- or fourteen- 
inch steak knife should be added to the equipment 




Fig. 277. Carcass of beef raised by hitching a horse to a 6-inch, 
block and tackle suspended from a convenient tree. The 
beef is out of the reach of dogs or other animals. 



250 



DRESSING, CARING FOR AND PRESERVING MEATS 



for slicing heavy steak when the carcasses are cut 
up. Arrangements should be made for raising the 
carcasses from the ground or bench, but since 
local surroundings often determine the manner of 
raising, it is only suggested that a block and tackle 
suspended from a tree, a home-made windlass, or 
even a lever can often be used to good advan- 
tage and at little expense. (Figs. 277, 278.) One 




Fig. 278. A handy device for hanging up a hog. 

of the essentials to a clean carcass is a clean place 
in which to do the work. A clean spot on the grass, 
or a bed of clean straw far removed from foul 
odors, fresh paint or other objectionable taints, and 
where there is good drainage, is satisfactory in 
most cases. When the dressing of meats is much 
practiced, a plank or cement floor that can be 
thoroughly cleaned and drained is preferable. 

Preparation. 

Animals intended for slaughter should be kept off 
feed twenty-four to thirty-six hours. On full feed, 
the system is gorged and the blood, laden with 
assimilated nutrients, is driven to the extremities 
of the blood-vessels or capillaries. Under such con- 
ditions the blood-vessels do not drain out so 
thoroughly when the animal is bled and a reddish, 
unattractive appearance is given the carcass. 
Food in the stomach decomposes rapidly after 



slaughter, and when dressing is done slowly, the 
gases generated by the decomposing food often 
taint the meat. Water should be given freely up to 
the time of slaughter, as it tends toward a normal 
temperature, and washes the effete matter out of 
the system, resulting in whiter fat and a more 
inviting carcass. Excitement previous to slaughter- 
ing also prevents the proper drainage of the blood- 
vessels, and if extreme will cause souring of the 
meat soon after dressing. Overheating, occasioned 
by violent exercise, such as a rapid run about the 
pasture, is almost sure to lead to bad results. The 
flesh from an animal subjected to such treatment 
is usually pale in color and often develops a sour 
or putrid odor within three or four days after being 
dressed. Bruises cause blood to settle to the part 
of the body affected and present an uninviting 
appearance, and the loss of a considerable quantity 
of meat results. A thirty-six hour fast, an abun- 
dance of water, careful handling, and rest before 
slaughtering are advisable, since they affect materi- 
ally the flavor and keeping qualities of the meat. 

Dressing cattle. 

In dressing cattle, the animal should be secured 
to a post, tree or other fixed object near the place 
of slaughter, by a piece of rope three-fourths of an 
inch or larger in diameter. By making a running 
noose around the animal's neck, and in front of the 
horn on the left side, the face will be left bare for 
the stunning blow. If the animal is polled, a halter 
on the head, or a noose about the neck will suffice. 
The other end of the rope should be passed around 
the post or through a common hay-fork pulley 
attached to or near the base. The head should be 
drawn down to the ground as closely as possible, 
and the animal stunned by a blow in the center of 
the forehead, midway between the horns and eyes, 
and on line with the center of the face. (Fig. 279.) 
Shooting has the same effect, but the use of fire- 
arms about farm buildings is attended with some 
danger and the use of the axe, therefore, is advis- 
able if the animal can be securely fastened. 

Bleeding. — Bleeding is best accomplished by 
sticking the animal just in front of the breast-bone 
or sternum. (Fig. 280.) The skin should be split 
open over the windpipe for a distance of fifteen to 
twenty inches. An incision some four to six inches 




Fig. 279. Preparing to stun a steer. Point to strike shown by 
crossed dotted lines on head. 

deep, depending on the size of the animal, should 
then be made on either side of the windpipe, the 
knife being held in direct line with the spinal column. 
In this way the arteries from the heart and the 



DRESSING, CARING FOR AND PRESERVING MEATS 



251 



jugular veins are both severed close to the heart 
where the openings are large and resistance is not 
great. As a result, the blood flows freely and is 
more completely siphoned out of the smaller blood- 




^r^X 



Fig. 280. Sticking a beef. The knife is inserted at center of 
breast-bone aud point directed toward top of shoulders. 
Back of knife is laid against front of breast-bone and 
veins and arteries cut by forward thrusts of knife below 
and above windpipe. 

vessels and capillaries near the surface. The pleura 
should not be punctured with the knife, or blood 
will flow into the chest cavity, causing a reddish 
tinge on the inside of the ribs, which is not desir- 
able. Not so much skill is required simply to cut 
the throat back of the jaws, but bleeding will be 
neither so thorough nor so rapid. 

Skinning (Fig 281). — As the animal lies on its 
side, the face and sides of the head should be 
skinned back to and over the poll, the tongue being 
removed by cutting on each side next to the jaw, 
and severing from the roof of the mouth. By plung- 
ing the tongue immediately into a pail of w T arm 
water and scraping it with a knife, it can be easily 
and quickly cleaned. After removing the head, the 
animal should be rolled on its back and held there 
by the use of a pritch, — a stick thirty to thirty-two 
inches long with a spike in each end. Beginning on 
the front legs by cutting across at the lower knee- 
joint, the skin should be split over the back of the 
leg below the knee and skinned down around the 
shank, leaving the dew-claws on the hide. The 
brisket, neck and forearm should not be skinned 
until the animal has been hung up, the covering 
aiding greatly in keeping the meat clean. Cutting 
across the cord over the hind shin will relax the 
foot. The skin may be split and the shank removed 
as in handling the forelegs. The skin should then be 
opened over the midline from breast to rectum. With 
a very sharp knife held nearly flat against the sur- 
face of the tightly stretched hide, the skin may be 
removed down over the sides of the body. If the 
strokes of the knife are in line with the direction of 
the layers of mus- 
cles, there will be 
less likelihood of 
gashing into the 
membrane cover- 
ing the flesh. 
Gashes in this 
covering or in the 
flesh are objec- 
tionable, as mold 
forms quickly in 
such places and is 
removed with difficulty. The appearance of the car- 
cass is also much better when it is left smooth. A 
coarse cloth and a pail of hot water should be at 
hand while skinning and all blood sponged from the 




Fig. 281. Showing mode of starting 
to skin a beef. 



surface before it sets. The cloth should be wrung 
nearly dry for the purpose and no water left on the 
carcass to form slime or become streaky and collect 
dirt. The carcass should be opened at the belly, 
pulling the intestines out to one side and cutting 
the sternum and pelvis with a saw or sharp ax. 
The windpipe and gullet should be raised and the 
diaphragm and pleura cut loose along the lower 
part of the cavity. The carcass should then be 
raised to a height at which it is convenient to 
remove the hide over the thighs, rump, hips and 
back. (Fig. 282.) The intestines may also be best 
removed at this time by loosening the rectum and 
allowing them to drop down over the paunch. The 
"bed fat" lining the pelvis and the kidney fat should 
not be disturbed. But little cutting will be necessary 
for the remainder of the operation. Ordinarily the 
entrails will drop out of their own weight as the 
carcass is raised. The intestines and gall-bladder 
should be handled .carefully to avoid spilling the 




Fig. 282. Skinning the shoulders and neck of a beef. The 
carcass is left covered until raised from the ground, for 
the sake of cleanliness. 

contents over the meat. The hide may be removed 
over the shoulders, arms and neck ; and the liver, 
lungs and heart removed as the carcass is split 
into halves and raised from the ground. Finally, 
all blood and dirt, both inside and out, should be 
sponged off, scraggy pieces and bloody veins 
trimmed off, and the carcass left to cool and set. 

Veal. 

Veal for home use should be handled and dressed 
in much the same way as beef. In dressing for 



252 



DRESSING, CARING FOR AND PRESERVING MEATS 



shipment, only the head, feet and entrails are 
removed. The liver and sweetbreads are left in the 
carcass and the skin is not removed but serves to 
keep the flesh clean in shipping. 

Hides. 

Hides are easily kept in the North during the 
winter by freezing, although salting is a precau- 
tion. In warm weather, however, they should be 
spread out flat, hair side down, and all parts rub- 
bed thoroughly with salt. If more than one skin is 
to be salted, they may be spread one on top of the 
other and salted as spread with the hair side down. 
Ten to twelve pounds of salt will be sufficient to 
preserve an ordinary hide. [See article on Tanning 
Hides, page 271.] 

Dressing sheep. 

A clean, dry place for dressing and a rack or 
beam on which to hang the body are essential to 
cleanly dressed and nicely flavored mutton. Rapid 
dressing is also desirable, as the generation of gases 
in the stomach and contact of dirty fleeces with the 
warm flesh are largely accountable for the objec- 
tionable sheepy 
flavor of mutton. 
If the animal can 
be laid on a plat- 
form or box six 
or eight inches 
high to be bled, 
it will aid mate- 
rially in keeping 
the wool dry and 
the carcass clean. 
(Pig. 283.) Some 
persons prefer to 
swing them by 
the hind -legs. 
Sheep are not usually stunned before bleeding. 
The common practice is to cut the throat to the 
neck bone just back of the jaw as the animal "is 
held on its side. (Fig. 283.) The neck should be dis- 
located immediately at the atlas joint to prevent 
suffering. The pelt should then be opened over the 
middle line and the forelegs skinned and unjointed 
at the toe joints if mutton, or at the highest ankle 
joints if lambs. The brisket and sides are most easily 
skinned as the body lies on the floor or raised plat- 
form. Care should be exercised to prevent tearing 
the red muscles and the membranes covering the 
ikies and abdomen. 

The hind -legs should be skinned just above the 
hocks. On the inside they may be skinned all the 
way up. The toes should be unjointed and the legs 
tied together firmly, and the carcass hung up. The 
outside of the thighs may then be skinned by work- 
ing the closed fist with upward thrust between the 
skin and flesh. Stretching the skin tightly renders 
the operation less difficult. The sides, shoulders and 
back should be finished in the same way, cutting 
the head off with the pelt at the atlas joint. 

As the animal hangs, it is well to cut around the 
gullet and open the lower part of the neck to allow 
drainage of blood. The entrails are removed with- 



out opening the sternum or pelvis. The omentum 
or caul fat should be removed before taking out 
the paunch and preserved in lambs or young sheep 
to spread over the thighs and abdomen. The car- 
cass should be sponged off with a coarse cloth as in 




Fig. 283. Sticking a sheep. The knife 
is inserted just buck of ear at point 
of jaw and penetrates the veins as 
thrust through to opposite side. 




Fig. 284. Sticking a pig. The knife is inserted at hollow of 
neck about an inch to an inch and a half in front of the 
breast-bone. It is directed toward the junction of loin 
and hips and thrust deep enough to reach the arteries— 
sls to seven inches in a 200- to 250-pound pig. 

beef, trimming off the scraggy parts, and then be 
hung away from flies and foul odors to cool. 

Dressing hogs. 

The same preparation as advised for cattle is 
recommended for hogs. A strong table or box on 
which to scrape, and a barrel or vat in which to 
scald should be provided, as well as a place for 
hanging up the carcass. 

Killing. — It is not customary to stun hogs before 
sticking them, although it is sometimes done. 
They may either be suspended by the hind -legs 
or, as commonly practiced in farm slaughtering, 
be turned on the back and held until stuck (Fig. 
284). The knife should be inserted in front of the 
breast-bone and guided directly over the spinal 
column and toward the root of the tail. Care 
should be used to avoid sticking to 
side of the ribs, causing blood to set- 
tle in the shoulders. It is best not to 
strike the heart in sticking, but to 
turn the knife to one side and then the 
other, thus opening the arteries on 
each side and insuring quick and thor- 
ough bleeding. 
Scald inq . 
(Fig. 285.)- 
The water for 
scaldingshould 
be at a temper- 
ature of 185° 
to 195° Fahr. 
If it is too hot, 
the hair will 
set, causing 
trouble to re- 
move, and the 
skin, being 
cooked, will 
crack open. Hardwood ashes or lye, or even soft- 
soap, will aid in removing the scurf from the body. 
The hog should not be scalded before life is extinct, 
or the blood in the capillaries will be cooked, giv- 




Fig. 285. Scalding a hog. Note 
raugement of table and barrel. 



DRESSING, CARING FOR AND PRESERVING MEATS 



253 



ing a red tinge to the carcass. When the hair 
starts readily on " airing," remove the hog from 
the water and scrape thoroughly, removing the 
hair and scurf by shaving clean with a sharp knife. 
Dressing. — The carcass should be hung up before 
removing the entrails. The pelvic arch and ster- 
num or breast-bone should first be split, then the 
entrails removed by opening down over the middle 
line. The large and small intestines should be 
removed without disturbing the kidney fat. If a 
heavy hog is to be dressed in warm weather, it is 
sometimes advisable to remove the kidney fat or 
leaf and split the carcass into halves to hasten the 
cooling. The tongue, gullet, lungs and heart are 
removed in one piece. A block should be placed 
between the jaws of the hog to hold them open for 
drainage and the cavity washed out with cold 
water, and the carcass left suspended until cool. 

Cutting up meat. 

For neat work in meat-cutting, a short, curved 
knife, a twelve- or fourteen-inch steak knife and a 
twenty-six-inch meat saw are essential. An eight- 
inch cleaver is also advisable. A block of some 
kind should be provided, substantial enough to 
stand the weight of a quarter of a beef or hog car- 
cass. A cross-section of a large log can often be 
made to answer the purpose, and in many cases, an 
ordinary table will suffice. In cutting meat of any 
kind, one should always cut across the grain of the 
meat when possible. Following this principle will 
result in uniform pieces, and the meat will carve 
in better form for table use after cooking. Unless 
the meat is frozen, it should always be cut to the 
bone with a knife, and a saw used only through the 
bone. Sawing the bone is preferable to chopping, 
inasmuch as it does not splinter or shatter the 
bone. Chopping a round bone with a cleaver often 
causes splinters to enter the meat, and these are 
found to be disagreeable when the meat is served. 
Meat should not be cut until the muscles have set 
firmly and the animal heat has all been extracted. 

Cutting beef. (Figs. 286, 287.)— When the beef 
is in proper condition, the halves should be divided 
into hind and fore quarters, cutting between the 
twelfth and thirteenth ribs, S to T on the accom- 
panying illustration. This leaves only one rib in 




rated from the round -steak on the line R to I. 
The loin contains the sirloin and porterhouse 
steaks. The round is usually cut into fillets of beef 
or round-steak, and the rump used either for pot 
or oven roasts. 
The front quarter is laid on the block with the 




Fig. 286. The cuts of beef. 



the hind quarter. In cutting the hind quarter, it 
should be laid on the block with the inside up, and 
the kidney and suet removed, and the flank cut off, 
N to P. The quarter should then be turned over, 
and the loin removed, cutting from to N. The 
round may then be turned over, and the rump sepa- 



Fig. 287. Utilizing beef. Neck: hamburg, mince meat, beef 
sausage; shoulder: steak, boiling beef; chuck ribs: steak, 
roast, boiling beef, corned-beef; cross ribs: pot-roast, 
corned-beef; shank: soup bone: prime ribs: roast; plate: 
stew, hamburg steak, corned-beef; flank: stew, hamburg 
steak, corned-beef, flank steak; loin: porterhouse, sirloin 
and tenderloin steak, choice roasts; rump: roast, corned- 
beef; round: steak, roast, dried beef, pot-roast. 

outside up. Beginning at P, about ten to thirteen 
inches down the rib from the spinal column, cut 
across the ribs toward the armpit above M, and 
cut between the third and fourth ribs to M, and 
across the shank to B. The "cross ribs" are 
removed just below the shoulder joints, H to X. 
(The "plate" and "cross ribs" are the infer- 
ior cuts of the front quarter, and usually sell 
for low prices). With the outside of the beef still 
up, the "prime ribs" are next removed from 
L to Z. This cut contains seven ribs and is usually 
taken off in one piece. The neck and shoulder are 
divided G to H, and the shoulder and "chuck ribs," 
K to D. These are the wholesale cuts of beef and 
are too large for family use. They may be divided 
again into joints of suitable size for the table as 
wanted, observing the principle mentioned in a 
former paragraph, namely, that of always dividing 
across the grain of the meat. The "prime ribs" 
may be boned and sent to the table as rolled roasts. 
This results usually in loss of meat-juices and flavor, 
but it is a convenience to the carver. The under 
part of the front quarter is usually served on the 
farmer's table with the bone in. The "chuck ribs," 
shoulder and neck are used for boiling pieces, soups 
and mince-meat, the age of the animal and the 
toughness of the muscle fibers often determining 
the method of cooking. 

Cutting mutton. (Figs. 288, 289.) — First split 
the carcass in halves, using a saw or a very sharp 
cleaver and cutting down the center of the spinal 
column. The leg should be removed at the top of 
the round just over the hip-joint and the shank 
removed below the fleshy part of the leg. The 
shoulder is removed between the third and fourth 
ribs and the neck at the shoulder-vein or at the 
junction of the neck with the shoulder. The 



254 



DRESSING, CARING FOR AND PRESERVING MEATS 



front shank is removed at the elbow-joint. If a 
saddle of mutton or of lamb is wanted, the carcass is 
not split through the center but both legs removed 
at once and the saddle or both loins left in one 




Fig. 288. Utilizing mutton. Neck: stew; shoulder: chops, 
roast, boiling; rack: chops, roast; loin: chops, roast; 
leg: roast, steak; flank: stew; breast: stew; shank: stew. 

piece. Mutton-chops or lamb-chops are secured by- 
slicing the rack and the loin between the ribs and 
across the tenderloin and sirloin muscles. Rib- 
chops should be one rib thick. The shoulder and 
legs are used for boiling and roasting pieces, the 
loins may be roasted although they are usually cut 
into chops, and the plate and flank are used for 
stews. 

Cutting pork. (Figs. 290, 291.)— Pork should be 
cut up and the parts desired for curing salted just 
as soon as may be after the carcass is cooled 
through. If the carcass has not been split through 
the spinal column for cooling, it may be laid on 
the block and the head removed between the fourth 
and fifth ribs, and the hams about two inches in 
front of the pelvic bones (Fig. 291). The hams, 
shoulder and middle pieces may then be split 
through the center more easily than if the at- 
tempt is made before the carcass is cut into sec- 
tions. The ham should be trimmed to a smooth, 
round piece with all surplus fat removed for lard. 
The feet may be removed at the hock with a knife, 
or about two inches above with a saw. The leaf- 
lard may be removed from the side, if not already 
done, when the hog is dressed. The lower two- 
thirds of the side should be removed, sawing across 
the ribs. The loin should then be removed, care 
being exercised to take only the lean meat with 
the ribs. The spare-ribs should be removed from 
the lower strip and the scraggy edges trimmed off 
for sausage-meat, the remainder of the side being 
cured for bacon or for salted pork. Sometimes 
the ribs are taken out entire. After removing 
the ribs and neck-bones from the shoulder, it 
may be trimmed into a small "California ham" or 
left in one large piece for curing. All bloody spots 
should be trimmed out and every precaution taken 
to remove any elements that may tend to cause 
souring in the curing proeess. The head is usually 
worked up into head-cheese and sausage-meat. All 



pieces intended for curing should be cut in as com- 
pact form as possible, to avoid waste of room in 
the vessel in which the curing is done. Lean trim- 
mings are converted into sausage-meat and the fat 
trimmings tried out for lard. 

Cutting veal. — Veal may be cut in a way similar 
to mutton, the only difference being that the rump 
must be trimmed off before the fillet of veal can be 
secured. 

Curing meats. 

Meat must be properly and thoroughly cooled to 
insure good keeping qualities when cured. If salted 
before the internal temperature is reduced, the 
shrinkage of the muscles causes the retention of 
gases, giving an offensive odor to the meat. Neither 
should meat be frozen when salted, as the action 
of the frost will prevent the proper penetration 
of the salt and uneven curing will result. It is im- 
portant, also, that meat be cured as soon as cooled 
and while fresh. Tainted meat may be cured so 
that it will keep, but nothing in the line of preser- 
vatives can bring back the natural flavor when it 
is once lost. The safest rule to follow is to salt 
meat as soon as the animal heat is out, and before 
it freezes or starts to decay. Ordinarily, twenty- 
four to thirty-six hours after slaughtering will 
allow sufficient time for cooling. 

VesMsfor curing. — A clean, hardwood barrel is 
a suitable vessel in which to cure meat. A barrel 
made for the purpose is best, but when it can not 
be had a molasses or syrup barrel will answer. A 
kerosene barrel that has been burned out and used 
for water for some time is often used for meat. 
The important point is to have the barrel clean 




FLANK 
Fig. 289. Cuts of mutton. 



and tight enough to prevent leakage. A large stone 
jar is the best vessel that can be had. One holding 
twenty-five or thirty gallons is expensive, however, 
and must be carefully handled to prevent breakage. 
The jar is more easily cleaned than a barrel and is 
in every way preferable if the first cost can be 
afforded. A barrel or jar that has once held meat 
can be used again and again unless meat has 
spoiled in it. If used repeatedly it will be necessary 
to scald it out thoroughly before packing with 
fresh meats. 

Preservatives. — Salt, saltpeter, and sugar or 
molasses are the most commonly used preservatives, 
and are the only ones necessary for perfect curing 
and the finest quality of cured meats. Borax, 
boracic acid, formalin, salicylic acid, and other 
chemicals are sometimes used in preserving meats, 
but they are considered by so many authorities 
to be harmful to the health of the consumer that 
their use should be avoided. Salt is an astringent, 



DRESSING, CARING FOR AND PRESERVING MEATS 



255 



and when applied alone to meat renders it very 
hard and dry. Its action is first to draw out the 
meat juices. In a few days it will contract and 
harden the muscle fibers, thus shrinking the vol- 
ume of meat. Saltpeter is even more astringent 
than salt. Its use aids in retaining the natural 
color of the flesh. It may be harmful to the health. 
Sugar is not an astringent and its presence in the 
pickle softens the muscle fibers and improves the 
flavor of the meat. Saleratus (baking-soda) some- 
times is used in small quantities to sweeten the 
brine. In warm weather a small quantity will aid 
in preventing the brine spoiling. 

Curing in brine and dry-curing compared. — Brine- 
cured meats are best for farm use, for the reason 
that a suitable place for dry-curing is not usually 




Fig. 290. Utilizing pork. Head: head-cheese, sausage, bean- 
pork; shoulder butt: roast, steak, butt-fat; shoulder: 
steak, picnic ham, roast; loin: fat back, tenderloin, roast, 
chops; bacon strip: bacon, salt pork; belly: salt pork; 
ham: cured bam, steak; feet: pickled pig's feet. 

to be had. It is also less trouble to pack the meat 
in a barrel and pour on a brine than to go over it 
three or four times to rub in the salt. The brining 
method also gives better protection from insects 
and vermin. Trouble is sometimes experienced in 
keeping brine, but if pure water is used and direc- 
tions followed in making the brine, there should be 
no difficulty in keeping it for a reasonable length 
of time. In warm weather, brine should be closely 
watched. If it becomes "ropy," like syrup, it 
should be boiled or a new brine made. A cool, 
moist cellar is the best place for brine- 
curing. Dry-curing may be done suc- 
cessfully in a cellar also, although even 
more moisture is needed to effect a 
thorough cure. The cellar should be 
dark and tight enough to prevent flies 
and vermin damaging the meat. 

Recipes for curing. 1 

Corned beef. — The pieces commonly 
used for corning are the plate, rump, 
cross-ribs, and brisket, or in other 
words, the cheaper cuts of meat. The 



loin, ribs, and other fancy cuts are more often 
used fresh, and since there is more or less waste of 
nutrients in corning, this is well. The pieces for 
corning should be cut into convenient-sized joints, 
say five or six inches square. It should be the aim 
to cut them all about the same thickness so that 
they will make an even layer in the barrel. 

Meat from fat animals makes choicer corned 
beef than that from poor animals. When the meat 
is thoroughly cooled it should be corned as soon as 
possible, as any decay in the meat is likely to spoil 
the brine during the corning process. Under no 
circumstances should the meat be brined while it is 
frozen. Weigh out the meat and allow eight pounds 
of salt to each 100 pounds ; sprinkle a layer of 
salt one-quarter of an inch in depth over the bot- 
tom of the barrel; pack in as closely as possible 
the cuts of meat, making a layer five or six inches 
in thickness; then put on a layer of salt, following 
that with another layer of meat ; repeat until the 
meat and salt have all been packed in the barrel, 
care being used to reserve salt enough for a good 
layer over the top. After the package has stood 
over night add, for every 100 pounds of meat, four 
pounds of sugar, two ounces of baking soda, and four 
ounces of saltpeter dissolved in a gallon of tepid 
water. Three gallons more of water should be suf- 
ficient to cover this quantity. In case more or less 
than 100 pounds of meat is to be corned, make the 
brine in the proportion given. A loose board cover, 
weighted down with a heavy stone or piece of iron, 
should be put on the meat to keep all of it under 
the brine. In case any should project, rust would 
start and the brine would spoil in a short time. 

It is not necessary to boil the brine except in 
warm weather. If the meat has been corned during 
the winter and must be kept into the summer sea- 
son, it would be well to watch the brine closely 
during the spring, as it is apparently more likely 
to spoil than at any other season. If the brine 
appears to be ropy or does not drip freely from the 
finger when immersed and lifted, it should be 
turned off and new brine added, after carefully 
washing the meat. The sugar or molasses in the 
brine has a tendency to ferment, and, unless the 
brine is kept in a cool place, there is sometimes 
trouble from this source. The meat should be kept 




Fig. 291. The cuts of pork. Head, shoulders, middle and hams. 



'Saltpeter in small quantities is included in these 
recipes because its use has heretofore been customary. 
Inasmuch as it is objected to by some hygienists as being 
injurious to health, and is thought to be useful only for 
preserving or adding color, it is considered advisable to 
make experiments to see whether this ingredient can not 
be dispensed with. 



in the brine twenty-eight to forty days to secure 
thorough corning. 

Dried beef. — The round is commonly used for 
dried beef, the inside of the thigh being considered 
the choicest piece, as it is slightly more tender 
than the outside of the round. The round should be 



256 



DRESSING, CARING FOR AND PRESERVING MEATS 



cut lengthwise of the grain of the meat in prepar- 
ing for dried beef, so that the muscle fibers may 
be cut cross-wise when the dried beef is sliced for 
table use. A tight jar or cask is necessary for 
curing. The process is as follows: To each 100 
pounds of meat weigh out five pounds of salt, three 
pounds of granulated sugar, and two ounces of 
saltpeter; mix thoroughly together. Rub the meat 
on all surfaces with a third of the mixture and 
pack it in the jar as tightly as possible. Allow it 
to remain three days, when it should be removed 
and rubbed again with another third of the mix- 
ture. In repacking, put at the bottom the pieces 
that were on top the first time. Let stand for three 
days, when they should be removed and rubbed 
with the remaining third of the mixture and 
allowed to stand for three days more. The meat is 
then ready to be removed from the pickle. The 
liquid forming in the jars should not be removed, 
but the meat should be repacked in the liquid each 
time. After being removed from the pickle the 
meat should be smoked and hung in a dry attic or 
near the kitchen fire where the water will evapo- 
rate from it. It may be used at any time after 
smoking, although the longer it hangs in the dry 
atmosphere the drier it will get. The drier the 
climate, in general, the more easily meats can be 
dried. In arid regions, good dried meat can be 
made by exposing it fresh to the air, with protec- 
tion from flies. 

Plain salt pork. — Rub each piece of meat with 
fine common salt and pack closely in a barrel. Let 
it stand over night. The next day weigh out ten 
pounds of salt and two ounces of saltpeter to each 
100 pounds of meat and dissolve in four gallons 
of boiling water. Pour this brine over the meat 
when cold, cover and weight down to keep it under 
the brine. Meat will pack best if cut into pieces 
about six inches square. The pork should be kept 
in the brine till used. 

Sugar-cured hams and bacon. — When the meat is 
cooled, rub each piece with salt and allow it to 
drain over night. Then pack it in a barrel with 
the hams and shoulders in the bottom, using the 
strips of bacon to fill in between or to put on top. 
Weigh out for each 100 pounds of meat, eight 
pounds of salt, two pounds of brown sugar, and 
two ounces of saltpeter. Dissolve all in four gal- 
lons of water, and cover the meat with the brine. 
For summer use it will be safest to boil the brine 
before using. In that case it should be thoroughly 
cooled before it is used. For winter curing it is 
not necessary to boil the brine. Bacon strips should 
remain in this brine four to six weeks; hams six 
to eight weeks. This is a standard recipe and has 
given the best of satisfaction. Hams and bacon 
cured in the spring will keep right through the 
summer after they are smoked. The meat will be 
sweet and palatable if it is properly smoked, and 
the flavor will be good. 

Dry-cured pork. — For each 100 pounds of meat 
weigh out five pounds of salt, two pounds of gran- 
ulated sugar, and two ounces of saltpeter, and mix 
them thoroughly. Rub the meat once every three 
days with a third of the mixture. While the meat 



is curing it is best to have it packed in a barrel or 
tight box. For the sake of convenience it is advisa- 
ble to have two barrels, and to transfer the meat 
from one to the other each time it is rubbed. 
After the last rubbing the meat should lie in the 
barrel for a week or ten days, when it will be 
cured and ready to smoke. To cure nicely it is 
desirable to have a cool and rather moist place in 
which to keep it. 

This recipe should not be used when the meat 
must be kept in a warm and dry place, as the pre- 
servatives will not penetrate easily and uniformly. 

Head-cheese. — Cut a hog's head into four pieces. 
Remove the brain, ears, skin, snout and eyes. Cut 
off the fattest parts for lard. Put the lean and 
bony parts to soak over night in cold water in 
order to extract the blood and dirt. When the head 
is cleaned put it over the fire to boil, using water 
enough to cover it. Boil until the meat separates 
readily from the bone. Then remove it from the 
fire and pick out all the bones. Drain off the liquor, 
saving a part of it for future use. Chop the meat 
up finely with a chopping knife. Return it to the 
kettle and pour on enough of the liquor to cover 
the meat. Let it boil slowly for fifteen minutes to 
a half hour. Season to taste with salt and pepper 
just before removing it from the fire. Turn it into 
a shallow pan or dish. Cover with a piece of cheese- 
cloth and put on a board with a weight to make it 
solid. When cold it should be sliced thinly and 
served without further cooking. 

Scrapple. — This article of food is made just as 
head-cheese is until the bones are removed and the 
meat chopped, when the liquor is added and the 
dish returned to the stove to boil. Corn-meal is 
then stirred in until the contents are as thick as 
cornmeal mush. Stir it constantly for the first fif- 
teen minutes, then set it back on the stove to boil 
slowly for an hour. When it is done pour it into a 
shallow dish to mold. When cold it is sliced thin 
and fried. 

Souse. — Soak the pig's feet, ears and snout for 
twelve hours in cold water. Scrape them clean and 
remove the toes. Boil until soft ; four to five hours 
will usually be required. Salt them when partially 
done. Pack in a stone jar and cover with hot, 
spiced vinegar. Souse is served cold or fried in a 
batter made of eggs, flour, milk and butter. 

Trying-out lard. — Only the best of fat should be 
used for choice lard. Leaf-fat is the best. The 
back strip of the side also makes good lard, as do 
the ham, shoulder and neck trimmings. Gut-fat 
should never be mixed with the leaf- and back-fat. 
It makes a strong-smelling lard and should be kept 
separate. All scraps of lean meat should be cut out 
of the fat before trying-out, as they are very likely 
to stick to the kettle and get scorched, giving an 
unpleasant flavor to the lard. When preparing the 
fat for trying, cut it into pieces one to one and one- 
half inches square. They should be nearly equal in 
size, so that they will try-out in about the same 
time. Fill a clean kettle about three-fourths full 
and put in a quart of water, or, if convenient, a 
quart of hot lard. One or the other is necessary to 
prevent the fat burning before the heat is sufficient 



DRESSING, CAKING FOR AND PRESERVING MEATS 



257 



to bring out the grease. Keep the kettle over a 
moderate fire until the cracklings are brown and 
light enough to float. Frequent stirring will be 
necessary to prevent burning. When done remove 
from the stove and allow to cool slightly, and then 
strain through a muslin cloth into a large jar. Stir 
it occasionally until it is cool enough to begin to 
solidify. If pails or smaller jars are to be filled the 
lard should be dipped out while just warm enough 
to be liquid. Stirring while the lard is cooling 
tends to whiten it and make it smoother. A quarter 
of a pound of saleratus added to each 100 pounds 
of fat has a like effect. 

Sausage. — Pork sausage should be made only from 
clean, fresh pork. To each three pounds of lean 
pork add one pound of fat. As the pork usually used 
for sausage is the shoulder, neck and lean trimmings 
the sausage is likely to be too fat unless part of 
the fat is removed and used for lard. Mix the fat 
and lean meat together in chopping. When a rotary 
cutter is used it is best to cut the meat twice. 
After it is cut the first time spread it out thinly 
and season. One ounce of pure, fine salt, one-half 
ounce of ground black pepper, and one-half ounce 
of pure leaf-sage, rubbed fine, to each four pounds 
of meat, will suit the taste of most persons. The 
seasoning should be sprinkled thinly over the cut 
meat and the meat again run through the cutter 
to mix the seasoning thoroughly. This method will 
give a more even mixing of the spices than can be 
secured by working it with the hands. For imme- 
diate use the sausage may be packed away in stone 
jars or crocks, to be sliced for frying. Many per- 
sons stuff it into casings made from the small intes- 
tines of the hog. When this is done the intestines 
must be turned inside out and carefully cleaned. 

Casings for sausage can be bought for about 
three cents per pound. At this price it will hardly 
pay to bother cleaning them for home use. The 
bought casings are more uniform in size and 
strength, and will usually give better satisfaction, 
A good substitute for casings may be had in narrow 
muslin bags. These, when filled, should be two and 
one-half or three inches in diameter and eighteen 
to twenty-four inches long. Stuff in the sausage 
tightly by hand and hang in a cool place. If the 
sausage is to be kept for some time, melted lard 
should be rubbed over the outside of the bag. This 
excludes the air. Sausage may be kept for some 
time in a large jar if a thin coat of lard is put 
over the top. 

Mixed sausage may be made from a mixture of 
pork and beef in almost any proportion. It is the 
custom on many farms to kill three or four hogs 
and a beef during the winter for the year's supply 
of meat. When this practice is followed a good 
supply of sausage can be made from the trimmings. 
Sausage should not contain too much fat. A good 
proportion is two pounds of lean pork, one pound 
of fat pork, and one pound of lean beef. Chop 
together fine and season the same as pork sausage. 
Pack in jars, muslin bags or casings. Many persons 
prefer this to clear pork sausage, as it is not so 
fat. 

Hamburg steak. — This is made from lean beef by 

C17 



running it through a sausage cutter. A very little 
fat should be added to the lean beef to make it 
juicy. It should be run through the cutter twice 
before using and salted slightly. A small amount 
of sugar-cured bacon is sometimes cut in with the 
beef to add flavor. Lean beef from the round makes 
the choicest Hamburg, but neck pieces, flanks, and 
trimmings are frequently used. Hamburg steak is 
not stuffed into casings, but is left in bulk and 
made into patties for frying. 

Bologna sausage. — To each ten pounds of lean 
beef use one pound of fat pork, or bacon if pre- 
ferred. Chop fine and season with one ounce of 
salt to each four pounds of meat, one ounce of the 
best black pepper (ground, pure) to each six pounds 
of meat, and a little ground coriander. Stuff into 
casings called beef "middles" or beef "rounds." If 
stuffed into middles, make the sausages ten or 
twelve inches long and allow them to hang straight. 
If stuffed into rounds, make them twelve to fifteen 
inches long and tie the ends together so as to form 
rings. Smoke for ten or twelve hours. Cook in 
boiling water until the sausages float, dry on clean 
hay or straw in the sun, and hang away in a cool 
place until wanted. 

Casings. — Sausage casings are the intestines of 
hogs, cattle, or sheep, which have been emptied and 
cleaned. They are turned inside out and soaked in 
a solution of lye or limewater, thoroughly washed 
and salted. When cleaned and put up by a reputa- 
ble packer they are as good as when cleaned at 
home, and when they can be bought at a reasonable 
price, it hardly pays to clean them for home use. 
The casings from different animals are used for the 
various kinds of sausages. Beef casings are of 
three kinds: "rounds," made from the small intes- 
tines ; "bungs," made from the large intestines; 
and " middles," made from that part of the entrails 
leading from the bung to the rectum. The " rounds" 
are used for bologna, the "bungs" for bologna, 
ham, and blood sausage, and the "middles" for 
bologna and summer sausage. Hog casings are 
made from the small intestines, and are used 
mainly for common pork link-sausage. Sheep cas- 
ings are from the small intestines, aud are com- 
monly used for Wienerwurst and other small kinds 
of sausages. 

Smoking of meats. 

Pickled and cured meats are smoked to aid in 
their preservation and to give flavor and palatability. 
The creosote formed by the combustion of the 
wood closes the pores, to some extent excluding 
the air, and is objectionable to insects. 

House and fuel. — The smoke-house should be 
eight or ten feet high to give the best results, and 
of a size suited to the quantity of meat likely to 
be smoked. Ample ventilation should be provided 
to carry off the warm air in order to prevent over- 
heating the meat. A fire-pot outside of the house 
proper with a flue through which the smoke may 
be conducted to the meat chamber gives the best 
conditions for smoking. When this cannot well be 
arranged, a fire may be built on the floor of the 
house, and the meat shielded by a sheet of metal. 



258 



DRESSING, CARING FOR AND PRESERVING MEATS 



When the meat can be hung six or seven feet 
above the fire, this precaution need not be taken. 
The construction should be such as to allow the 
smoke to pass up freely over the meat and out of 
the house, though rapid circulation is at the 
expense of fuel. 

The best fuel for smoking meats is green hickory 
or maple wood smothered with sawdust of the 
same material. Hard wood of any kind is prefer- 
able to soft wood. Resinous woods should never 
be used, as they are likely to impart bad flavors to 
the product. Corn-cobs are the best substitute for 
hard wood and may be used if desired. Soft wood 
and corn-cobs give off large amounts of carbon in 
burning, and this is deposited on the meat, making 
it dark in color and rank flavored. Juniper berries 
and fragrant woods are sometimes added to flavor 
the meat. 

Filling the house. — Meat that is to be smoked 
should be removed from the brine two or three 
days before being put in the smoke-house. If it has 
been cured in a strong brine, it will be best to soak 
the pieces in cold water over night, to prevent a 
crust of salt forming on the outside when drained. 
Washing the meat in tepid water and scrubbing 
clean with a brush is a good practice. The pieces 
should then be hung up to drain for a day or two. 
When drained they may be hung in the house. All 
should be suspended below the ventilators and 
should hang so that no two pieces come in contact, 
as this would prevent uniform smoking. 

Keeping up the fire. — A slow fire may then be 
started, warming the meat gradually. In the win- 
ter months in cold climates, it is best to keep the 
fire going continually until the smoking is complete, 
holding the temperature at about the same point. 
If the fire is allowed to die down, the meat becomes 
cold and the smoke does not penetrate readily. 
This results in heavy smoke on the outside, and 
very little on the inner parts of the meat. In the 
spring months, and in the summer, a light fire may 
be started every day for a couple of weeks, the 
meat being allowed to hang in the smoke-house 
until sufficiently colored. When the fire is kept 
going steadily, and an even temperature is main- 
tained, twenty-four to thirty-sis hours will be 
required to finish one lot of meat. Smoke will not 
penetrate frozen meat, and it will be necessary to 
extract all frost from it before filling the house. 
The house should be kept dark at all times to pre- 
vent flies entering. As soon as smoked sufficiently, 
the meat should be cooled by opening the venti- 
lators or doors. When hard and firm it may be 
canvassed or packed away for summer use. 

Storage and refrigeration. 

It is almost impossible to get the best conditions 
for storing meat under farm equipment. A knowl- 
edge of the best principles of storing, however, 
may aid in securing good keeping qualities in the 
meat. It is important that the carcass be cooled 
soon after slaughtering. The temperature should 
be such that the meat does not freeze. While it is 
impossible to control the temperature in most farm 
buildings, it is possible to slaughter when the 



weather is favorable properly to cool the meat. 
The most desirable temperature for cooling meat is 
just above freezing, and any reasonable approach to 
this temperature will give good results. Very often, 
a cool, dark room in the barn or granary can be 
made to answer the purpose, athough when a con- 
siderable quantity of meat is to be handled, it is 
better to provide a place especially for the purpose. 
For the best results in cooling, the air should be 
dry as well as of a low temperature. Free circu- 
lation aids greatly in carrying away foul odors 
and mold spores. Flies and other insects should be 
kept away from the meat. 

Beef and mutton, if fat, may be kept for three 
or four weeks at a temperature of 34° to 40°, if 
the atmosphere is dry. The texture of the meat is 
somewhat improved in the curing process. Pork 
and veal, on the other hand, will keep for only a 
short time and should be used fresh, if possible. 
The meat will keep longer in large pieces, and it is 
best not to cut the carcass until the parts are 
wanted, unless there is danger of freezing, which 
would prevent cutting as wanted. 

Cold-storage of cut pieces. — It is difficult to keep 
the cut pieces of meat fresh during the summer 
months without the use of ice, and even then but 
little can be handled at one time under farm condi- 
tions. When a room can be kept at a temperature 
of forty degrees or less with good ventilation, 
fresh meat may be kept for a week or ten days. 
It is important that the circulation be free and 
the air dry. Moisture in a refrigerator tends to 
develop wet mold or slime, and the decay will con- 
taminate any meat in the refrigerator. A high 
temperature and dry atmosphere is preferable to 
a low temperature with damp air. For ordinary 
purposes, the best facilities for storing fresh meat 
will be afforded in a small ice-house built for the 
purpose with a storage chamber, well protected on 
the south side. By packing the ice properly on 
three sides, leaving the fourth side for entrance, 
a very effective and convenient cold-storage house 
may be made. In addition, the room can be used, 
if wanted, for storing butter, eggs and other per- 
ishable products. Go«d drainage should be provided 
and ventilation allowed for the escape of warm air 
which will gather in the top of the refrigerator. 

In the North much meat is kept during the cold 
season by freezing. A carcass may be cut into 
quarters or smaller pieces and hung in an outbuild- 
ing in which it will remain frozen. When a part 
is wanted, it may be cut off with a saw. The 
freezing injures the flavor but little, provided 
alternate freezing and thawing is not allowed. The 
preferable method, however, is to cut the pieces 
into marketable-sized joints, freeze them and pack 
them in snow that is cold enough to be dry. Meat 
thus packed and kept in a room where the tem- 
perature is uniform and below the freezing point, 
will keep for a long time. This method of refrig- 
eration is applicable only to localities where snow 
and continued dry, cold weather prevail during the 
winter months. 

Another method of preserving meat that is often 
resorted to is that of partially cooking and pack- 



DRESSING, CARING FOR AND PRESERVING MEATS 



259 



ing the pieces in large jars, covering with hot 
lard. As the meat is needed for use, it may be 
removed from the jar and recooked. It is better 
to use several small jars for this purpose than one 
large one, as only a part of the meat need be dis- 
turbed at once. The jar containing the partially 
cooked meat should be kept in a cool, dark cellar 
to insure safe keeping. 

Ammonia refrigeration. — The modern packing- 
house or meat -shop is usually equipped with an 
ammonia refrigeration plant. This process, how- 
ever, is too expensive and elaborate to be of use 
on the ordinary farm and, therefore, it is not dis- 
cussed under this subject. 

Rendering tallow. 

Tallow is composed largely of the fats from the 
bodies of cattle and sheep. Previous to 1871 it 
was used largely for soap stock and, in a limited 
way, in the manufacture of candles for illuminat- 
ing purposes. Since that time it has become valu- 
able in the manufacture of edible compounds and 
has outgrown its former use. 

In small slaughter-houses or with home-dressed 
animals no separation of the fats is made. All are 
thrown together and sold as " rough tallow" or are 
rendered in an open kettle and sold as " cake tal- 
low." When a nice brand of cake tallow is desired, 
care should be used to select only the choicer parts 
of the fat that have been kept clean and that are 
free from the lean parts of meat. Frequent stir- 
ring and a slow, steady fire are necessary to pre- 
vent scorching th& fat, which would result in a 
highly-colored tallow with strong flavor. Hashing 
the rough tallow finely aids in the free and rapid 
extraction of the fat. 

In rendering tallow in a large slaughtering 
establishment, the rough tallow is carefully sorted. 
That converted into oleo-oil — a product used 
extensively in the manufacture of oleomarga- 
rine, butterine and other similar edible products — 
must be kept clean and uncontaminated and ren- 
dered at a low temperature in a steam-jacketed 
kettle. Even of the oleo-oils two or- three grades 
are made, depending on the quality of fats used 
and the conditions under which they are rendered. 
The residue and skimmings from the oleo-oil 
extraction are used with the poorer quality of fats 
in making ordinary beef tallow, which is used for 
grease, soap and machine-oils. Such tallow is ren- 
dered in steam-jacketed kettles under forty pounds 
of steam pressure or a temperature of about 280° 
Fahr. For No. 1 oleo-oil, caul fat, brisket and 
crotch trimmings, paunch, pluck and heart trim- 
mings are used. For No. 2 oleo-oil, poorer grades 
of these same fats with bed-fat and kidney trim- 
mings are used. Such fats give a more highly- 
flavored oil. 

Soap-making. 

Soap is of two general classes : soft soaps, made 
with potash as the alkali, and hard soaps, in which 
soda, ammonia and other alkalies form the base. 

The raw materials used in soap-making are ani- 
mal and vegetable fats, such as beef tallow, hog 



fats, cottonseed oil, coconut oil and rosin, in com- 
bination with caustic soda in chemical combination 
and soda ash and silicate of soda in mechanical 
mixtures. Grades of fat are used ordinarily that 
are inferior or unfit for the manufacture of edible 
products. Grease of any kind may be used for 
making the lower grades of soap. 

As ordinarily made for farm use, soft soap con- 
sists of the accumulation of fat and grease from 
various sources, combined with lye secured through 
leaching hardwood ashes or from commercial 
sources. The fat is placed in a large open kettle, 
the alkali added as leached, and when in proper 
proportions, as estimated by the consumption 
of the fat by the alkali, the mixture is boiled 
until of the desired consistency. The hard soaps 
are made in much the same way as the soft kinds, 
except that the soda salts are used as the alkali 
instead of the potash lye from the ashes or other 
sources. Rain-water is often added to the liquid 
when the lye is too strong, and salt or " brine 
pickle " is used to separate the soap and clarify the 
precipitate. 

The manufacture of commercial soap is based on 
the same principles of chemical action, but is vastly 
more complicated because of the numerous kinds 
of soap made and the various forms of fats, oils 
and lyes used. 

Making candles. 

The term, " candles," as commonly used is meant 
to indicate cylinders of wax, fat, or other fusible 
and combustible material surrounding a combusti- 
ble wick. Candles were used. originally for illumi- 
nating purposes, but at the present time largely 
for decorative purposes and religious symbols, 
although some are still used for illumination. 

The materials used for candles are hard pal- 
mitic and stearic acids of animal fats, hydrocar- 
bons, such as paraffin, ozokerite, or earth-wax and 
esters of the fatty acids of tallow and waxes. 
Paraffin is secured from petroleum, and has grown 
strongly in favor for use in candle-making because 
of its illuminating power and freedom from smoke 
and odor. It has a low melting point, however, 
and is improved greatly by the addition of 10 to 
15 per cent of stearic acid, which makes a harder 
candle. Ozokerite is an earth-wax, varying in hard- 
ness from a soft material to a material as hard as 
gypsum, and in color from yellow to black. Can- 
dles made from ozokerite are of greater illuminat- 
ing power than those from paraffin, and of a higher 
melting point. Beeswax is also used for making a 
high grade of candles that are free from smoke and 
odor. Beef tallow is used for the poor grades of 
candles, but its use in the pure form has been largely 
discontinued. The fats and waxes used for candles 
are colored in any shade desired by the use of ani- 
line dyes. 

The essentials for good candle stock are that it 
will burn freely without odor or smoke, that it will 
not soften or lose its shape at warm temperatures 
or from the heat of its own flame, and that its 
melted fluid must be capable of being drawn up 
through the wick by capillary action. 



260 



SHIPPING MEAT AND HIDES 



There are three methods in general use for can- 
dle-making : (1) Dipped candles, made by dipping 
the wick in melted stock repeatedly, each layer 
being allowed to harden and cool before being 
dipped again. (2) Poured candles, made by pouring 
the melted stock over the wick, which is stretched 
in a frame. Wax candles are chiefly made in this 
way, and are given shape while still plastic by roll- 
ing over a smooth surface to make them uniform 
in size and shape. (3) Molded candles. The most 
common method of making candles is to pour the 
melted stock into cylindrical metal forms or molds 
in which the wick has been drawn or threaded. 
This gives a candle of uniform size and shape. 

The wicks are made of cotton, carefully spun so 
that the threads are even. The size varies with the 
size of the candle to be made. 

Literature. 

H. W. Wilder, The Modern Packing House, Nick- 
erson & Collins, Chicago ; Oscar Schwarz, Public 
Abattoirs and Cattle Markets, Ice and Cold Storage 
Publishing Company, London ; L. L. Lamborn, 
Modern Soaps, Candles and Glycerines, D. Van 
Nostrand Company, New York ; A. W. Winter, 
Winter's Handy Book of Reference, Laird & Lee, 
Chicago ; A. W. Fulton, Home Pork Making, Orange 
Judd Company, New York ; Bulletin No. 65, Iowa 
Exp. Sta.; No. 90, Ind. Exp. Sta.; Farmers' Bulletins 
Nos. 44, 169, 183, U. S. Dept. Agric; Report Conn. 
Exp. Sta., 1905, 1906, p. 33 ; Bulletins Nos. 40, 41, 
45, 46, 47, Bureau of Statistics, and No. 13, Bureau 
of Chemistry, Dept. Agric; Special Report of the 
Commissioner of Corporations on the Beef Industry 
(Garfield Report); Bulletin No. 90, Neb. Exp. Sta.; 
Bulletin No. 237, Mich. Exp. Sta. 



SHIPPING MEAT AND HIDES 
By W. H. Tomhave 

Too much stress cannot be laid on the import- 
ance of properly preparing meat products for 
shipping and of care in shipment. Losses and dete- 
rioration from neglect in this phase of the work 
need not be experienced. 

Dressed beef carcasses. — Nearly all the shipping 
of dressed-beef carcasses is done by the packer. 
He ships the beef either direct to the butcher or to 
the wholesale distributing houses. Farmers have 
no need for dressing their own cattle and shipping 
the carcasses, as they can realize more for their 
stock by shipping it alive. When carcasses are to 
be shipped, they are usually quartered so that they 
may be handled with ease. They are hung in re- 
frigerator cars made expressly for this purpose. 
Near the ceiling of the car are a number of cross- 
bars, with hooks, on which the quarters are hung. 
At each end of the car is an ice-box that is filled 
with ice when the car is loaded, so as to keep 
the meat from spoiling while on the road. If only 
a few carcasses are to be shipped they should be 
wrapped in burlap, so as to keep them clean while 
on the road and while being handled. If hearts, 
livers, tongues, or other minor products are to be 



shipped in the same car, they are usually put on 
racks on the floor of the car. 

Sheep carcasses, when shipped in large quanti- 
ties, are handled the same as beef. If only a few 
carcasses are shipped, they are sent by express. 
When this is done care must be taken to have them 
well wrapped with burlap, so as to keep them clean. 

Hog carcasses are seldom shipped before they are 
cut up. The reason for this is that pork will spoil 
much quicker than beef and mutton, and most of 
the pork is cured by the packer or farmer. Hog 
carcasses are cut up into wholesale cuts, and only 
the loin and shoulder butts are shipped as fresh 
meat. In some cases, when there is a strong 
demand for fresh pork, shoulders are included in 
this list. These are packed in boxes or barrels 
which will hold fifty, one hundred, or two hundred 
pounds. The meat is usually wrapped in paper 
before it is packed. During warm weather crushed 
ice is put in the boxes to preserve the meat. 

Smoked hams, bacon and shoulders are shipped 
by both packer and farmer. The essential factor 
in shipping smoked meat is to handle it as little as 
possible. Smoked meats are packed in boxes or 
barrels of convenient size. If care is taken in pack- 
ing them it is not necessary to wrap them in paper 
or burlap. Very choice hams and bacon are wrapped 
in paper and covered with burlap, or are wrapped 
in paper and muslin and covered with a coat of 
white-wash. Smoked meats should be shipped by 
freight, as there is no danger of spoiling and the 
cost is not nearly so great as when shipped by ex- 
press. Corned-beef is usually put up in kegs or 
barrels and shipped by freight. 

Lard is usually put up for shipment in fifty- 
pound cans. It may be put up in smaller cans or 
stone jars, but the jars are usually too heavy or 
too expensive. The cans are shipped in frames 
made of wood. These frames are made by taking 
four pieces of wood the length of the can, making a 
four-cornered frame of the proper size and putting 
cross-pieces on both ends to protect the can and to 
keep the cover on. Unless shipped in large quan- 
tity, the shipping directions are put on the crate, 
which is shipped either by express or by freight. 

Veal is probably as important to the farmer as 
any other meat product. Much veal is shipped, 
especially in the northern states. As soon as the 
veal is dressed, and all internal organs, except the 
liver, are removed, the carcass should be thoroughly 
cooled. The pieces of hide from which the head and 
shanks have been removed should be folded up and 
tied so as to prevent dirt and dust from accumulat- 
ing. The cut which was made through the mid-line 
in removing the internal organs should be drawn 
together in some way to keep the inside clean. 
This can be done by tying the sides together or by 
wrapping the carcass with burlap. If possible, veal 
should be shipped so as to reach the commission 
man in the morning. The shipping-tag should be 
firmly attached and shipment made by express. 

Beef hides. — In preparing beef hides for shipment 
they should be well salted, except during the win- 
ter months, when they may be shipped frozen. The 
salt must be put on in an even layer on the inside. 



THE CANNING OP MEAT AND FISH 



261 



The hide should be rolled up tight and tied so that 
it will not come apart when handled. The shipping- 
tag may be fastened to the cord used in tying the 
hide and the hide shipped by freight. 

Sheep pelts are prepared for shipment in a differ- 
ent way than beef hides. They are put up in packs 
of about a dozen each. In making a pack, put the 
first pelt with the wool side down. Continue in this 
manner until the pack is large enough. Then tie 
with heavy cord and ship the same as beef hides. 
Wool is shipped in large sacks made out of burlap. 
Each fleece is tied in a bundle and packed in the 
sack closely. These woolsacks can be secured from 
hide and wool companies on application. Wool is 
shipped by freight. 

Poultry is shipped both alive and dressed, depend- 
ing on the time of the year shipment is made. It is 
better to ship poultry alive during the summer 
months, as there is less danger of loss in transit. 
If poultry is to be shipped dressed, it is necessary to 
keep the fowls off feed for twenty-four hours, or 
more, to empty the craw and intestines, so that 
decomposition will not take place so rapidly. The 
fowl should be bled by sticking in the roof of the 
mouth or through the neck below the ear. The 
head should not be removed, as that detracts from 
the appearance of the fowl and makes a loss of 
weight. The feet are also left on for appearance 
and additional weight. Poultry dressed for market 
should not be drawn. 

The poultry should be packed in a box or barrel 
of convenient size. The head should be wrapped 
with paper, which will absorb the blood. In pack- 
ing the first layer in the bottom the fowls should 
be put in so as to have the breasts down and the 
heads folded to one side. They are thus put in 
until the top layer is reached, which should be 
packed with the breasts up, so that if the box or 
barrel is opened on either end the first layer will 
give a presentable appearance. If poultry are ship- 
ped alive, they should be placed in crates made of 
wooden strips. Crates of convenient size are made 
about forty-two inches wide, fifty-four inches long 
and eighteen to twenty inches deep. A crate of this 
size will hold about one hundred and twenty-five to 
one hundred and fifty pounds of live fowls. The 
strips should be nailed about two inches apart, mak- 
ing the crate as light as possible. Both dressed and 
live poultry should be shipped by express, so as to 
avoid being on the road any length of time. Empty 
crates can always be returned at a cost of ten or 
fifteen cents. 



THE CANNING OF MEAT AND FISH 

By W. D. Richardson 

Inasmuch as microorganisms (and chiefly bac- 
teria) are the principal exciting cause in the 
deterioration of flesh foods, any means which 
destroys bacteria or lessens their vitality and 
activity will lessen the deterioration. The follow- 
ing list includes all means which up to the present 
have been used to hinder or prevent the growth of 
bacteria in foods : 



(1) Low temperatures (freezing stops bac- 

terial growth entirely). 

(2) Heat sterilization : 

a. Absolute. 

b. Partial (pasteurization). 

(3) Dessication. 

(4) Antiseptics (including salt, saltpeter, 

sugar, spices, vinegar and wood- 
smoke). 

(5) Exclusion of air (may be practiced in 

connection with any of the fore- 
going). 
In the canning of meats, only two of these means 
are made use of, namely, heat-sterilization and 
exclusion of air. However, some cured and smoked 
meats — meats preserved by the use of antiseptics — 
are canned ; but in these cases, naturally, the can- 
ning is not the essential means of preservation. 

Heat sterilization. 

As applied to meats, this is based on the fact 
that the vegetative forms of microorganisms in 
the moist condition are killed at or below the 
temperature of boiling water (100° C), and that 
spores in the moist condition are killed at a some- 
what higher temperature (120° C. or below). The 
temperatures above 100° C., used in canning, are 
obtained by means of steam under pressure, 120° 
C, corresponding to saturated steam under a gauge 
pressure of one atmosphere, or 14.7 pounds. In 
the canning business, heat sterilization is known as 
" processing," and is conducted in autoclaves known 
as "retorts." 

Exclusion of air. 

Excluding air alone will not preserve food prod- 
ucts completely, but inasmuch as all molds and 
most bacteria grow best in the presence of oxygen, 
its absence materially assists the keeping qualities 
of meats. Furthermore, oxygen is the active sub- 
stance concerned in the production of those changes 
which occur in fats, and which are known collect- 
ively as rancidity. Hence, in the absence of air, 
rancidity, with its attendant disagreeable odor, will 
be avoided. All meats, even the leanest, contain some 
fat, and the prevention of rancidity is of great 
importance. Exclusion of air is practiced in con- 
nection with heat sterilization, and also in the can- 
ning of cured meats, as sliced dried beef, and sliced 
bacon, where heat sterilization is not made use of. 

Gross composition of meat. 

From the nutrition standpoint, meat — the flesh 
of warm-blooded animals — is composed of : 

(1) Certain proteins which constitute the 

major portions of the muscle fiber 
proper. 

(2) Collagen, in the connective tissue sur- 

rounding the muscle fibers, and in 
the fatty tissue and bone. 

(3) Organic extractive matters, princi- 

pally nitrogenous, which latter are 
classified under the name meat bases. 

(4) Mineral salts. 

(5) Fats. 



262 



THE CANNING OF MEAT AND FISH 



The characteristic flavor of meat is due to the 
extractive matters, the mineral salts, and in the 
case of meat from some animals (such as sheep 
and goats), to certain fatty substances. 

Effect of water on meat, and the theory of cooking. 

The effect of water on meat, and the theory of 
cooking must be dealt with briefly. The effect of 
cold water on meat is to extract the soluble 
salts, the meat bases and some of the proteins. The 
amount of solid matter thus possible to extract from 
lean beef amounts to about 6 per cent. The effect 
of boiling water is to shrink the bulk of the meat 
by coagulating the proteins, to hydrolyzethe colla- 
gen of the connective tissue, thus producing gelatin, 
which passes into solution, and to dissolve salts and 
meat bases. Long-continued boiling causes hydroly- 
sis of more or less of the meat proteins, which pass 
into solution in the form of albumoses. In roast- 
ing, boiling, frying, and in those cooking processes 
in which water is not used, the effects are in 
general the same as in boiling (for meat contains 
70-75 per cent of water), excepting that the salts 
and meat bases and proteins are for the most part 
retained. 

Meat-canning. 

The details of the methods of different packers 
differ to a slight extent, although the principles are 
in all cases essentially the same, and these details 
will not be entered into. The descriptions of the 
practical methods, follow the lines of general or 
most approved practice. The patented method of 
canning meats, which came into general use a few 
years ago, and which consisted in sealing the filled 
cans in vacuo, and conducting them on an endless 
chain, first through a bath of molten paraffin, heated 
to the proper temperature, and then through a solu- 
tion of sodium carbonate (to remove the grease), 
appears to be going out of use. 

All meat-canning establishments that do an 
interstate business are operated subject to the 
supervision of a United States government in- 
spector and his assistants. In this way the pub- 
lic is assured that meats are sound and whole- 
some. 

The principal varieties of canned meats are, 
canned roast beef or boiled beef, canned tongue, 
smoked meats (chipped dried beef, bacon, and the 
like), canned chicken and turkey, canned sausage 
and potted and deviled meats. 

Canned roast beef. — Canned boiled or roast beef 
is made from lean meat derived for the most 
part from the fore-quarter of the animal. The 
meat is boned, cut into pieces weighing about 
one to four pounds and these are trimmed to 
remove fat and gristle. As a preliminary to can- 
ning these pieces are then parboiled for ten to 
thirty minutes, in order to shrink the meat. If 
this were not done, when the raw pieces were 
processed they would shrink in the cans, leav- 
ing the cans only partly filled with meat. The 
product would then present an indifferent appear- 
ance and the package would be less compact for a 
given weight of meat than when the preliminary 



parboiling was resorted to. After parboiling, the 
pieces are packed into cans of the desired size, some- 
times by hand and sometimes by machine. It is 
desirable that the pieces in any one can be approxi- 
mately of the same size in order that the processing 
may proceed uniformly. A certain quantity of the 
liquid resulting from the parboiling is now added to 
the cans and they are soldered up. The cans are 
next placed on circular trays made of woven 
wire and these are placed in the retorts, tier on 
tier, the top of the retort is clamped down, and the 
steam turned on. Each retort is provided with 
a steam gauge and thermometer in order that tem- 
peratures and pressures may be carefully con- 
trolled. The heating proceeds for one to two hours 
at temperatures of 218° to 230° Fahr., depending 
on the size of the cans and the practice of the fac- 
tory. The cans are then removed from the retorts, 
a small vent made to release the enclosed air, and 
resoldered. The cans are returned to the retorts and 
reprocessed for one to two or more hours at 
temperatures of 235° to 255° Fahr., after which 
they are chilled, washed, lacquered and labeled. If 
the processing is properly carried out the cans will 
be sterile and free from air. 

Canned corned beef is prepared from beef which 
has been "cured" or "corned" in a pickling brine 
containing salt, sugar and saltpeter. The process 
of canning is not essentially different from that 
employed in the case of boiled beef ; the prelimi- 
nary parboiling is continued for a somewhat longer 
time, and sometimes the water is twice changed 
and two boilings made in order to remove part 
of the salt taken up during the curing process. 
The processing may be accomplished at a lower 
temperature than that used for fresh beef, both 
because of the longer parboiling and the fact that 
it is more easily accomplished in the presence of 
salt than in its absence. In some factories a tem- 
perature not higher than the boiling-point of water 
is used. [See page 255.] 

Canned tongue is prepared from the tongues of 
beeves, calves, sheep and hogs. The tongues are 
first pickled in a brine containing salt, sugar and 
saltpeter, and on removal from the pickling 
solution they are cooked one to two hours. After 
this they are trimmed and each tongue is rolled 
separately and placed in a circular can of the 
proper size. Instead of processing tongues in 
retorts, many houses prefer to heat the cans in 
brine to a temperature of 235° to 240° Fahr. 
Sometimes tongues are put up in glass cans with 
sheet-metal cover, the cover being set in place in 
a vacuum machine which first exhausts the air 
from the can. A rubber gasket around the rim of 
the can makes the package air-tight. Finally the 
cans are sterilized by heat in the usual way. 

Canned smoked meats. — The principal canned 
smoked meats are sliced dried beef and sliced 
bacon. These are fully cured and smoked before 
canning, and therefore heat-sterilization is not nec- 
essary. They are packed in cans or jars of sheet 
metal or glass of various sizes, the air is exhausted 
in a vacuum machine and, in the case of tin cans, 
the vent is soldered while under vacuum. In the 



MEAT: ITS NUTRITIVE VALUE, SELECTION AND PREPARATION 



263 



case of sheet-metal covered glass jars the cover is 
adjusted in the vacuum machine and the package 
rendered air-tight by means of a rubber gasket. 

Canned chicken and turkey are prepared from 
poultry which has been dressedand the carcass boiled 
until the meat separates easily. The meat is sepa- 
rated by hand, placed in cans and these are processed 
in a way similar to that employed for boiled beef. 

Canned sausage. — A certain amount of sausage 
is placed in cans and processed. This sausage does 
not differ essentially from the cooked and smoked 
sausage sold without canning. Some sausage, par- 
ticularly that known as bologna, is canned in oil. 
[See page 257.] 

Potted meats. — Potted and deviled meats and 
pates are finely comminuted meats spiced and 
seasoned and processed. The list of preparations 
under this head is very large. 

Canning of fish. 

In general, the methods applied in the canning 
of fish are based on the same principles as those 
employed in meat-canning. Fish is a food which 
undergoes deterioration rapidly, the lean by bac- 
terial decomposition and the fat in the presence 
of air because of the development of rancidity. 
Prompt and cleanly handling of the product is 
very essential in fish-canning establishments. Two 
instances only of fish-canning will be detailed here. 

Salmon. — The salmon belong to the genus Oncho- 
rhynchus, of which five species are found on the 
western coast of America. They are taken by 
hook but chiefly by seines, transported to the can- 
ning factories as rapidly as possible, cleaned and 
scaled, and the heads, tails and fins removed. They 
are then allowed to stand a certain length of time 
in brine in tanks, after which they are drained, cut 
into pieces of the proper size and placed in cans. 
The space left in the cans is filled with salt brine, 
the cans sealed and autoclaved for one hour. The 
cans are removed, a vent made to release the air, 
resoldered and autoclaved again. They are removed 
from the autoclave, showered with cold water and 
lacquered and labeled. 

Sardines. — The genuine sardine is found most 
abundantly along the coasts of France, Spain and 
Portugal. On the American side of the Atlantic, 
from Florida to Cuba, is found the Spanish sardine. 
Both of these belong to the herring family. Along 
the coast of Maine, small herring are put up for 
sardines. The fish are brought to the factory as 
quickly as possible and are immediately beheaded 
and eviscerated. They are then sprinkled with salt 
and drained on wooden slats over night. The next 
morning they are again salted, drained and dried. 
Following this comes the principal part of the pro- 
cess — cooking in oil. In the older process the fish 
were laid on pans, covered with olive-oil, and placed 
in the oven for five or six minutes. Then they were 
removed and drained on wire trays. In the more 
modern process they are laid on wire baskets, and 
dipped for the proper length of time in hot oil. 
The fish are laid in tin boxes as closely as possible, 
the boxes filled with olive-oil, closed and soldered, 
and cooked for one hour in water which is cold at 



the start, but which is boiled by means of injected 
steam. The so-called shadines are young menhaden. 

Literature. 

For a general discussion of the principles 
governing the preserving of perishable products 
by means of canning, and references to the litera- 
ture of the subject, see Part II, of Vol. II. 



MEAT: ITS NUTRITIVE VALUE, SELECTION 
AND PREPARATION 

By Flora Rose 

All life has its origin in a single cell. This is 
a minute mass of living substance,, protoplasm, 
which possesses within itself all the vital powers, — 
activity, growth, assimilation, reproduction. 

The simplest forms of living things are one-cell 
organisms which effect all their life processes inde- 
pendently. Each is a complete individual in its own 
right. All higher forms begin life in the same sim- 
ple way as a single cell, independent at first, but 
growing and multiplying into a number of similar 
individuals, able to conduct many of their own vital 
processes, but dependent for ultimate existence on 
the organism they represent. As the body develops, 
groups of cells become specialized, some going to 
form skin and nervous system, others to form bone, 
muscles and circulatory system, still others to form 
the alimentary tract, liver, lungs, and other parts. 

The body thus stands forth as an individual 
whole, but made up of countless lesser units. Its 
well-being depends on the well-being of its compo- 
nent parts. Health means good condition of the cells, 
as disease means disturbance of some cell group. 

Some principles of nutrition. 

The ultimate cell structure of the body points 
to the fact that the food problem is a cell problem. 
To feed the organism is to supply it with material 
that has the power of building up new cell tissue, 
or that will yield energy to the cell and thus to 
the body as a whole. The composition of cell sub- 
stance is the first indication of cellular food needs. 
It always contains water, ash and substances known 
as proteids. Hence, for the growth and repair of 
active living tissue — protoplasm — the essentials 
are water, ash and proteid. Fats and carbohydrates, 
a group of substances the important food members 
of which are sugars and starches, also serve as a 
form of food for the cell. They are incapable by 
themselves of being built into protoplasmic tissue 
but are of greatest importance to the body, as it is 
chiefly from these that the cell derives energy for 
the manifestation of its various activities. They 
may be found as such within the cell as a stored 
form of energy derived directly from the fats and 
carbohydrates fed, or as a product of the metabo- 
lism of proteids. 

To summarize : Proteids, though capable of yield- • 
ing energy to the cell, have the further function of 
building living tissue. Carbohydrates and fats can 
be used directly in the body only as a source of 
energy, and when found as such in the body, are 



264 



MEAT: ITS NUTRITIVE VALUE, SELECTION AND PREPARATION 



stored there as a reserve form of food or fuel within 
the cell but not as a part of the protoplasm and not 
as living tissue. 

Measure of nutritive value of food. 

It has been found convenient to use the heat 
unit called Calorie as a measure of the nutritive 
value of foods. The Calorie is the amount of heat 
required to raise one kilogram of water one degree 
Centigrade of temperature. There are accurate 
methods of determining the amount of heat each 
of the substances, proteid, fat and carbohydrate, is 
capable of yielding to the body, and this amount is 
expressed in terms of the Calorie. Thus, 

1 gram or .0022 pounds proteid yields 4 Cals. 

1 gram or .0022 pounds carbohydrate yields 4 Cals. 

1 gram or .0022 pounds fat yields 9 Cals. 

A large and interesting literature has grown up 
in discussions of food requirements. It will be 
well to say in passing that for the normal man of 
average size at light muscular work, food yielding 
2,400 to 3,000 Calories will be ample for a day's 



maintenance. Tigerstedt gives the following 
figures : 



Table I. 



2,000-2,400 Cals. 
2,400-2,700 Cals. 
2,700-3,200 Cals. 
3,200-4,100 Cals. 
4,100-5,000 Cals. 
Over 5,000 Cals. 



for a shoemaker, 
for a weaver, 
for a carpenter, 
for a farm laborer, 
for an excavator, 
for a lumberman. 



A certain proportion of this Calorie yield should 
be furnished by the protein of food, since there 
must be provision for wear and tear of tissue. 
There is much discussion and difference of opinion 
as to the proportion of protein the dietary should 
contain, and it is unwise to make definite state- 
ments in regard to this point within such limited 
space. However, it will not be radical to say 
that for food yielding 2,400 to 3,000 Calories, 
if 280 to 360 of the Calories are furnished by 
protein, there will be no protein deficit in the body. 
The following table gives the composition of some 
of the more common food materials. 



Table II.— Composition of Some Common Food Materials. 
(Adapted from United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin No. 28) 



Food material 



Carbo- 
hydrates 



Fuel-value 
per lb. 



Beef 

Veal 

Mutton 

Lamb 

Pork 

Fowls 

Hens' eggs, uncooked edible part 

Buttermilk 

Cheese, American (pale) .... 

Cheese, Cottage 

Milk, skimmed 

Milk, whole 

Beans, dried 

Peas, dried 

Almonds, edible part 

Peanuts, edible part 

Walnuts, edible part 

Corn-meal, granular 

Corn-meal, unbolted 

Oats, rolled 

Rice 

Wheat flour, entire wheat .... 

Wheat flour, white 

Wheat flour, Graham 

White bread 

Beans, string, fresh, edible part . 

Cabbage, edible part 

Corn, green, edible part .... 
Onions, fresh, edible part .... 
Peas, sugar, green, edible part . 
Potatoes, raw or fresh, edible part 

Spinach, fresh 

Apples, edible part 

Grapes, edible part 

Oranges, edible part 

Figs 

Prunes, edible part 

P.aisins, edible part 

Butter 



Per cent 
62.2 
71.3 
53.6 
58.2 
34.4 
63.7 
73.3 
91.0 
31.6 
72.0 
90.5 
87.0 
12.6 
9.5 
4.8 
9.2 
2.5 
12.5 
11.6 
7.7 
12.3 
11.4 
12.0 
11.3 
35.3 
89.2 
91.5 
75.4 
87.6 
81.8 
78.3 
92.3 
84.6 
77.4 
86.9 
18.8 
22.3 
14.6 
11.0 



Per cent 
18.5 
19.9 
16.0 
17.6 

9.5 
19.2 
13.4 

3.0 
28.8 
20.9 

3.4 

3.3 
22.5 
24.6 
21.0 
25.8 
27.6 

9.2 

8.4 
16.7 

8.0 
13.8 
11.4 
13.3 
9.2 
2.3 
1.6 
3.1 
1.6 
3.4 
2.2 
2.1 

.4 
1.3 

.8 
4.3 
2.1 
2.6 
1.0 



Per cent 
18.8 

8.1 
29.8 
23.1 
55.3 
16.3 
10.5 
.5 
35.9 

1.0 
.3 

4.0 

1.8 

1.0 
54.9 
38.6 
56.3 

1.9 

4.7 

7.3 
.3 

1.9 

1.0 

2.2 
1.3 

.3 

.3 
1.1 

.3 

.4 

.1 

.3 

.5 
1.6 

.2 

.3 

3.3 

85.0 



4.8 

.3 

4.3 

5.1 

5.0 

59.6 

62.0 

17.3 

24.4 

11.7 

75.4 

74.0 

66.2 

79.0 

71.9 

75.1 

71.4 

53.1 

7.4 

5.6 

19.7 

9.9 

13.7 

18.4 

3.2 

14.2 

19.2 

11.6 

74.2 

73.3 

76.1 



Per cent 

.9 
1.0 

.8 
1.1 

.5 
1.0 
1.0 

.7 
3.4 
1.8 

.7 

.7 
3.5 
2.9 
2.0 
2.0 
1.9 
1.0 
1.3 
2.1 

.4 
1.0 

.5 
1.8 
1.1 

.8 
1.0 

.7 

.6 

.7 
1.0 
2.1 

.3 

.5 

.5 
2.4 
2.3 
3.4 
3.0 



Calories 

1,135 

735 

1,560 

1,300 

2,505 

1,045 

720 

165 

2,055 

510 

170 

325 

1,605 

1,655 

3,030 

2,560 

3,105 

1,655 

1,730 

1,850 

1,630 

1,675 

1,650 

1,670 

1,215 

195 

145 

335 

225 

335 

385 

110 

290 

450 

240 

1,475 

1,400 

1,605 

3,605 



MEAT : ITS NUTRITIVE VALUE, SELECTION AND PREPARATION 



265 



In interpreting the relation of nutritive value to 
food-needs, it must not be forgotten that some 
foods that have a relatively low fuel-value are 
of very great dietetic importance. For example, 
vegetables and fruits, although they are largely 
composed of water and give a low Calorie yield, 
are relatively rich in ash constituents, and the bulk 
they afford is of physiological value in promoting 
peristaltic action in the intestines and thus enabling 
the body more quickly to rid itself of its waste 
materials. 

Protein in foods. 

While most foods contain small amounts of pro- 
teids there are certain foods in which these sub- 
stances predominate, and which are added to the 
dietary with deliberate intention of bringing up the 
protein ratio. These are mainly of animal origin, as 
meat, eggs, milk and cheese, although certain vege- 
table foods, such as dried beans and peas, nuts and 
some cereals, are also very rich in protein, and 
may be used as substitutes for the animal products. 
The protein food in most common use in this country 
is meat. A few figures taken from Grindley (Office 
of Experiment Stations, Bulletin No. 162) will show 
the importance placed on meat by the average 
American consumer : 37 per cent of the total 
expenditure on food is for meat ; 38.2 per cent of 
the total protein, 58.9 per cent of the total fat and 
18.5 per cent of the total nutrients of the diet are 
furnished by meat. As to the advisability of such 
free use of meat there is much diversity of opinion, 
and something may be said on both sides. There is 
no doubt that meat has a high food value, both 
because of its relatively large percentage of protein 
and because of a greater or less amount of fat. 

Muscular structure. 

Some understanding of the minute structure of 
muscular tissue is a material aid to the intelligent 
selection and preparation of meat products. In the 
development of the body, those cells which have 
gone to form muscle have become very much modi- 
fied in character. They are elongated into tube-like 
structures known as muscle fibers, each fiber repre- 
senting one muscle-cell. The cell-protoplasm is sur- 
rounded by a thin membranous wall, similar in 
composition, but materially different in character-* 
istics and nutritive value to the cell contents. 
The muscle fibers are bound together into bundles 
by a network of connective tissue, and these fiber 
bundles are further bound together to form the 
muscle. In meat that has been boiled for a long 
time, it is easy to separate out the fiber bundles 
and note something of this structure. 

Invisible droplets of fat may be found imbedded 
in the connective tissue, and in the flesh of many 
animals distinct layers of fat lie between the fiber 
bundles. Minute blood-vessels ramify through the 
connective tissue. 

Composition and characteristics of muscle-substance. 

Variations in the tenderness of meat and in the 
effects on it of cooking are due largely to differ- 
ences in characteristics between cell content and 



connective tissue. As will be understood by the 
previous explanation, the muscle-fiber is largely 
composed of a watery solution of protein substan- 
ces together with some ash. The greater part 
of these proteins is coagulated by heat and is 
insoluble in both cold and hot water. It is this 
characteristic coagulation which probably causes 
the hardening of meat in cooking. Prolonged high 
temperatures increase this hardening and give a 
tough, leathery character to the meat thus treated. 
Along with this insoluble coagulable proteid occur 
small amounts of soluble proteids and a group of 
substances known as meat extractives, which are 
soluble in both hot and cold water. It is to these 
extractives that meat probably owes its character- 
istic flavor. 

Connective tissue and the membranous cell-wall 
become softened by the action of heat and water 
and, if the heating is long continued, they are 
changed into a soluble substance known as gelatin. 

Careful note should be made of the above facts 
since they strike the keynote of successful cooking 
of meat products and explain some of the fallacies 
which hold with regard to the high nutritive value 
of broths and soup stocks. 

Shortly after the death of an animal, the cell 
content undergoes a characteristic hardening known 
as rigor mortis, or the stiffening of death. This 
coagulation is due to some chemical change in the 
passing of tissue from a living to a lifeless state. 
After a certain number of hours, further change 
takes place, and the muscle grows softer as its 
proteids again become increasingly soluble. Meat 
used before rigor mortis has disappeared is rela- 
tively tough, hence the custom of "hanging" it. 

Characteristics of good meat. 

Meat should have uniformity of color and should 
be neither pale nor too purplish. There should be 
little or no odor to it. The flesh should be firm to 
touch and should neither pit nor crackle. On hand- 
ling, it should scarcely moisten the fingers. There 
should be no evidence of parasites. 

Beef should be bright red in color and should be 
marbled with fat. 

Veal is paler and less firm than beef, but it 
should be of good, pinkish color and the meat should 
not be flabby nor the fat tallowy. 

Mutton should be heavy and firm. The fat should 
be white, hard and clear, the flesh fine-grained and 
bright red in color. Poor mutton has little fat and 
relatively little flesh as compared with the amount 
of bone. 

Lamb is less firm than mutton and the fat is 
softer, but it should be relatively firm. 

Pork is the least firm of the meats and its fat is 
comparatively soft. The flesh should be of good 
color and the fat should be white and clear. 

Tenderness in meat. 

A small amount of delicate connective tissue, a 
thin cell-membrane, short fibers, and a time suffi- 
cient for the disappearance of rigor mortis, are the 
necessary conditions for tenderness in meat. A 
general rule for tender cuts of meat is, that the 



266 



MEAT: ITS NUTRITIVE VALUE, SELECTION AND PREPARATION 



least exercised and least exposed muscles are the 
most tender. Exercise and exposure tend to thicken 
the cell-wall and to increase and toughen the con- 
nective tissue. At the same time, the blood supply 
is increased and, as a rule, the tougher cuts are 
juicier and richer in 
flavor. Connective tissue 
is abundant and tough _j£k 





Fig. 293. The third cut rib. 



Fig. 292. The tenth cut rib. 

around the joints of any carcass, and 
cuts which include these parts may 
be undesirable for that reason 
der meat is fine in grain and cl 
texture. 

A general rule is 
that the cut of meat 
increases in tenderness 
as the distance from 
either head or rump in- 
creases. Thus, those 
cuts coming from the 
loin and prime ribs are 
considered the choic- 
est. 

The illustrations, Figs. 292- 
298, may serve to emphasize 
some of the above points. The 
cut in Fig. 292 is taken between 
the first rib and the shoulder- 
joint, and is the tenth cut rib. It 
illustrates the reason for tough- 
ness of meat at points near or 
surrounding a joint. The cut in 
Fig. 293 is between the eighth 
and ninth ribs, and is the third 
cut rib. It shows the increase 
of those characteristics marking 
tenderness in meat. Fig. 294 
shows the second cut of the loin, 
the rump end of sirloin ; Fig. 
295, the seventh cut of sirloin, 
and Fig. 298, the thirteenth cut from the loin, 
known as tea-bone porterhouse steak. These last 
three figures show the changes in characteristics as 
the central cuts are reached from the rump end of 
the animal. Figs. 296, 297 illustrate the same 
points in cuts from the round ; Fig. 297, fourth cut 
of the round, is 'the choicest cut in the round; 
Fig. 296, thirteenth cut of the round, marks the 
approach of the knee-joint and is the limit to 
which the round may be cut. 

Underlying principles of meat cookery. 

The main objects in cooking meat are : (1) to 
develop flavor and make it more palatable ; (2) to 



make it more tender ; (3) to kill any parasites that 
may occur in the meat. As has previously been ex- 
plained, there are two opposing factors to consider 
in meat cookery : (1) the coagulation of the pro- 
teids by heat, and the possibility of its being rend- 
ered tough and leathery by high temperatures 
and too long-continued cooking ; (2) the desir- 
able softening effect of long-continued moist 
heat on the connective tissue. The proteid of 
meat begins to coagulate at a relatively low 
temperature, and at 175° Fahr., a temperature 
considerably below the boiling point of water, 
it is completely coagulated. It has been found 
that meat proteid subjected to a temperature of 
approximately 175° to 190° Fahr., while coag- 
ulated, is tender and friable, and if the tem- 
perature is maintained a sufficiently long time 
the connective tissue becomes soft and gelat- 
inous. This, then, is the guide in 
marking the way to methods of 
preparation. 

Methods of cooking. 

One fact must not be overlooked 
in discussing methods of prepara- 
tion, namely, that meat is a very 
poor conductor of heat, and that a 
long time may be required to bring 
the center of a piece of meat of any 
considerable size to the same tem- 
perature as the surrounding 
medium. Fat seems to permit heat 
to be conducted more rapidly, and, 
as a rule, a fat piece of meat is 
more quickly heated through. Quick 
hardening of the surface of meat 
lessens the rapidity with which heat 
passes to the cen- 
ter. This is seen in 
roasted meats, in 
which the surface 
is quickly browned 
and the interior of 
the meat is thus 
protected against 
the immediate ef- 
fects of the high 
temperature. This 
condition is often 
sought in the cook- 
ing of roasts. 




23523 



Fig. 294. The second cut of the loin. 




Fig. 295. The seventh cut of sirloin. 



MEAT: ITS NUTRITIVE VALUE, SELECTION AND PREPARATION 



267 



Quick processes. 

With tender meats, no consideration of the soft- 
ening of connective tissue is necessary. Develop- 
ment of flavor and increase in palatability are the 
main objects in their preparation. Tender cuts, 
therefore, are usually cooked by the quick pro- 
cesses, as broiling, pan-broiling, roasting, and the 
like. These methods of cooking require an initia- 
tive high temperature for a short time, and a sub- 
sequent lessening of heat to complete the change 
to the condition desired. Much of the failure of the 
housewife to secure good results in short-process 
cooking is due to an oversight of this important 
factor of lowered temperature, after the browned 
surface has been secured. The browned surface 
aids in retarding the entrance of heat to the inner- 
most parts of the meat and the 
time required for cooking after 
the heat has been lowered will 
vary with the size, compactness, 
thickness and form of the meat, 
and with the amount of fat pres- 
ent. A few simple directions may 
be helpful in following out these 
processes. 

Broiling over a flame. — The 
meat should be thoroughly seared 
by bringing it in fairly close con- 
tact with the flame. After searing, 
the heat is lessened, both by holding the broiler 
farther from the flame, and by frequent turning. 
This factor of turning in broiling over direct flame, 
or in pan-broiling, 
is of first impor- 
tance, as it dis- 
tributes the heat 
evenly through the 
meat and prevents 
undue hardening. 
It retards evapo- 
ration and keeps 
in the juices, as 
every time the 
meat is turned the 
juices are sent 
from that side back 
toward the center 
of the meat. The 
time allowed must 
" doneness " desired. 





Fig. 296. The thirteenth cut of the round, showing the 
point to which the round may be cut. 




Fig. 297. The fourth cut of the round 



depend on the condition of 
Pan-broiling. — By this method, meat is cooked 




The thirteenth cut from the loin, known as 
tea-bone porterhouse steak. 



in a dry, hot pan without the use of any outside 
fat. The larger part of the fat of the meat is 
removed before cooking. The meat is thoroughly 
seared in the 
dry, hot pan, the 
heat is then low- 
ered and cook- 
ing is continued 
at this lower 
temperature 
with almost con- 
stant turning. 
Meat cooked in **• 299 ' A double ™ stln e-pan. 
this way has a flavor nearly equal to that cooked 
over a direct flame, and is superior in all ways to 
the old-fashioned so-called " fried " meat. 

Oven - roasting. — 
The roast should be 
put on a rack in the 
pan, skin side up, 
leaving both sides of 
the meat equally ex- 
posed to the action 
of the heat. The 
oven should be very 
hot for the first fif- 
teen minutes, to sear 
and brown the roast, 
and then the heat 
should be lowered to the temperature required for 
the completion of the cooking. The temperature 
required for quick searing of an oven-roast is 480° 
Fahr. The temperature for the 
longer period of cooking may be 
as low as 212° Fahr., if sufficient 
time is allowed for the process. 
As a guide to the housekeeper it 
may be said that 480° Fahr. gives 
a very hot oven ; 350° to SSO " 
Fahr. is about the heat required 
to bake a medium-sized loaf of 
bread, if the heat is to continue 
one hour; 212° Fahr. is the tem- 
perature of boiling -water. The 
roast should be basted frequently 
with fat, a mixture of water and 
fat, or with its own juices, and 
this may be done from the outside 
or by the use of some 
such device as the 
double roasting-pan. 
(Fig. 299.) 

The practiced 
housekeeper may be 
able to gauge oven- 
heat with a fair 
degree of accuracy, 
but for the novice an 
oven thermometer is 
an excellent guide, 
although not an in- 
fallible one. (Fig. 
300.) Little thermometers to set inside the oven 
may also be used with good results. 
Some interesting work has been done by Elizabeth 




An oven thermometer. 



268 



MEAT: ITS NUTRITIVE VALUE, SELECTION AND PREPARATION 



Sprague and H. S. Grindley on "A Precise Method 
of Roasting Beef " (University Studies, Vol. II, No. 
4, University of Illinois). The following table 
adapted from their publication may be of use to 
the interested housekeeper : 



ate heat. The fundamental principle of all the 
methods used for this purpose is to prevent high 
temperatures by limiting them to the boiling point 
of water. Boiling, steaming, braising, pot-roasting, 
stewing, all illustrate this principle. 



Table in. — Time op Cooking Single Short-rib Roasts and Two-rib Rolled Roasts 









Tempera- 


Tempera- 




Time 

per 

pound 




Kind of roast 


Weight of roast 


ture for 
first fifteen 


ture for 
remaining 


Total time 
of cooking 


Condition of meat 








minutes 


time 








Pounds 


Ounces 


° Fahr. 


° Fahr. 


Hours 


Min. 


Minutes 




Single short-rib . . 


4 


4.25 


480 


380 




10 


16.3 


Very rare 


Single short-rib . . 


4 


2.75 


480 


380 




20 


19.2 


Medium, verging on rare 


Single short-rib . . 


3 


.25 


480 


380 




25 


28.2 


Medium, verging on well-done 


Single short-rib . . 


3 


5.00 


480 


380 




40 


30.4 


Well-done 


Two-rib rolled roast 


4 


11.64 


480 


380 




35 


20.1 


Rare 


Two-rib rolled roast 






480 


347 






18.3 


Rare 


Two-rib rolled roast 






480 


212 






38.5 


Rare 


Two-rib rolled roast 


4* 


3.79 


480 


380 




58 


27.9 


Medium-rare 


Two-rib rolled roast 






480 


347 






26.0 


Medium-rare 


Two-rib rolled roast 






480 


212 






42.8 


Medium-rare 


Two-rib rolled roast 


4* 


14.37 


480 


380 




49 


34.4 


Well-done 


Two-rib rolled roast 






480 


347 






31.4 


Well-done 


Two-rib rolled roast 






480 


212 






79.8 


Well-done 



In each of the above experiments, a slit was 
made in the roast, and a small chemical thermom- 
eter was inserted in such a way as to have the 
bulb of the thermometer at the center of the roast. 
The roast was then cooked at the usual preliminary 
temperature of 480° Fahr. for fifteen minutes. The 
subsequent temperature for the completion of the 
cooking was varied for three sets of experiments. 
In the first it was kept at 380° Fahr., in the sec- 
ond, at 347° Fahr., and in the third, at 212° Fahr. 
Some previous experiments had been made to show 
what temperature the center of the beef should 
reach to secure rare, medium - rare and well-done 
meat. These were as follows : 

When meat was well-done, 158° to 176° Fahr. 
When meat was medium-done, 149° to 158° Fahr. 
When meat was rare, 130° to 149° Fahr. 

In following out the experiment it was necessary 
only to watch the thermometer to know at what 
point the roast should be removed from the oven to 
secure the desired condition of rare, medium or 
well-done meat. The differences in conductivity of 
a single-rib roast and a compact, two-rib rolled 
roast of approximate weights are well illustrated 
by the variations shown in the time required to 
cook them. From the results of their experiments 
the authors conclude that the interior of the roasts 
cooked at the lowest temperature was more uni- 
form, and although requiring a longer time for 
cooking there was less danger of overcooking by 
being in the oven a little over-long. 

This illustration of the possibilities of accurate 
methods in food preparation should furnish many 
practical suggestions to the interested housekeeper. 

Slow processes. 

Tough meats should be cooked by some process 
which will permit long-continued action of moder- 




Boiling is the origin or foundation of all these 
methods, the others being only variations to 
improve or change the flavor. As has already been 
pointed out, prolonged cooking in boiling water 
makes meat tough and stringy, and the modern 

method is to 
cook in water 
below the boil- 
ing point. The 
meat is plunged 
into boiling 
water and the 

Fig. 3d. a casserole. temperature is 

then lowered to 
about 185° Fahr., and kept there for the length of 
time desired, varying from three to four hours in 
the case of a stew to six to eight hours, or even 
longer, in the case of a roast. This long, slow cook- 
ing should majie the meat very tender, and if prop- 
erly done with low, steady temperature and time 
enough allowed, a tough 
piece of meat should slice 
through as easily as a ten- 
der piece of chicken. It 
should be coherent, and 
not fall to pieces. 

Pot-roasting and brais- 
ing combine the dry- and 
moist-heat 
methods. The 
meat is well 
seared and 
browned before 
being put into 
a closely cov- 
ered kettle, casserole (Fig. 301) or pot of some kind. 
The cooking then continues in the slow way above 
mentioned, until the connective tissue is thoroughly 
gelatinized. This combination of browning with 




Fig. 302 



MEAT: ITS NUTRITIVE VALUE, SELECTION AND PREPARATION 



269 



water-cooking gives a richer flavor, and renders the 
meat more attractive and palatable than simple 
water-cooking alone. Almost any cut in the ani- 
mal may be 
made tender 
and palatable 
b y properly 
c onducted, 
long -process 
cooking, and a 
little experi- 
ence will soon 
give skill in 
regulatin g 
temperature 
and time. 
These long 
processes of 
conking may 
be consum- 
mated very 
economically 
in a properly 
equipped 
kitchen. The 
steam -cooker 
(Fig. 302) for 
the top of a 
gas burner or 
small stove, 
deserves bet- 
The Aladdin oven 




Fig. 303. The Aladdin oven, showing 
principles of operation. 



ter recognition than it has, 
(Fig. 303) should be in every household, for it 
furnishes an accurate, satisfactory and economi- 
cal means for maintaining steady, low temp- 
eratures. The " fireless cooker " is deservedly com- 
ing into common use in this country (Fig. 304.) 
This is simply a device for conserving heat that 
is previously generated on the top of the stove. 
The principle of construction is to have a thick 
nest of some closely packed non-conducting mater- 
ial, such as mineral wool, asbestos, wool, excelsior, 
sawdust, hay or the like, surrounding the recep- 
tacle containing the hot material. The non-conduct- 



ing, surrounding substance allows but slow dissi- 
pation of heat, and a slow, moderate temperature 
is thus maintained for a long period of time. There 
are several of these "fireless cookers" on the mar- 
ket, but any ingenious person may construct one, 
which, if carefully made, will prove very satisfac- 
tory. In brief, the "fireless cooker" is a tight box, 
tightly packed with non-conducting material. A 
space in the center is allowed just large enough to 
hold the receptacle to be used, and the surrounding 
material should be of about equal depth on all sides. 
A thick cushion of 
the same material 
should be made to 
cover the top and : 
tight, and the top i 
the box should 
lock closely 
over all. The 
utensil used 
should have a 
tight - fitting 
cover. If meat 
is to be cooked 
in such a 
"cooker" it 
should be com- 
pletely cov- 
ered with boiling water and allowed to boil a few 
minutes before the kettle is covered and put in 
the cooker. Experience will soon give skill in the 
use of such an apparatus. 

Nutritive value of meat. 

Meat has a high nutritive value, which in the 
sense of fuel-value, is due largely to the amount of 
fat it contains. A comparison of the composition of 
various kinds of meat, as given in the following 
tables (adapted from United States Department 
of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, 
Bulletin No. 28), will show their variations in nutri- 
tive value to be due rather to a difference in fat 
content than to a difference in the amount of pro- 
tein they contain : 




Fig. 304. 
The "fireless cooker.' 



Table IV 



Food materials 



Beef— 

Fore-quarter, edible part . . 

Hind-quarter, edible part . . 

Sides, edible part 

Veal — 

Fore-quarter, edible part . . 

Hind-quarter, edible part . . 
Lamb — 

Fore-quarter, edible part . . 

Hind-quarter, edible part . . 
Mutton — 

Fore-quarter, edible part . . 

Hind-quarter, edible part . . 
Pork — 

Ham, fresh, lean, edible part 

Loin, tenderloin, edible part 

Shoulder, edible part . . . 



62.5 
62.2 
62.2 

71.7 
70.9 

55.1 
60.9 

52.9 

54.8 

60.0 
66.5 
51.2 



18.3 
19.3 
18.8 

20.0 
20.7 

18.3 
19.6 

15.6 
16.7 

25.0 
18.9 
13.3 



18.9 
18.3 
18.8 

8.0 
8.3 

25.8 
19.1 

30.9 
28.1 

14.4 
13.0 
34.2 



.9 
.9 
.9 

.9 
1.0 

1.0 
1.0 



1.3 
1.0 



Fuel -value 
per pound 



1,135 
1,130 
1,145 

710 
735 

1,430 
1,170 

1,595 
1,495 

1,075 

900 

1,690 



270 



MEAT: ITS NUTRITIVE VALUE, SELECTION AND PREPARATION 
Table V. — Beef 



Food materials 



Ribs, lean, edible part . . . 
Ribs, fat, edible part . . . 
Round, lean, edible part . . 
Round, fat, edible part . . . 
Fore-quarter, lean, edible part 
Fore-quarter, fat, edible part 



Water 


Protein 


Fat 


Ash 


FiU'l-value 

per pound 


67.9 


19.6 


12.0 


1.0 


870 


48.5 


15.0 


35.6 


.7 


1,780 


70.0 


21.3 


7.9 


1.1 


730 


60.4 


19.5 


19.5 


1.0 


1,185 


68.6 


18.9 


12.2 


.8 


865 


53.5 


15.9 


30.0 


.7 


1,560 



Increase of fat in a meat product means a de- 
crease in water content and a lesser though marked 
decrease in protein content, with an increase in 
food value. As the loss in water and protein is 
replaced by fat, the economy of purchasing beef 
well marbled with fat is obvious. This is best illus- 
trated by a table which compares the composition 
and calorie value of similar cuts of the same kind 
of meat, having varying amounts of fat. 

Influence of cooking on the nutritive value of meat. 

A consideration of the nutritive value of soups 
and broths will be included in this heading, since 
the amount of nutritive material that meat loses 
when cooked in water goes directly into the broth. 

When meat is cooked, no matter by what method, 
it undergoes a distinct loss of weight. Considera- 
ble work has been done to determine what part of 
this loss of weight is water and what part consists 
of the nutrients of the meat. Grindley (Office of 
Experiment Stations, Bulletin No. 162) reports a 
number of such experiments made on various kinds 
and conditions of meat, subjected to different 
methods and temperatures of cooking. 

On an average, meat loses about 45 per cent of 
its water content by boiling, with a variation from 
18 to 67 per cent ; 7 per cent of its protein, with a 
variation from 3 to 13 per cent ; 45 per cent of its 
mineral matter, with a variation from 20 to 67 per 
cent ; 0.6 to 37 per cent of its fat content. 

The fatter cuts of meat lose less water, protein, 
and mineral matter, but more fat than the leaner 
meats. On an average, the larger the piece of meat 
the smaller the percentage losses. Close study of 
the above figures will show the nutritive value of 
broth to be very small indeed, as even under the 
most favorable conditions of treatment, meat loses 
at most but. 13 per cent of its total protein ; and 
the average of a large number of broths gives the 
following composition : Water, 97 per cent ; total 
solids, 3 per cent. Of these total solids, the compo- 
sition was as follows : Protein, 0.3 ; extractives, 
1.3 ; fat, 1.3 ; ash, 0.5. As extractives have only 
a very small fuel-value, and are of use to the body 
only as stimulating agents, some of the fallacies con- 
cerning the high nutritive value of meat soups are 
made clear. 

The richness of broth increases as the time of 
cooking increases, and as the size of the pieces of 
meat making it decreases. If the broth of meat 
cooked in water is eaten with the meat, there is 
practically no loss of nutritive material. "Soup" 
meat will thus be seen to be nearly as rich in 
nutrients as the joint especially prepared for the 



table. About 70 per cent of the extractives have 
been removed, leaving it comparatively tasteless, 
but, while this loss of the stimulating property of 
the meat may lessen the ease and rate of digestion, 
it is a mistaken idea that its nutritive value has 
been materially affected. 

Meat cooked by dry heat loses less than that 
cooked in water. The average loss by this method 
of cooking is : Water content, 35 per cent ; nitrog- 
enous extractive, 9 per cent ; non-nitrogenous 
extractive, 17 per cent ; fat, 7 per cent ; ash, 12 
per cent. Practically no proteid is lost. 

The conclusions to be drawn from the above are, 
that the chief effects of cooking on meat are 
changes produced in appearance, texture and flavor, 
with but little effect on the nutritive value. 

Comparative digestibility of meat products. 

It is commonly thought that different meats 
show a considerable difference in the relative ease 
with which they are digested, and that the method 
of cooking meat is an important factor in its 
digestibility. Some experiments reported by H. S. 
Grindley (United States Department of Agriculture, 
Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin No. 193) 
seem to indicate that these differences are not 
strikingly great. 

Place of meat in the dietary. 

Something may be said of the place of meat in 
the dietary. Meat has a high food value, and it 
seems to be digested and absorbed with compara- 
tive ease and rapidity ; but, in spite of this, there 
is a growing tendency toward the belief that meat 
furnishes too large a percentage of the protein in 
the dietary of many persons. There is much con- 
troversy with regard to the amount of meat that 
should be eaten, and how much of it should be 
replaced by a freer use of milk, eggs, and other 
foods. The protein of milk and eggs is said to be 
more easily and completely made into the tissue of 
the growing child than that of meat. Some of the 
best known authorities who advocate the free use 
of meat in the dietary of the adult, think that it 
should have little or no place in the diet of the 
child before the sixth year. Its stimulating quality 
is given as one reason for its elimination from the 
dietary of the child. 

Literature. 

Elizabeth C. Sprague and H. S. Grindley, A Pre- 
cise Method of Roasting Beef, The University 
Studies, University Press, Urbana, 111.; Harry Sands 
Grindley and Timothy Mojonnier, Artificial Method 



TANNING HIDES 



271 



for Determining the Ease and Rapidity of the 
Digestion of Meats, The University Studies, Uni- 
versity of Illinois, University Press, Urbana, Illinois; 
Sir Henry Thompson, Food and Feeding, Frederick 
Warner & Co., New York ; Hutchison, Food and 
Dietetics, Wm. Wood & Co; Freedenwald and Ruhrah 
Diet in Health and Disease, W. B. Saunders & Co.; 
Charles D. Woods, Meats : Composition and Cook- 
ing, United States Department of Agriculture, 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 34 ; H. S. Grindley and Tim- 
othy Mojonnier, Experiments on Losses in Cooking 
Meats, Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin No. 
141 ; W. 0. Atwater, Principles of Nutrition and 
Nutritive Value of Food, Farmers' Bulletin No. 
142 ; W. 0. Atwater and A. P. Bryant, The Chemi- 
cal Composition of American Food Materials, Office 
of Experiment Stations, Bulletin No. 28 ; H. S. 
Grindley and A. D. Emmett, Studies on the Influ- 
ence of Cooking on the Nutritive Value of Meats 
at the University of Illinois, Office of Experiment 
Stations, Bulletin No. 162 ; Edward Atkinson, The 
Science of Nutrition ; Damrell and Upham, The 
Art of Cooking in the Aladdin Oven. 



TANNING HIDES 

By John F. Porter 

It is the purpose of this article to set forth briefly 
the practical aspects of the tanning of hides. A 
full discussion of tanning materials is found in 
Volume II, pages 623-629. 

The first thing in the process of tanning is to 
see that the hides are properly salted. All hides 
should be salted as soon as they are cooled after 
they are taken from the animal. [See page 252.] 

The beam-house work. 

When the hides reach the tannery, they are put 
into the "soak;" that is, they are put into vats of 
water to soak out the blood and salt. They are left 
in these "soaks" for about twenty-four hours, when 
they are taken out, the head, feet and tail cut off, 
and are split up the middle of the back, making 
"sides" of them. The "sides" are run through a 
machine called the fleshing machine, which removes 
all the fat and flesh that may be left on. They are 
then put into the "limes," that is, into vats contain- 
ing lime-water, which swells them and loosens the 
hair. They are left in these lime-vats about seven 
days, or until the hair slips easily. Then they are 
taken out and the hair scraped off, either by a 
machine or by hand. 

After the hair is taken off, the "sides" are placed 
in another vat, which contains a paddle-wheel like 
the wheel of a steam-boat ; this is called the "bait" 
wheel, and the solution in the vat is called the 
"bait." There are various kinds of bait, but the 
most common is made of chicken manure, which is 
boiled, and the liquid put in the vat. This bait kills 
all the lime in the hides and makes them soft. 

The tan-yard work. 

The sides are taken from the bait-wheel and are 
washed. Then they are put into the vats with the 



tanning liquor, which is rather weak. They are 
handled every day to keep them an even color and 
to tan them more evenly. Each day they are put 
into a stronger liquor until tanned. 

The tanning liquor may be of several different tan- 
ning materials ; hemlock and oak barks are the most 
common sources. Then there is the chrome pro- 
cess, composed of chemicals and acids. It tans in 
twenty-four hours. Furs are generally tanned in 
the pickling tan of salt and alum. There is also 
the oil tan, which is used for all skins such as 
buckskins. 

After the sides are tanned through, they are 
put in a press and most of the liquor is pressed out 
of them. From the press, they are run through a 
splitting -machine to split them down to the 
required thickness. Most of the shoe-leather is 
split to six ounces, which is the accepted thickness 
for this purpose. The splits that are taken off are 
finished and put into shoes. 

From the splitting-machines, the sides are again 
milled in the tanning liquor, so that if there are 
any " green " spots they may be tanned. After 
they are milled, they are hung up to dry. When 
thoroughly dry, they are taken down and dampened 
in water, just enough so that the water will show 
when the side is doubled and squeezed. 

The leather is now ready for the grease. The 
water is put into the leather so that it can take 
only a limited quantity of grease. This process is 
called "stuffing." In stuffing, there are different 
kinds of grease to be used, depending on the kind 
of leather that is wanted. Soft leather requires 
tallow and dagras ; hard leather should be stuffed 
with wax and hard grease. 

After the sides are " stuffed " they are put on 
a table and all the "stretch" is taken out ; that is, 
they are stretched and smoothed out by tools for 
that purpose. Then they are hung up to dry. 
When dry, they are taken down and finished in 
various ways according to the purpose for which 
they are intended. 

If russet leather is wanted, the sides are staked 
out on a machine called the staking machine, and 
are then placed on a table and grained by hand. 
If pebbled black grain is desired, the sides are 
blackened with logwood vinegar and old iron. They 
are then oiled. If pebbled grain is wanted, they are 
run through a pebbling machine to give the desired 
print. If smooth grain is desired, they are staked 
out and finished with a dressing of nigersene, glue 
and soap to give a glossy polish. 

Harness- and sole-leathers are not split, but are 
left as heavy as the hides. Sole-leather is rolled 
and dried. Harness-leather is stuffed by hand with 
tallow, and is set out and dried, after which it is 
blackened and polished. 

There is nothing that goes to waste in a tannery. 
All the pieces of the hides that are trimmed off 
are made into glue. The tails are dried and sold to 
mattress factories to be made into mattresses. 
The hair is washed and dried and sold for plaster- 
ing purposes. All such apparently waste parts as 
fleshings and manure are saved and made into 
fertilizing material. 



272 



THE LEATHER AND HIDE INDUSTRY 



THE LEATHER AMD HIDE INDUSTRY 

The leather and hide industry has reached enor- 
mous proportions. Beginning with the uses of hides 
for clothing among primitive peoples, the demand 
has gradually increased until the capital invested 
in the commercial industry is in the hundreds of 
millions of dollars. During this period, new classes 
of animals have attracted attention for their pelts, 
new methods have been devised for preserving and 
tanning hides, and very great numbers of tanning 
materials have been discovered. [See Vol. II, pp. 
623-629.] A writer in the New International 
Encyclopedia (Vol. XI, p. 87) speaks as follows 
regarding the early development of the tanning 
industry : " Probably the original process of curing 
skins was that of simply cleaning and drying. 
Then the use of smoke, sour milk, various oils, and 
the brains of animals themselves were found to 
improve the texture of the leather. Later it was 
discovered that certain astringent barks and vege- 
tables effected permanent changes in the texture 
of skins, and stopped decay. This knowledge was 
possessed by the ancient Egyptians, for engravings 
on their tombs depict the process of tanning. In 
China, specimens of leather have been discovered 
in company with other relics that prove them to 
be over three thousand years old. The Romans used 
leather which they tanned with oil, alum and bark." 

The tanning, tawing, currying and finishing pro- 
cesses of the present day are the slow growth of 
centuries, and the production of leathers of the 
modern quality and variety is the culmination of 
years of study by practical tanners and by 
chemists. 

Bulletin No. 72, Census of Manufactures, 1905, 
on " Boots and Shoes, Leather, and Leather Gloves 
and Mittens," issued by the Department of Com- 
merce and Labor, of the Bureau of the Census 
(1907), is a very valuable contribution on this sub- 
ject. The notes and tables that follow have been 
gleaned from that report. In regard to the classi- 
fication of hides, and the influences that affect 
their quality, this bulletin speaks as follows : 

" The skins of larger animals, such as oxen, 
cows, horses, etc., are called hides to distinguish 
them from the skins of smaller animals, such as 
calves, goats, sheep, deer, hogs, seals, etc. Kip is 
the term applied to the skins of small beef or 
cattle. The quality and substance of the skin are 
affected by age, skins from younger animals being 
the finest in grain and taking dye better ; by sex, 
leather made from the female being finer in tex- 
ture than that made from the male ; by breed, as 
the higher the breed the less thick the skin ; by 
the care given the animal, animals raised in the 
open air having a coarser skin than those raised 
indoors ; by state of health and food eaten ; by 
the gadflies, known as wormils, warbles, or grubs, 
which deposit their eggs on or in the skin, produc- 
ing sores ; by contact with barbed wire, which 
scratches the skin ; by ticks and scabs, which 
infect sheepskins; and by the mode of preventing 
putrefaction of the skin after the animal has been 
slaughtered." ' 



Extent of the industry. 

For the year ended December 31, 1904 : 

Number of establishments 1,049 

Capital $242,584.2:.l 

Salaried officials, clerks, etc., number . . 3,251 

Salaries $4,451,906 

Wage-earners, average number .... 57,239 

Total wages $27,049,152 

Miscellaneous expenses $12,498,501 

Cost of materials used $191,179,073 

Value of products, including cus- 
tom work $252,620,986 

Distribution of the capital invested : 

Land $9,842,911 

Buildings 35,684,642 

Machinery, tools and implements . 32,889,457 
Cash and sundries 164,167,244 

Materials used in 1905 : 

Number of Quantity 

Establishments Number Cost 

Hides, all kinds . . 669 17,581,613 $89,126,593 

Calf and kip skins . 192 12,481,221 15,725,616 

Coltskins 19 1,336,848 2,007,160 

Sheepskins . . . . 204 27,492,359 10,547,883 

Goatskins 119 47,665,603 26,756,012 

All other skins . . 64 1,649,033 1,304,661 

The rank of the first five states in capital 
invested in the leather industry in 1905, was : 

Pennsylvania $72,972,114 

Wisconsin 30,409,164 

Massachusetts 27,070,206 

New York 24,037,904 

New Jersey 12,492,373 

The rank of the first five states in value of 
products for the same year, was : 

Pennsylvania $69,427,852 

Massachusetts 33,352,999 

Wisconsin 25,845,123 

New York 21,642,945 

New Jersey 21,495,329 

The following table gives the value of leather 
products, according to geographical divisions, in 
1905: 

North Atlantic division .... $151,629,879 

South Atlantic division 29,108,634 

North Central 1 division 54,768,282 

South 2 Central division 8,441,776 

Western 3 division 8,614,991 

'Exclusive of Iowa, North Dakota and South Dakota. 
2 Exclusive of La. and Miss. 3 Exclusive of Colo, and Utah. 

Value of the exports of the principal kinds of 
leather for the year ended June 30, 1905 : 

Total $28,058,342 

Sole 9,444,873 

Kid (glazed) 1,576,204 

Patent or enameled 166,320 

Splits, buff, grain and all other upper 15,057,791 
All other leather 1,813,154 

The value of imports of the principal kinds of 
leather for the year ended June, 1905, follows : 

Total $5,612,642 

Band or belting and sole leather . . 92,079 

Calfskins 605,960 

Skins for morocco 2,446,481 

Upper leather, dressed, and skins, 
dressed and finished, not else- 
where specified 2,468,122 



PART III 

NORTH AMERICAN FARM ANIMALS 



Having taken a rapid view of many of the primary considerations involved in the rearing and 
utilizing of good animals, we now proceed to a definite discussion of the different kinds. The species of 
domestic animals are few, as compared with domestic plants, and an alphabetic arrangement is not so 
necessary; yet, if any arrangement is attempted, this is as good as any. In this volume, as in the other 
three, however, the reader must rely largely on the index for ready reference, for it is impossible to 
give a general encyclopedia of agriculture an alphabetic order. It is the aim of this volume to give the 
reader a comprehensive knowledge of the animals that are commonly included in the term live-stock ; 
yet the book would not be at all complete if it did not also discuss the other animals that are or may be 
profitably reared to supply food and clothing, as bees, fish, oysters, and fur-bearing animals. It has 
seemed best to include brief sketches of dogs and 
cats in the way that they are conceived to be 
farm animals, although a detailed discussion of 
pets or of mere fancy animals is not in place in 
a work of this kind. 

Zootechny. 

The knowledge, practice and industries con- 
cerned in the rearing of animals have recently been 
designated by the word zootechny (Greek words 
for animal and handicraft). The correlative term 
for the crop industries is agronomy, although in 
the agricultural colleges this word has come, inap- 
propriately, to be used for only those crops that 
are at present not comprehended in the word hor- 
ticulture. A technical correlative is phytotechny ; 
but probably neither zootechnyn or phytotechny will 
ever become really common-language words. 

The two great phases of live-stock agriculture 
are the rearing of the animals and the manufac- 
ture of their products. There are husbandries and technological industries. In the agricultural col- 
leges, these phases are beginning to be separated into different chairs or departments, but there is not 
yet any clear terminology to distinguish them. The rearing of live-stock, of all kinds, is properly animal 
husbandry ; divisions of it are : poultry husbandry, sheep husbandry, swine husbandry, beef husbandry. 
The technology is a manufacture or industry, as dairy industry, meat industry. This Volume III is 
practically a brief treatise on animal husbandry and technology. 

Animal husbandry advice. 

The Editor has endeavored to emphasize the agricultural utility of the animals, rather than to make 
a book of mere formal aud historical description of breeds. This is difficult to accomplish as yet, for the 
literature of live-stock is mostly conceived on another basis, and the real farm efficiency of the animal 
has received relatively little attention. It has been the tendency for live-stock writers to be advocates, 
and to uphold the particular breed. We are now coming to a non-partisan treatment of animals, as 
a result of scientific and therefore impartial study, by the college men, of the really vital questions 

C 18 (273) 




Fig. 305. The head of the flock. 



274 NEEDS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 

involved in the animal husbandries. In the next fifty years the literature of the subject will no doubt be 
entirely re-written on a new basis. 

Literature. 

The special literature on the different animals and breeds is mentioned in connection with the various 
articles. Of course the reader will consult the herdbooks of the different breeds if he is seeking pedi- 
gree and history. He must also keep in touch with the literature of the experiment stations, the agri- 
cultural press and the national Department of Agriculture. There are few American books covering 
the general live-stock field, aside from diseases, breeding and feeding, as Plumb, "Typis and Breeds of 
Farm Animals;" G. W. Curtis, "Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Swine;" J. A. Craig, "Judging Live-Stock;" 
Shaw, " The Study of Breeds ;" Sanders, " Breeds of Live-Stock." 



NEEDS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 

By JAMES WILSON 

The domestic animals of our country present one of the most interesting assets of our national pros- 
perity. Animals change greatly from generation to generation, the change being coincident with the 
general modification and progress of civilization, and with the necessities of the people at any given 
time. It is well to recall how crude the beginnings were, and yet to realize how much we need to 
improve our present animals. 

The early importations of Spanish horses and cattle were well enough suited to conditions at that 
time, but they would be of little value in our day. Hardiness in a horse and powers of endurance in a 
cow in times of stress were required when feed was scarce and uncertain, and shelter primitive ; while 
responses in service from the horse, and yield in meat, work, or dairy products from the cow and her kind 
for every dollar invested and for every pound fed, are the imperative requirements of our modern times. 
The saddle, light vehicle, pad or yoke were useful in colonial days, when surplus farm crops were 
exchanged in Europe for the products of the shop and factory. But, after manufacturing had made 
progress in the United States, and a class of people multiplied that grew no crops and bought its food, 
new demands came to the American farmer that could not be profitably supplied from the early 
importations. 

" It was learned that nature, by means of pastures, restored fertility to a soil that had been long 
under cultivated crops, that harmful insects disappeared when the land was grazed, that droughts had 
less effect on crops following the pasture, and that heavy yields of all crops came from the plowed-up 
sward ; and consequently rotation developed. How nature and the pasture agreed about these, authorities 
differed in those days, and they differ yet ; practical farmers saw the results then, and they see them 
now, and they rotate their crops, whether understanding all the reasons or not. 

But a new difficulty presented itself : the saddle horse or light draft horse might plow up a stubble 
field, but he was not heavy enough or strong enough to plow up an old pasture. A heavier, slower, 
quieter horse was wanted. The British Isles and the continent of Europe were called on, and the heavy 
draft breeds were imported to meet the emergency. As more pastures are to be plowed up with-the 
development of the country, importations continue. Heavy draying in our cities requires heavy horses ; 
work in the forests demands weight in the collar ; and higher-priced labor on the farm is, to a consider- 
able extent, met by heavier horses and modern farm machinery. 

We import the Shire horse and the Clydesdale, the French draft horse and the Belgian, with grades 
and crosses of these breeds that more or less impress themselves on what may be called our native 
horses. We import these breeds to all the states, to all our conditions of soil, climate and pasture. We 
have not had time to develop horses suitable to all localities, nor, in fact, to any special locality. The 
various problems embraced in horse-breeding are under consideration by the federal government, by 
some of the states, and by many individuals, and no doubt the future will do something toward producing 
special breeds for the several uses to which horses are adapted. The federal government is at work in 
Colorado, in cooperation with the experiment station of that state, for the purpose of establishing a 
heavy carriage horse by selection from the American trotting horse ; and it is at work in Vermont, in 
cooperation with the experiment station of that state, for the purpose of reestablishing the Morgan 
horse. The trotting horse is an American production, and one of the few successes we have had in breed- 



NEEDS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 275 

ing for a purpose. Our mountain states are peculiarly adapted to the development of horses with good 
bone, lung development and high courage. Horse-breeders of the states of high altitude have not been 
careful with regard to early development through good feeding for size sufficient for many desirable 
uses, such as the army horse, the saddle horse, the heavy carriage and hunting horse. It is hoped that 
the Colorado experiment will contribute to our knowledge of breeding and feeding for these purposes. 
The Vermont Morgan horse was a common-purpose animal, well adapted to most uses that did not require 
heavy weight. The New England farmer used oxen for heavy draft work, and found the Morgan horse 
excellent for light farm work, road work, saddle work, the stage and the hack. He has been crossed 
with our best strains of track horses, and impressed his strong individuality on all of them. The best 
Morgan blood is being assembled at the Vermont station with hopes of good results. 

Horses are grown more economically on the farm in connection with farm operations than elsewhere. 
Three brood-mares will do as much work as two geldings. Colts of the draft breeds earn part of the cost 
of raising while being taught to work. From one to three years of age, a good pasture does most of the 
feeding, summer and winter, when snow does not cover the grass deeply, and healthier animals are grown 
out-of-doors than in stables. The grass should be abundant or be supplemented by grain. 

Dairy products were early in request, and the dairy breeds of the British Isles and the continent of 
Europe were imported. They required better pastures, and cultivated grasses were sought in many lands 
suitable to varying conditions of soil and climate, and the necessity is still with us to search the world 
for desirable grasses and legumes. New demands are constantly arising in the dairy sections of the 
great North American continent. The beef industry must readapt itself, with the great change in our 
agricultural and economic conditions. Yet, with the exception of the relatively unimportant French- 
Canadian cattle, we have not yet developed any American breed of dairy or beef cattle. 

Spain gave us the most valuable fine-wool sheep the world could contribute at that time, and they 
have been the foundation of unequaled flocks of that class.peculiarly adapted to the necessities of many 
localities where large flocks are herded together under conditions that are independent of cultivation 
and its accompaniments. When our growing cities called for mutton, the Merino sheep failed to give as 
good satisfaction as it did as a producer of fine wool. Importations were made from Great Britain of her 
mutton sheep that gave the best mutton, with wools desirable for clothing. These breeds are not suit- 
able for herding in large flocks, but are profitable on our high-priced farm lands, and are rapidly extend- 
ing over our most densely peopled farming districts. The lambs mature early and are in pressing demand 
at profitable prices. Few domestic animals are more profitable than the mutton sheep, and farmers who 
do not have help to milk cows find them a very desirable department of the farm. The dairy cow, where 
dairying is understood and where help can be had to milk her, is perhaps the most profitable farm 
animal ; but dairying is not well understood everywhere and help cannot always be had to milk twice a 
day seven days in the week ; the sheep requires as high intelligence to manage as the cow, but there is 
less labor and shorter days required to do it. Dogs are the traditional enemy of the sheep, but the woven 
wire fence is ample protection ; and altogether we look to see the sheep get more attention in the future. 

The farmer reached the Mississippi valley before the railways ; he grew corn before there was an 
outlet to market, for it ; he bred hogs to turn corn into meat and lard. There are several breeds that 
answer this purpose. It was supposed that the advent of coal-oil would injure the hog industry, but the 
demand for hogs has continued to grow, and prices to be profitable. The western farmer learned to use 
the clover pasture to the fullest extent in growing this animal. We cannot improve our hogs by impor- 
tation. Our hogs are the product of corn and clover. They are distinctly an American production, even 
when keeping foreign-breed names, and very different from any European hog where corn is not as 
abundant as it is with us. We have produced one recognized American breed, the Poland-China. 

Our poultry yields half a billion dollars a year, not because of any special skill in breeding or feed- 
ing, but because we have the world's cheapest grains and grasses. There is scientific cooperation at 
present between the federal government and the Maine Experiment Station in the hope of developing 
a strain of hens that will lay 200 eggs a year, with good hope of success ; and other stations and indivi- 
duals are working toward similar ends. 

In our crops, we have long ago developed good native varieties, many of them well adapted to our 
varied localities and conditions. We are only emerging from the importing stage with our animals, 
however. We need distinctly American and local or special types of farm animals. The conditions and 
needs will always be changing, and the live-stock will have to change also in its characteristics as time 
goes on. It is therefore not only a question of producing types of animals for present demands, but to 
see to it that future demands are met. 



276 



ASS 



ASS 



ASS. Equus spp. Equidce. Figs. 306, 307. 

By C. S. Plumb. 

The ass is a beast of burden. The males or jacks 
are used much also in the production of mules. (See 
Mule.) The ass belongs to the genus Equus, which 
includes the horse and allied forms. 

Description. 

The ass differs from the horse chiefly as follows: 
The ears are large and long ; the mane is short 
and does not fall to one side ; the tail is nearly 
devoid of long hair, excepting at the extremity ; 
the hoofs are small ; chestnuts are lacking on the 
hind-legs ; the period of gestation is about twelve 
months, instead of eleven, as with the horse. White 
markings, such as a star in the forehead or white 
feet, are very rare. 

History. 

The ass was used as a beast of burden for many 
centuries prior to the Christian era. Figures of the 
ass are found in the early Egyptian sculptures, and 
the animal is frequently referred to in the books of 
the Bible. Undoubtedly the wild form easily passed 
into a state of domestication. 

In America. — The history of the ass in America 
dates back into colonial times. About 1787, two 
jacks, known as Royal Gift and Knight of Malta, 
were presented to George Washington and placed 
on his estate at Mt. Vernon. The former, with a 
jennet, was from the King of Spain, while the 
Knight of Malta was from Marquis de LaFayette, 
and came from France. These jacks were used in 
mule-breeding on Washington's estate and on Vir- 
ginia mares, and those sired by the French jack 
were very valuable. The development of the mule 
industry in Kentucky began about 1800, and many 
valuable breeding jacks have since then been im- 
ported from Spain, Henry Clay being one of the 
earliest importers. Tennessee, a noted mule-pro- 
ducing state, received its first importation of jacks 
about 1840. At the present time, Missouri, Ken- 
tucky, and Tennessee are leading states engaged in 
the mule trade, and there important studs of the 
ass are to be found. Breeders in these states are 
making frequent importations from Spain and much 
attention is being directed to the industry. 

In 1900, there were in the United States 94,165 
asses on farms and 15,847 not on farms. There 
were on farms in Hawaii 1,438, and in Porto Rico 
(1899) 1,085. (Yearbook, United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, 1906.) 

Breeds and distribution. 

The wild ass, of two or more species or varie- 
ties, is found at present in various parts of Africa 
and Asia. 

The wild African ass (Equus asinus, Linn.) is 
found in northern Africa between the Nile and 
the Red sea, and in Nubia and Abyssinia. For 
various reasons it has been assumed that the 
domestic ass is descended from the African. The 
color and markings are very like those of the com- 
mon ass. The ears are large and similar to those 



of the domestic form. The common cry of this spe- 
cies is a bray, very like that of the domesticated 
one. Darwin also notes that the African ass much 
dislikes to wade a stream of water, a notable trait 
of the common ass. 

The wild Asiatic ass (Equus hermionus, Pallas ) 
is found most commonly over a wide territory in 
Asia, but especially on the great plains in Afghan- 
istan, Tibet, the Punjab and Persia. While existing 
usually in small herds, travelers occasionally 
report seeing them in large numbers. This species 
has large ears, and the color usually ranges from 
reddish gray to a fawn or light chestnut. A dark- 
brown stripe, of variable width, sometimes with a 




Fig. 306. Wild ass (Equus asinus) 

white margin, extends from the withers to the tail. 
The belly is of a whitish color. The height varies 
from three feet eight inches to four feet. 

There are two sub-species or varieties of the 
Asiatic ass. These are the Onager, found in British 
India, in the Punjab ; and the Kiang, native to 
Tibet. The Onager has been credited with great 
speed and wildness, though this has apparently been 
exaggerated. The Kiang is native to the high up- 
lands of Tibet, existing at 16,000 or more feet 
elevation, where the winters are very severe. 

The domestic ass is commonly known as the 
donkey, although the word donkey is often re- 
stricted to the small ass or burro. The males are 
termed jacks or jackasses, and the females are 
known as jennets. There are a number of breeds, 
and specimens of them range in size from the dimin- 
utive burro, often thirty-six inches high, to the 
size of a horse of considerable height and weight. 
Besides the characteristics already referred to, the 
common ass has a thick, long coat of hair, especi- 
ally in the cooler months. The character of the hair 
is very marked with some breeds. The standard 
color in America is black or dark brown, with a 
light creamy or mealy shade about the muzzle and 
along the belly. Gray is occasionally seen, but does 
not meet with favor, and is not approved by the 
American Breeders' Association of Jacks and Jen- 
nets, the standard organization for promoting this 
stock in the United States. 



ASS 



ASS 



277 



The body of the ass is short, the belly rather 
round, the quarters lack thickness compared with 
the draft horse, and the legs are strong and im- 
press one as heavy of bone. The power of endur- 
ance is a noted characteristic of this animal, while 
in temperament this is one of the most submissive 
of beasts. While responsive to good care and feed, 
no animals of the horse family subsist and main- 
tain strength on such inferior food. 

Scattered over the different parts of the world, 
subject to differences of environment, food, temper- 
ature, moisture, and the like, different breeds or 
varieties of the ass, in the course of time, have 
gradually taken on specific characteristics. Among 
the important breeds, especially in application to 
America and Europe, are the following : 

(1) The Catalonian is a Spanish breed, especially 
developed in Catalonia, in the northeastern part of 
Spain, adjacent to France. It is usually black or 
brown, the former prevailing, and is marked with 
light points about the muzzle, eyes, and belly. 
The hair is naturally thick and short. Good speci- 
mens stand fourteen and one-half to fifteen hands 
high, and occasionally sixteen. In comparison with 
other specimens of the ass, the Catalonian is an 
aristocrat, with beauty, style, and action. The 
head is trim and neat, and the ears well carried. 
The bone, while not especially large, is very hard 
and fine of texture and free from fleshiness. It is a 
very tough, hardy breed, and has found more favor 
in America, in mule-producing districts, such as 
Missouri, Tennessee, and Kentucky, than any other 
breed. Mules sired by these jacks have much size 
and quality, and have been ranked as the best in 
the world. A large percentage of the jacks imported 
to America come from Catalonia. Matured males 
of this-breed stand about fifteen hands high. 

(2) The Andalusian is native to Andalusia, in 
southern Spain. It is regarded as a very old breed. 
The prevailing color is gray, with black somewhat 
uncommon. The color is objectionable in America, 
and the breed has not found much favor here, 
although a great favorite in southern Spain. This 
is one of the larger breeds, and stands fourteen and 
one-half to fifteen and one-half hands high. The 
bone of the leg is large and of superior quality. 

(3) The Majorca ass is native to Majorca, one of 
the Balearic islands, in the Mediterranean sea, off 
the coast of Spain. This breed is of the larger 
type, drafty in character, standing about fifteen 
and one-half hands high, or a trifle more. The head 
and ears are rated as rather large and heavy, and 
the Majorca has hardly the style and action of 
the Catalonian. It is usually black or brown. In 
recent years it is meeting with some favor in 
the United States, although it has not been exten- 
sively tried here. In Spain the breed has long been 
bred with much purity on its native isle, and large 
numbers are used in the government artillery ser- 
vice of Spain and other countries. Many jacks of 
this breed have also been exported to South 
America. 

_ (4) The Poitou ass has been produced for centu- 
ries in the province of Poitou, in southern Prance, 
bordering on the bay of Biscay. This is a very 



popular breed in Prance. It is very drafty and 
strong of character, although far from beautiful. 
The head is rather large, the ears long, the chest 
broad, the body deep and heavy, the quarters spare 
yet muscular, the legs short but very powerful, 
with large bones and feet. The height varies from 
thirteen and one-half to fifteen hands. Black with 
white points is the prevailing color, although grays 
occur occasionally, but are ineligible to registry in 
the French Jack Studbook. A striking feature of 
this breed is its extremely thick, long coat of hair. 
This is rarely groomed among French breeders, and 
usually becomes filthy with manure, and thus very 
unsightly. The farmers of Poitou breed a drafty, 
large, powerful class of horses, the mares of which 
are bred to the jacks of the country, from which 
result mules of great size and power, and which 
bring a comparatively high price. Thus far, not 
many jacks of this breed have been brought to 
America, and little is known of their adaptability 
to American conditions. 

(5) The Maltese ass is native to the island of 
Malta, in the Mediterranean sea. This is of the 
smaller type, rarely exceeding fourteen and one- 
half hands high, and is usually black or brown in 
color. The breed is of excellent form, with well- 
carried ears, and is characterised by much life and 




Fig. 307. A prize-winning ass. Antar, Jr., 217. 

vigor. The criticism of too much refinement and 
fineness of bone, and lack of substance, has inter- 
fered with the introduction of this breed to 
America. 

Uses. 

As a beast of burden. — One purpose for which the 
ass has a special value is as a pack-animal and 
beast of burden. Historically, the ass has always 
served as a carrier of burdens in the hilly semi- 
tropical regions of the world. As a pack-animal, a 
small type of the ass, known as the burro, is a 
familiar sight to travelers in southern Europe, in 
Ireland, in coal-mining regions in the eastern part 
of the United States, in northern Africa, Asia, South 
America, and elsewhere. This animal is extremely 
docile, will bear a burden with much endurance and 
stability, and is extremely sure-footed in going over 
mountain passes and slopes difficult for horses, In 



278 



BEES 



BEES 



coal-mining regions, either the burro or a small 
mule is used extensively to haul cars of coal through 
the galleries of the mines to the unloading hoists. 

For mule-breeding. — Superior, well-bred jacks are 
used in stud-service on mare horses to produce mules 
— a type of draft animal very highly valued in the 
warmer sections of civilized countries. Jacks of 
sufficient merit for such breeding service command 
very high prices, and various cases are on record in 
which $1,500 to $5,000 has been paid for them. The 
trend of values seems to be on the increase rather 
than otherwise. 

Organizations and records. 

The American Breeders' Association of Jacks 
and Jennets is the official organization interested 
in the development of the ass. It was organized as 
a stock-company in 1888, at Springfield, 111. Six 
volumes of studbooks have been issued to 1907. 
The Association headquarters are at Columbia, 
Tenn. Another association for registering jacks 
and jennets exists in France. 

Literature. 

Plumb, Types and Breeds of Farm Animals; Riley, 
The Mule ; Tegetmeier and Sutherland, Horses, 
Asses, Zebras, Mules, and Mule-breeding. 

BEES. Apis mellifica, Linn. Apidce. Figs. 308- 
323. 

By W. K. Morrison. 

It is abundantly evident from the records of the 
remote past that bee-keeping has always been a 
favorite occupation with civilized nations. Egypt, 
Babylon, Assyria, Palestine, Greece, Rome, and 
Carthage all had their bee-keepers, and probably 
bee-culture in Egypt today differs but slightly from 
what existed there four thousand years ago. If 
there is any difference, it is likely for the worse. 
In the days of Aristotle there are said to have ex- 
isted two or three hundred treatises on bees, so 
that then, as now, bee-keeping was a favorite topic 
with authors. More books have appeared on bees 
and bee-culture than have ever been published 
about any domestic animal, not excepting the horse 
or the dog. Aristotle wrote a special treatise on 
bees, but all traces of it have been lost, and we are 
chiefly dependent on Columella for a knowledge of 
ancient apiculture ; and we learn from him that 
the Greeks were skilful and painstaking bee- 
keepers. The fourth book of Vergil's Georgics is 
wholly devoted to bees. It was not until the ap- 
pearance of L. L. Langstroth's hive (1852) that 
we of the West may be said to have surpassed the 
Greeks. In the palmy days of Egypt, when she 
was at her zenith, floating apiaries were a feature 
of her apiculture ; floating apiaries still exist on 
the Nile, lacking a historian to record them, for 
it is admitted by our best bee-keepers that such 
an apiary requires expert skill to manage it, and 
American attempts of the kind have ended in 
failure. 

Like other industries, bee-keeping began to artic- 
ulate in the sixteenth ' century. Various authors 



in English, French and German are entitled to 
credit for their efforts to create a science of bee- 
keeping free from charlatanism ; but it was not 
till the appearance of the work of Jan Swammer- 
dam, a Dutch naturalist, that bee-keeping may be 
said to have found its place among the sciences. 
He illustrated the anatomy of the bee in a masterly 
way, and set at rest a lot of superstitious nut ioi 
about bees and their life-history. Had he continued 
as he began, Swammerdam would surely have antici- 
pated some of the most important discoveries of 
our time by several centuries. An English edition 
of Swammerdam appeared about 1757. 

The next observer of note was Maraldi, an Italian 
astronomer, followed by Reaumur, the distinguished 
French investigator. Reaumur shed a flood of new 
light on the habits of bees at work in the hive; but as 
he neglected to state by what means he had obtained 
his information, readers were slow to believe him. 
Huber, a blind Swiss naturalist, took up the work 
of Reaumur where he left off, and with the aid of 
his faithful, clever wife, and an extraordinarily 
able hired man named Burnens, proved Reaumur's 
work on the habits of the honey-bee to be correct, 
in the main. His work is a masterpiece in experi- 
mentation ; and all entomologists, as well as bee- 
keepers, are generally indebted to him. Henceforth, 
empirical bee-keeping was at a discount. Huber 
invented a leaf-hive to enable him better to conduct 
his researches, so that he was the original inventor 
of movable combs, the basis of practical bee-keep- 
ing in the United States and Europe. But Huberts 
hive was not practical. It was not until the Rev, 
Lorenzo Lorraine Langstroth, of Philadelphia, in- 
vented his movable-frame hive, in 1852, that bee- 
keeping developed into something more than a 
pleasant and profitable fad. 

It is difficult to convey to the lay mind the im- 
portance of the Langstroth invention, but it is 
comparable to the invention of the locomotive in 
land transport. The whole science of bee-keeping has 
been recast, and Langstroth's hive has been adopted 
in some form by the United States, Canada, Mexico, 
West Indies, South America, South Africa, Austra- 
lasia, England, France, Switzerland, Belgium, Rus- 
sia, Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and other less-known 
countries. Germany, Austria, Poland, and other 
central European countries, under the advice of 
Dzierzon, have refused to adopt Langstroth's inven- 
tion; but there can be little doubt as to its ultimate 
conquest of these countries also. Pastor Dzierzon, 
who was born in 1811, three weeks after the birth 
of Langstroth, who died in 1906, at his home in 
Silesia, Prussia, had by virtue of his ability exercised 
immense autocratic influence on European apicul- 
ture, due to his discovery of the law of partheno- 
genesis as applied to bees. Dzierzon had noted that 
when a pure Italian queen was mated with a Her- 
man drone, the females were cross-breeds, while 
the drones were pure Italians ; hence, he asserted 
that the drones had no father. Prof. Von Siebold, 
the brilliant German microscopical anatomist, at 
once saw the importance of Dzierzon's discovery, 
and hastened to his assistance and, with character- 
istic German thoroughness and consummate skill in 



BEES 



BEES 



279 



handling, microscopical materials, he labored until 
the law was firmly established. Of course, a knowl- 
edge of the workings of the law of partheno- 
genesis is necessary to all bee-breeders with any 
pretensions to scientific skill. 

Dr. Von Planta, a Swiss savant, now dead, also 
put us under abiding obligations to the land of 
Huber by his brilliant researches into the chemis- 
try of the bee-hive. In scientific, painstaking style 
he furnished us with an analysis of the flower- 
nectar, honey, honey-dew, royal jelly, chyle food, 
bee-bread, wax, and the like. We, of America, are 
much in want of a clear exposition of Von Planta's 
work in the English language. 

It only remains for us to mention the work of 
A. I. Root in the United States. The friend of Lang- 
stroth, he set about the work of improving our 
hives and other necessary appliances, and with the 
true Yankee sense, succeeded in making American 
apiarian implements the standard of the world ; 
and the present proud position of our apiculture as 
the model for all others, is in no small part due to 
the work of Root, who took up the work of improv- 
ing crude and imperfect apicultural tools until 
America was recognized as the land of bee-keepers, 
bee-ranches, bee-appliances, honey, and wax. 

At the present time, our apiculturists are opti- 
mistic, self-reliant, and as inventive as ever before, 
and the future is full of promise. In Europe, bee- 
keeping is often stated to be an ideal occupation 
for peasants. With us, the highest intelligence is 
required, and our bee-keepers turn out tons of 
honey, whereas they of the old nations produce 
hundredweights. On reliable authority, California 
is stated to have produced for export, in one year, 
five hundred carloads of fine honey, single apia- 
rists producing as much as eighty tons ; and one 
baking concern has bought approximately one thou- 
sand tons in one lot. Apiarists who can produce 
twenty to thirty tons of honey per annum are not 
unusual. Europeans are loath to believe of our suc- 
cess, but both England and France have frankly 
admitted our superiority by adopting our methods. 
The quality of our honey is also higher than Euro- 
pean, in general, due to the far greater mobility of 
our hives, enabling us to keep the honey of each 
flower separate from any other with the greatest 
ease. 

The honey and wax industry of the United States 
has an annual value of between $20,000,000 and 
$30,000,000, and this on a capitalization of about 
$100,000,000. There is much room for improve- 
ment, as far better results could be secured with- 
out increasing the capitalization. On $100,000,000 
of capital we should secure at least $50,000,000 of 
return. In many parts of this country, bees are 
still kept in common boxes and hollow logs, par- 
ticularly in the Southern states, where the condi- 
tions are good for successful bee-keeping. 

Classification of bees. 

Among insects the bee is placed by entomolo- 
gists in the order Hymenoptera, with ants and 
other insects having four membraneous wings. It 
belongs to the family Apidaa, or long-tongued bees ; 



to the genus Apis and the species mellifica. Lin- 
nasus originally named the ordinary hive-bee Apis 
mellifera, meaning honey-gatherer. On having the 
fact pointed out that the bee makes honey from 
flower-nectar, he changed the specific name to 
mellifica, meaning honey -maker. Attempts have 
recently been made to change this latter name in 
accordance with the law of priority in scientific 
names, but the name mellifica is so well -chosen, 
and so firmly-established in bee literature, that it 
would be a sacrilege to change it. 

A careful systematic study of the different specie? 
and subspecies or varieties of the genus Apis found 
in all parts of the world was published in 1906 by 
H. von Bettel-Reepen. The following arrangement 
is adapted from his work (varieties of Apis dorsata 
and .4. Indiea omitted): 

Apis dorsata, India and eastward. 

Apisflorea, India, Ceylon, Java. 

Apis mellifica, the common hive-bee in 
many subspecies and varieties : 

(a) Subspecies mellifica proper, with 

varieties Ligustica, remipes, Car- 
nica, Cypria, Lehzeni. 

(b) Subspecies Indiea, with varieties 

Peroni, Sinensis, Japonica, picea, 
Koschevnikovi. 

(c) Subspecies unicolor, with varieties 

Adansoni, fasciata, intermissa, 
Friesei, Syriaca. 

Two species have not been domesticated, — dvr- 
sata, the giant of the genus, and florea, the dwarf . 
Attempts have been made to reduce dorsata to a 
state of domestication, but its nomadic habits, 
fierce temper, and custom of living out-of-doors 
render the task difficult. To introduce fasciata, 
Adansonii, unicolor and Indiea into the United 
States would seem to be entirely feasible ; and such 
a bee as the Egyptian — beautiful and industrious 
— should find a place in America, very probably in 
Arizona and California. 

We know but little about the bees of China and 
Japan, except that the natives of those countries 
have had them domesticated for centuries. We 
know, also, that the Chinese bees are smaller, 
hence, American hives and apparatus are failures 
with them. The same is true of the Apis Indiea, a 
very useful bee. 

The stingless bees of South America, Melipona 
trigona and M. tetrasoma, have recently occupied 
some attention with apicultural students. Von 
Ihering, of Brazil, and Morrison, of the United 
States, have devoted considerable attention to 
them, with the result that we are able to get a 
fair conception of their value. 

It is evident that in South America we have to 
do with an immense number of bee species, some 
of which are readily domesticated and have been 
kept in apiaries for centuries by the natives. It 
seems probable that the natives, so ruthlessly 
swept away by the Spaniards under Pizarro, were 
good bee-keepers. Captain Basil Hall, in the eight- 
eenth century, mentions stingless-bee apiaries in 
Peru. Koster also mentions them in Brazil. In so 
large a country as the United States a place prob- 



280 



BEES 



BEES 



ably will be found for them. Honey - gathering 
wasps are also common in tropical South America. 
There are a number of sub-species or races of 
bees cultivated in this country at the present time, 
all having their partisans: 

/"Blacks, or German race. 
Italian. 

Albino (a variety of the Ital- 
ian). 
Cyprian. 
„.„ Holy Land, or Syrian. 
Apis melhfica< CaIDiolan _ 

Banat. 

Caucasian. 

Hybrids, cross between Italian 

and German. 
.Punic. 

In general popularity, the Italians easily lead, and 
justly so. The Cyprians and Holy Lands have had 
a fair trial and, all things considered, are not equal 
to the Italians. The Carniolans are favored for 
elevated cool localities in the North. The only 
American breed is the Albino, a beautiful sport 
from American-bred Italians. 

The Italian bee has been so carefully nurtured in 
this country that our bee-keepers now send queens 
of this breed to all parts of the world, in small 
mailing-cages. They have sent them repeatedly to 
Italy to improve the race there. There is some 
danger at the present moment of the production of 
an American mongrel as a result of the indiscrimi- 
nate introduction of new races. We control the 
fertilization of queens so badly that it is with 
great difficulty we can keep our bees pure. Only 
bees of very considerable distinctive qualities 
should be experimented with, or the result is chaos; 
and this stage has already been reached in some 
places. 

The queen. 

Cattle-breeders say the bull is half the flock ; 
with equal truth bee-keepers can affirm that the 
queen is 75 per cent of a nest of bees, for the law 
of parthenogenesis operates to give greater impor- 
tance to the queen. The least imperfection in a 
queen is fatal, and some bee-keepers fail at this 
very point. It is frequently noted that a colony of 
bees will give a handsome return, while a colony 
at its side under precisely similar condition will 
give no return at all. This is simply due to the 
difference in the queens ; hence, successful bee- 
keeping depends largely on paying the greatest 
possible attention to the queens of the apiary. 

The queen is the only fully developed female in 
a hive of bees ; that is to say, she has not had to 
submit to a process of weaning on the fifth day of 
her existence (from the laying of the egg) as is 
the case with workers. On the contrary, she is fed 
in the most liberal manner on royal jelly, a pre- 
digested food made by the nurse-bees for the occa- 
sion. The workers, on the other hand, never seem 
to get enough food — chyle-food, a sort of bee milk 
— and before being closed up to undergo their 
transformations, are fed a meal of an inferior food. 
The net result is a deficient development of the 



ovaries, although, by rare exception, worker-bees 
may appear which have the power of laying eggs, 
but these workers, being unfertilized, produce only 
drones. 

The queen, on the other hand, has her sexual 
organs fully developed, and it is the opinion of 
Leuckart, a German authority, that a good queen 
has within her 25,000,000 spermatozoa from the 
male, and during her lifetime will lay 1,500,000 
to 2,500,000 eggs. In about a week after emer- 
gence fertilization takes place, far from the hive, 
and high in the air, so that the act of copulation 
is seldom seen — high up to be clear of enemies, 
and far away to give unrelated drones a chance to 
find her, and thereby to prevent inbreeding. 

The stages of a queen may be expressed thus : 

(1) The egg hatches in three days. 

(2) Fed for two days on chyle-food as 

workers are. 

(3) Fed for three days on royal jelly. 

(4) Her cell closed up by the bees. 

(5) Emerges in seven days (fifteen days in 

all), a perfect bee. 

(6) Mated in seven days (sometimes only 

five, and sometimes nine or ten 
days) on an average. The queen 
mates only once. 

(7) Begins to lay in about two days usu- 

ally. 
During their lifetime the queens and drones are 
fed a chyle-food by the nurse bees. It will be 
apparent that the queen requires this, since she 
will frequently lay 3000 eggs per day, and possibly 
on rare occasions 5000. In other words, she is a 
laying machine, and has no time for digesting 
regular bee-food, hence the nurses save her the 
labor. In the fall of the year in this country, the 
drones are killed by the nurses withholding the 
necessary chyle-food. 

Parthenogenesis. 

If a young queen is debarred in some manner 
from mating with a drone, she is not always barren, 
as would be supposed, but some such queens lay 
drone eggs in profusion, and these hatch into per- 
fect drones. It has been observed, also, that drone 
eggs laid by a fertile queen have never been 
impregnated, as female eggs always are. Hence it 
is true that drones require no father, and always 
resemble their mothers. It is important here to 
credit the skilful manner by which Dzierzon, Von 
Siebold, Leuckart, Schonfeld, and others proved 
this wonderful fact of parthenogenesis. Our bee- 
keepers owe the Germans a debt of gratitude for 
the work they have done in this connection. 

Drones. 

Despite all that has been said by many authors, 
the queen is by no means the' most perfect in the 
equipment of the bees of a hive. "The lazy, yawn- 
ing drone " has more eyes, better wings, and proba- 
bly better faculties all round, the better to over- 
take and conquer the queen. Good bee-keepers pay 
great attention to the quality of the dror.es in 
their apiaries. 



BEES 



BEES 



281 



The workers. 

As has been already noted, the workers are 
" weaned " or imperfectly developed females — ama- 
zons, Dr. Warder termed them in the eighteenth 
century. Weaning has nearly the same effect that 
gelding has on a horse. It also retards development, 
so that the worker requires twenty-one days for 
development from the laying of the egg, whereas 
the queen needs only fifteen days. 

The first duty of a bee is to nurse the larvae in 
the cells, cap the cells with wax, and secrete wax 
ready for comb-building, although this can be done 
by older bees when required. In ten to fourteen 
days they proceed out-of-doors to collect honey and 
pollen in the fields. The young bees are also, as 
Shakespeare denoted, "singing masons, building 
roofs of gold," — i. e., comb-builders. 

Swarming. 

No satisfactory reason has ever been given for 
this peculiar phenomenon. Maeterlinck says that 
it is the "spirit of the hive" which orders it, and 
this expresses it as well as anything. Our modern 
bee-keepers dislike this instinct, as it frequently 
upsets all their nicely laid plans; and it is no exag- 
geration to say the yield of honey from a modern 
apiary could be doubled, and even trebled, if swarm- 
ing could be checked without injury to the stock 
of bees. The best we can do is to minimize its 
effect and gently guide the force we can not con- 
trol completely. 

In normal swarming, the colony of bees affected 
reaches a stage when there is an abundance of 
food on hand, numerous young bees in process of 
growth, and all signs of a vigorous prosperity evi- 
dent on every hand ; then, with a wild, pent-up 
energy, the queen, accompanied by the best part of 
the bees, fully laden with honey in their sacs, rushes 
forth, and, after some maneuvering in the atmos- 
phere, they settle on some branch or bush near by, 
at the same time sending out scouts to find a suita- 
ble home in a hollow tree or other receptacle. Then 
the bee-keeper gives them a hive to live in by 
simply shaking them into it, or by shaking them 



Honey. 

It is supposed by the general public that honey is 
gathered by the bees directly from the nectaries of 
flowers. On the contrary, honey is a prepared food 





\ € i^ n- >^H 



Fig. 308. An English apiary; and the old-fashioned straw beehive. 

down in front of an enlarged entrance-hole. They 
seem glad to find a home, particularly if it is clean. 
Generally speaking, swarms can be handled with 
impunity without veils, gloves, or smoke, as the 
bees are in great good humor, unless allowed to 
hang too long, when hunger sets in. 



Fig. 309. Straw hives in a French apiary. 

digested by the bees in anticipation of its being 
used as a food by themselves or young. The nectar 
of the flowers, as has been proved by Dr. Von Planta, 
is almost identical with the juice of the sugar-cane 
plant, and is, therefore, a right-handed sugar ; 
whereas, on the contrary, honey is a left-handed 
sugar and belongs with the grape-sugar class. 

It is difficult to explain to a layman what pro- 
cesses the honey undergoes from tho time it leaves 
the flower in the form of nectar. Usually the nec- 
tar is reduced to a thr ' or a fourth of its original 
bulk, and has been "inverted." It also acquires 
formic acid from the bees, and probably some other 
ingredients, such as phc iphoric acid. Nectar runs 
as freely as water, whereas honey is very thick, 
and at a comparatively low temperature turns into 
a granulated condition — granulates, in fact, at a 
temperature as high as 65° Fahr. Honey is often 
sold in Europe in a solid state, and some progress 
has been made in familiarizing the American mar- 
ket with granulated honey. 

Wax secretion. 

For a long time the production of wax was in- 
volved in mystery; not until John Hunter, thd Eng- 
lish anatomist, pointed 
out that wax is a secre- 
tion from certain glands 
in the abdomen of the 
worker bees, was the mat- 
ter fairly settled. Huber 
proved that bees could 
make a liberal amount of 
wax if fed exclusively on 
sugar, showing conclu- 
sively that it is a manu- 
facture. A high, steady 
temperature is necessary 
for wax secretion, so that 
our northern bee-keepers are rather consumers than 
producers of wax. In warm countries wax produc- 
tion is a profitable part of apiculture, and the bees 
produce it involuntarily, even when no combs are 
being built. To produce wax in large amount, the 
bees hang themselves in festoons motionless for 



282 



BEES 



BEES 



days, foung bees do this work, although old bees 
can be used in a strait. 

Hives. (Figs. 308-320). 

The question of what is the best hive is always 
an interesting topic in apicultural discussions, but 
this is not the place to enter into a consideration 
of tlw relative merits of the various hives now in 
use in the United 
States. All our 
modern hives,how- 
ever, are based on 
the hive invented 
by the Rev. L. L. 
Langstroth in 
1852, which pos- 
sessed two strik- 
ing features dif- 
ferentiating it 
from all others : 
First, a movable 
comb-frame hav- 
ing a bee-space on 
all sides : second, 
The latter feature is seldom 




Fig. 310. The Langstroth hive as 
figured by the inventor in 1859. 
" Movable comb hive, with full 
glass arrangement. 1 ' 



a movable roof, 
referred to, although, even now, in Germany a 
movable roof is strongly condemned as unhygienic; 
but our bee-keeping industry would be poor indeed 
with a fixed hive-roof. Broadly speaking, then, all 
our modern hives are Langstroth hives, with small 
improvements. The original Langstroth was made 
as shown in Figs. 310, 311. 

The only improvement we have made thus far is 
in the mode of spacing the frames. In the original 
Langstroth hive the eye was trusted to space the 
frames correctly one and one-half inches apart 
from center to center. It was found in practice, 
however, that the eye is a poor judge of space ; 
besides, the frames slid about if the hive was 

moved. The lat- 
est and probably 
the best means 
of self-spacing is 
a tin projection 
which automat- 
ically spaces the 
frames one and 
three-eighths 
inches apart. 
(Fig. 312.) With 
very accurate 
spacers we can 
place the combs 
still closer, say 
one and one- 
fourth inches. 
Our most com- 
mon hive is the 
dove tailed, or 
lock-cornered; but it is only the old Langstroth hive 
improved by lock-corners, therefore simpler, easier 
to make, and far stronger. (Fig. 313.) It may be 
necessary here to point out that a bee-space is one- 
sixth of an inch or, if expressed in decimals, .17 of 
an inch. Between two combs, therefore, one-third 




Fig. 311. The hive as pictured by Lang- 
stroth. "A perspective view with 
the cover elevated, so as to show 
the working of the bees, both in the 
main hive aud the upper honey- 
box." 1859. 




Fig. 312. Self-spacing 
Langstroth frames. 



of an inch is required to provide sufficient space to 
let two bees pass. 

The upper story of a hive is the same as the 
lower, if the apiarist is running for "strained" or 
extracted honey. Between the two stories, how- 
ever, a piece of perforated 
metal is placed to prevent 
the queen gaining access 
to the upper chamber and 
laying eggs in the combs 
reserved exclusively for 
honey. The holes in the 
metal (zinc) honey-board 
are so perforated as to 
allow the workers to pass 
freely, but not the queen 
or drones. (Fig. 314- 
316). 

A hive intended to produce honey in one-pound 
boxes is entirely different in the upper chamber, 
and is a triumph of Yankee ingenuity and wood- 
working skill. In the comb-honey hive the upper 
story contains a number of small frames which 
apiarists term "sections" (Fig. 317.) These are 
termed sections because eight of them constitute a 
full-sized Langstroth 
frame. The general 
public uses the word 
" box" or "cap" to de- 
note the same thing. 
To insure regularity 
these "sections" are 
arranged with sepa- 
rators or fences be- 
tween each two rows. 
These act as guide- 
posts or plumb-lines to the bees, thereby insuring 
combs so regular in outline as to resemble so many 
pressed bricks. This allows of the sections (boxes) 
being arranged in crates in mathematical order and, 
of course, are liked by the retailers of honey. It 
is easier to produce honey without fences being 
used, and when one sells 
directly to the consum- 
ers there is no neces- 
sity for these ; in point 
of fact, some consum- 
ers prefer crooked 
combs as a proof that 
they were not made by 
some sort of machine. 

The production of comb-honey in " sections " or 
boxes holding one pound, is almost a business by 
itself, requiring an expert knowledge of bees, 
together with a certain amount of refinement in 
preparing and adjusting the boxes, and also in 
preparing them for 
sale. The European 
poets have sung the 
praises of the honey 
of Mt. Hymettus and 
of Narbonne, but we 
are safe in saying 

Fig. 315. Marbach-Alley drone that the P oets never 
trap. saw honey that would 




Standard American 
Langstroth type. 




Fig. 314. Marbach entrance, 
showing drone excluder. 




BEES 



BEES 



283 




Fig. 316. Marbach wire 
drone- and queen-ex- 
cluding metal. One- 
half natural size. 



bear comparison with the section comb-honey of 
America. To see ten or twenty tons of comb-honey 
in snow-white sections, piled up in a bee-keeper's 
honey-house, is a beautiful 
sight. 

Comb-honey is now popu- 
lar in England. Many 
wealthy persons of America 
are not so liberal minded, 
and some are actually prej- 
udiced. Because it is so 
uniform in appearance, 
many think it is made by 
mechanical means, and a canard to that effect 
has been very extensively circulated by the news- 
paper press, and has even been copied by eminent 
authorities on food analysis. This canard has done 
very great damage to this particular branch of 
the bee industry. It was thought by bee-keepers 
at one time that, by offering honey in the comb to 
their customers, all fear of adulteration would pass 
away. These hopes have been rudely dispelled. We 
are safe in saying that all comb-honey is pure, 
unadulterated honey ; and the more beautifully 
white it is, the bet- 
1HB— ' i 



1 




15P 



G5L 






Fig. 317. One-piece basswood comb- 
sections unfolded. 1. Beeway, 
commonly called closed top: 2, 
beeway open top and bottom; 

3, beeway open on three sides; 

4, beeway open on all four 
sides; 5 P, plain, no beeways, 
used with fences: 5 M, plain, no 
beeways, size 4x5x1%. 



ter it is in taste, 
generally speak- 
ing. 

The main princi- 
ple in comb-honey 
production is to 
have one's hives 
abundant in bees 
on the very day 
the honey cam- 
paign begins, and 
to have all fixtures 
in readiness. If 
the honey is to be 
obtained from 
clover or basswood 
blossoms, the api- 
arist must be in a position to prophesy fairly the 
day the blossoms will appear. The chief difficulty 
the comb-honey specialist has to contend with, is 
the desire of the bees to swarm ; for if a swarm 
issues, that generally puts an end to the work on 
the comb-honey supers. To retrieve themselves, 
bee-keepers capture the swarm and place the upper 
chamber of the parent colony on the swarm colony. 
To compel the bees to begin work actually at once, 
our best apiarists confine the colony to a small 
brood-compartment, which has the effect of causing 
the bees to invade the upper 
chamber at once ; once in 
there, they will proceed to 
work on the boxes. 

A goodly proportion of our 
apiarists are turning to what 
is termed the shallow or di- 
visible brood - chamber hives 
to accomplish this result with the least possible 
labor. (Fig. 319.) A shallow hive is simply a hive 
which is shallow in proportion to its length and 
breadth. Langstroth's hive was ten inches deep, 




Fig. 318. 
Farmer's section-box. 




Fig. 319. Divisible brood- 
chamber, hive and super. 
The two lower stories for 
a brood- or breeding- 
chamber, upper one for 
honey. 



whereas a shallow hive is seven and one -half 
inches or less in depth, say six inches. The reason 
for resorting to this kind of hive is that the bees 
are very loath to enter the small compartments, 
holding no more than a pound of honey, and com- 
pulsion must be used to some extent. To produce 
extracted or strained honey is easier, as the brood- 
chamber and upper story are alike ; and as there 
is plenty of room, there is little desire to swarm. 
By robbing the hives oc- 
casionally, the bee-master 
deprives them of all signs 
of high prosperity, and 
this is sufficient to hold 
in check the swarming 
instinct, which is, un- 
doubtedly, the bane of 
successful bee - keeping. 
Swarming and honey-pro- 
duction are not compati- 
ble, and the modern bee- 
keepers would give a great 
sum for a method of ac- 
tion which would effectu- 
ally control it. There are many minds at work on 
the problem. 

Comb foundation. 

The invention of comb foundation marked a dis- 
tinct advance in American bee-keeping. This is the 
midrib, or septum, of the comb already prepared 
by man for the bees to add cells to. It is made by 
subjecting long sheets of beeswax to pressure in a 
mold which will yield impressions of a six-sided 
cell. The process resembles printing except that 
no color is used. The first foundation -machine 
was made by Mehring, a German highly skilled 
mechanic. The old process was to dip thin boards 
in melted wax, and, when cooled sufficiently, to 
peel the adhering wax sheets from the boards. 
The Weed process has largely displaced this practice 
and is considerably 
better, because large 
blocks of wax are 
"laminated" into 
sheets very much as 
steel ingots are 
rolled into sheet- 
iron. 

The skilful use of 
foundation marks 
the successful bee- 
keeper. He uses full 
sheets of foundation in the brood-frames to prevent 
the bees building drone-cells, which they will do 
to the amount of 25 per cent of the space availa- 
ble. To allow so large a proportion of a brood- 
chamber to be occupied with worse than useless 
drone-comb is, obviously, a losing speculation; still, 
it is frequently done. Sheets of foundation prop- 
erly placed, produce combs so straight and uniform 
in outline as to resemble so many planed boards. 
As a result, every comb in the apiary is inter- 
changeable with any other, which represents no 
small gain. Attention to these details enables our 




Fig. 320. 
A type of observation hive. 



284 



BEES 



BEES 




Fig. 321. A smoker. 



bee-keepers to attend to a number of hives which 
would seem incredible to a European bee-master. 
Full sheets or sometimes only small "starters" of 
very thin foundation also are inserted in the sec- 
tion comb-honey boxes to insure rapid work, as the 
bees naturally dislike so small a comb-frame ; but, 

finding foundation in it, they 

work it out. 

The honey-extractor. (Fig. 322.) 

After the appearance of the 
movable-comb hive of Lang- 
stroth, various aids to bee-keep- 
ers appeared, the first of which 
was Major Von Hruschka's mel- 
extractor, which removed the honey from combs 
by centrifugal force. All Americans are familiar 
with the principles involved. The capping is first 
removed from the comb by means of a honey-knife, 
then the combs are placed in wire baskets inside 
the extractor, the handle of the latter is turned 
with great rapidity and the honey is thrown from 
the combs against the side of the extractor. 

Our American mechanics have greatly improved 
the original honey-extractor, until now it is almost 
a perfect instrument. Occasionally the extractor 
is turned by engine-power. Centrifugal extractors 
for wax have also been tried, but none is practical. 

Wax-extractor and honey-press. (Fig. 323.) 

The most familiar form of wax-extractor is the 
" solar," working by the sun's heat. It is excel- 
lent as far as it goes, but leaves too much wax in 
the slumgum, or residue, to be termed effective. 
The latest and by far the most useful wax-extrac- 
tor is the steam wax-press, in which both steam- 
and screw-pressure 
are used to force 
the wax to part 
from the mass oper- 
ated on. It costs 
considerable, but 
this is more than 
counterbalanced by 
the usefulness. It 
may be used as a 
honey - press when 
the bee-keeper de- 
sires to secure a 
large production of 
wax. Where the 
seasons are long, as 
in the South and West Indies, there is not the same 
necessity to use combs over again as in the North; 
and as the price of wax is good, some bee-keepers 
resort to the practice of pressing out the honey in 
this press, saving themselves labor and securing 
a larger production of wax. There can be little 
doubt that this practice will become popular. 

Queen-breeding. 

One of the absorbing phases of bee-keeping is the 
rearing of queens. It has assumed large propor- 
tions of late years, and there is really more room 
for very skilful bee-keepers who will undertake 




Fig. 322. A modem type of auto- 
matic honey-extractor. 




this work and do it with scientific thoroughness. 
But it requires very considerable skill and a com- 
plete knowledge of bee-keeping in all its branches 
to be a really good queen-breeder. The remunera- 
tion, however, is excellent for the skilful man. It 
is almost unnecessary to say that the queen-breeder 
should locate in the South, in a particularly early 
locality. Southern Texas takes the lead in queen- 
breeding matters ; but the whole Gulf coast should 
be equally good. Our northern bee-keepers would 
be greatly assisted by the production of queens 
early enough to put them into colonies which have 
become queenless during the winter, for these 
require a mother at the earliest possible moment. 

American queen-breeders are famous the world 
over, and our principal breeders are constantly 
sending their stock to all parts 
of the world, even to Italy, the 
home of our best bees. 

The theory of queen-rearing 
is to have a colony of bees in 
a condition bordering on mad- 
ness for want of a queen. In 
such a condition the bees will 
accept almost any young larvas 
the bee-keeper may provide. 
They will also accept the arti- 
ficial queen-cell cups, and pro- 
vide food in abundance for the 
young larvse which have been 
"grafted" therein. The bee- 
keeper, on his part, selects 
larvse two days old from the combs of the best hive 
of bees he can find, and " grafts " these into arti- 
ficial cell-cups to suit his convenience. Natural 
queen-cells are extremely delicate, and the slight- 
est squeeze injures the immature queen, though an 
amateur would not perceive the defect. The defect 
is generally in the wing-structure. There are vari- 
ous methods in vogue. There are two schools — the 
Alley and the Doolittle — both of which are good, 
although the latter is the more popular. We can 
not here enter into a description of the practices 
now in use. A bulletin issued by the United States 
Department of Agriculture, entitled "Rearing of 
Queen-bees" (Bulletin No. 55, Bureau of Entomol- 
ogy, 1905), covers the ground very fully. 

When bred and ready for use, the queens are 
sent in small cages by mail almost anywhere, but 
it is doubtful whether such queens are as good as 
those never subjected to the jolts and jars of a 
mailbag. Some persons now order their queens sent 
in small colonies of bees, technically a nucleus. This 
gives the queen a far better chance. One can not 
be too careful in buying queens to see that the 
seller has something else than the mere desire to 
sell queens, as it is so easy to deceive any but the 
most experienced bee-buyers. 

Bees as flower-fertilizers. 

Bees are often accused by fruit-growers of being 
inimical to their industry, when, as a matter of 
fact, they are absolutely necessary to the success 
of fruit-culture. Mueller, who is the best authority, 
made the statement that bees pollinate more flowers 



BEES 



BEES 



285 



than all other insect agencies pnt together. It has 
been proved repeatedly that, without bees, fruit- 
culture is a precarious business ; and, in California 
particularly, bee-keepers have been asked to return 
to localities when public opinion had compelled 
them to abandon the locality. It is a case when 
familiarity breeds contempt. We are likely to for- 
get that it is the industry of the bee which fructi- 
fies the flower, taking the event as a matter of 
course. If any one doubts this, let him cover up a 
melon or cucumber plant so that the bees can not 
reach the flowers. 

Enemies and diseases. 

Luckily, the bee is not greatly pursued by ene- 
mies in the United States, and probably the igno- 
rance and neglect of man are the only sources of 
trouble. Most farmers who have kept bees and 
failed, attribute their failure to the wax-moth, 
when, as a matter of fact, neglect was the real 
cause. Moths never attack vigorous colonies of 
bees ; hence, the " secret " of success lies in having 
the bees in prime condition to resist all enemies. 
The moths are like vultures, coming around when 
the colony is weak. Very often the colony is queen- 
less, or, if not, lacks food. The remedies are 
obvious. 

Foul brood is a real enemy, and by " foul brood " 
may be included "black brood," and "pickled 
brood." We are still very much in the dark as to 
the cause of the so-called " foul brood." Cheshire 
attributes it to a bacillus, which he names Bacillus 
alvei; but later investigations have overthrown 
this opinion, and it is clearly evident that our infor- 
mation on the subject is very faulty. It will be 
sufficient for us to give the cure (McEvoy method) 
for foul brood, which is easily recognized by its 
stinking, noisome smell, and "ropy" condition of 
the affected brood. The McEvoy method is to take 
away the combs from a colony and burn them. The 
colony is given a new set of frames with "starters," 
which are allowed to stay only four days, when an 
entirely new set, on full sheets of foundation, are 
given. The new combs, made in four days, are 
melted into beeswax, and the treatment is finished. 
The idea is to deprive the bees of every atom of 
honey (which conceals the germs), and give the 
colony a clean, fresh start in life. 

Honey - plants. 

America possesses a large number of honey- 
yielding plants, that is to say, plants which secrete 
nectar in the floral organs, which the bees gather 
and convert into honey. It is necessary to mention 
only the more important. In New England, New 
York and Pennsylvania, clover, basswood and buck- 
wheat may be denominated leaders ; but in special 
localities some other plant or tree may be an im- 
portant factor, as, for example, the locust on Long 
Island. In some remote localities the fireweed 
(Epilobium) or the wild raspberry may be impor- 
tant. The culture of sainfoin in the East would be 
a great boon for eastern bee-keepers ; but its ex- 
tensive introduction seems far distant, although in 
Europe it is very valuable. [Pages 564, Vol. II.] 



In Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, 
Wisconsin, Minnesota and Iowa, clover and bass- 
wood are the leaders. In some parts of Michigan, 
fireweed and raspberry give large yields of superior 
honey, and in other places goldenrod and aster give 
liberal returns ; and on the overflowed lands of the 
Mississippi, heartsease (Persicaria) is an excellent 
bee-flower. 

In the border states, Delaware, Maryland, Vir- 
ginia, Kentucky, West Virginia and Arkansas, in 
addition to clover and basswood, there are some 
excellent honey-producers not common farther 
north — tulip-tree, persimmon, crimson clover (in 
Delaware), blue thistle, black gum, Judas-tree, 
laurel, varnish-tree, magnolia, sourwood, yellow- 
wood, and others. In North Carolina, South Caro- 
lina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and 
Arkansas, honey-bearing plants are abundant, the 
leaders being the so-called " gum" trees (Nyssa and 
Liriodendron), and cotton, corn, sweet clover (in 
Alabama), okra, sourwood, sorrel, ti-ti, persim- 
mon, gallberry, with many minor plants. In Texas, 
similar plants exist ; but in southwestern Texas, 
which is a sort of bee-keepers' Paradise, and a 
semi-arid region, an entirely different set of bee- 
plants exists. Catclaw and huajilla are probably the 
chief, both being species of Lygia; also Lippia repens, 
certain labiate plants, and, where irrigation is fol- 
lowed, alfalfa. In the arid and semi-arid states, 
alfalfa is the favorite ; but the Rocky mountain 
bee-plant (Cleome integrifolia) is very valuable, 
while the sweet clover growing along the canal 
courses and by the fence-corners is not despised. 
The habit of cutting alfalfa before blooming has 
curtailed the yield from that source during the last 
few years ; still, in Utah and Colorado excellent 
yields of very high-grade honey are often reported 
from this source, and the bee-keepers of the Rockies 
are second to none in ability and enterprise. 

Florida stands apart, the leading honey-plants 
being tropical, namely, false mangrove, palmetto 
and saw-palmetto, all three being excellent yielders 
of fine honey when the conditions are proper. West 
Florida is an exception, tupelo being the main reli- 
ance of the bee-keepers. Arizona and southern 
California form another bee region, with manza- 
nito, madrona, mesquite, black sage and white sage 
as the leading honey-plants. It is the latter two 
which have given California a world-wide reputa- 
tion for honey, in both quality and quantity. Lima 
beans and alfalfa have proved, however, to be more 
reliable yielders than wild plants. Fruit-bloom, 
together with eucalypti and pepper-trees, are also 
valuable. All things considered, northern California 
is probably just as good in the long run. In cen- 
tral California, carpet-grass (Lippia) and alfalfa 
are important yielders, with some fruit-bloom. 

Ontario and Quebec resemble New York and Ohio 
in honey-plants, except that thistles are important. 
In Mexico, on the border at least, in the semi-arid 
parts, catclaw, huajilla, madrona, manzanito, and 
century plants are great yielders. In Sonora, the 
garvanza peas are very important, also mesquite ; 
while in the far South, on the bay of Campeche, 
the logwood stands without a peer as a honey- 



286 



BEES 



BEES 



yielder, quality and quantity both considered. The 
tropics have numberless honey plants. 

Cuba has many honey-plants, the leading being 
the celebrated bellflower (Ipomma sidafolia), poma- 
rosa, algarroba, and the royal palm. In Porto Rico, 
the leading honey-producers are the rose-apple 
(Eugenia Jambos), royal palm, coconut, coffee and 
its shade tree (Gliricidia), and a number of fruit 
trees. The coffee districts are excellent for bees, 
although but little has been done in scientific api- 
culture. 

Jamaica produces a large amount of honey and 
wax. Chili is a good honey-producer, from alfalfa 
principally, and Argentina has taken up the new 
apiculture in earnest. The giant thistle of the 
pampas produces honey. In Hawaii, the algarroba 
is a heavy yielder. 

It seems probable that new plants, that is, plants 
new to our bee-keepers, will be widely introduced 
in the years to come. Nothing would give greater 
satisfaction to bee-keepers than to see sainfoin 
clover widely introduced into the eastern states. 
In Arizona and southern California, the date prom- 
ises to become important, and the eucalypti and 
pepper-tree are gaining ground rapidly. The carob 
bean, in the Southwest, may become an acquisition, 
and the garvanza pea, of Sonora, would surely 
flourish in many sections of the South. Soola clover, 
also a Spanish culture, would be a great benefit to 
the Southern bee-master ; but the sweet clovers, 
both white and yellow, grow readily in the South 
on neglected land, and will probably improve the 
fertility of the soil. Bee-keepers, generally, object 
to the laws which class sweet clover as a weed, 
inasmuch as it is a cultivated plant in Europe, and 
a valuable soil-improver. 

The American tropics possess a wonderfully rich 
bee-keepers' flora, and it is certainly very remarka- 
ble that nearly all the famous timber trees of the 
tropics are honey-producers. Witness, for example, 
logwood, mahogany, rosewood, mangrove, divi-divi, 
lignum-vita?, teak, greenheart, balata (gutta-percha). 
The great palms, also, such as coconut, date, Pal- 
myra, Carnauba, Royal (Arenga saceharifera), Pal- 
metto, the sugar palm (Phoenix sylvestris), are all 
very good, and, in the case of the date, extremely 
good. It may be stated broadly that trees that are 
tapped for their sweet juice are also good nectar- 
yielders for bees. Sugar-cane and corn produce 
nectar for bees when conditions are favorable, that 
is, when there is plenty of moist heat. The most 
remarkable families of plants to bee-keepers in the 
tropics are the Verbenacae, Leguminosa? Eucalypti, 
and Proteacse, practically all the species of each 
being honey-producers. 

The present position of bee-keeping. 

Our American apiculture is in a prosperous state, 
and the bee-keepers are enthusiastic and hopeful. 
New inventions making for the improvement of the 
industry are constantly appearing, and doubtless 
more will follow ; a main need at present is that 
the subject be given due attention in agricultural 
colleges. It is unfortunate, indeed, that no agricul- 
tural college is at present providing a complete 



course in bee-keeping. The industry is forcing its 
attention on the colleges, and sooner or later they 
must respond. 

Literature. 

The literature of bee-keeping is very rich and 
extensive in the English, French and German lan- 
guages particularly. De Montfort of Luxemburg, 
writing in 1646, enumerated 600 apicultural authors 
previous to him, and, of course, there has been a 
vast increase since his day. Even the American 
literature is rather extensive, but is nevertheless 
of high quality, free from the pedantiG tendency 
which is likely to characterize European bee-book 
authors; and there is but little need of an Ameri- 
can student going beyond his own literature of this 
subject. Space permits mention of only a few 
references here. D. L. Adair, Annals of Bee-keep- 
ing, Louisville, Kentucky (1872) ; Henry Alley, 
Thirty Years Among the Bees. The author, Wen- 
ham, Massachusetts (1880); Anna Botsford Corn- 
stock, How to Keep Bees, Doubleday, Page & Co. 
(1905); A. J. Cook, Manual of the Apiary, or Bee- 
keeper's Guide, G. W. York & Co., Chicago, Illi- 
nois, twentieth edition (1904); T. W. Cowan, The 
Anatomy and Physiology of the Honey-bee, Houlston 
& Co., London, England ; G. M. Doolittle, Queen-rear- 
ing, Scientific, G. W. York, Chicago, Illinois (1889); 
W. Z. Hutchinson, Advanced Bee Culture, Flint, 
Michigan (1905) ; Harbison, The Bee-keepers Direc- 
tory, H. H. Bancroft & Son, San Francisco (1861); 
N. H. and H. A. King, The Bee-keeper's Text Book, 
The Authors, New York City ; L. L. Langstroth, 
The Hive and Honey-bee, New York (1853); Same, 
Revised by Dadant, Hamilton, Illinois (1906); C. C. 
Miller, Forty Years Among the Bees, G. W. York 
& Co., Chicago (1902) ; Miner, The American Bee- 
keepers' Manual, C. M. Saxton, fourth edition 
(1851); T. G. Newman, Bees and Honey, The 
Author, Chicago (1892); J. Phin, A Dictionary of 
Bee-keepers' Terms, The Author, New York (1890); 
Moses Quinby, The New Bee-keeping, or The 
Mysteries of Bee-keeping Explained, Revised bv L. 
C. Root, New York (1903); A. I. Root, The ABC 
of Bee Culture, The A. I. Root Companv, Medina, 
Ohio (1907); G. L. Tinker, Bee-keeping for Profit, 
The Author, New Philadelphia, Ohio (1880); M. D. 
Thacher, Bee-keeping, Marsh and Capen, Boston 
(1829); Dr. H. and Phil Von Ihering, Bulletin of 
the Museu Paulista, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 1903, 1904, 
and 1905, on the bees of South America and the 
honey-gathering wasps — the first real attempt to 
grapple with the life-histories of the Meliponia, 
trigona and tetrasoma bees of that continent. 
Among the magazines devoted to bee-keeping may 
be mentioned The American Bee Journal (Chicago); 
Gleanings in Bee Culture (Medina, Ohio); The Bee- 
keeper's Review (Flint, Michigan); Canadian Bee 
Journal (Brantford, Ontario); American Bee-keeper 
(Fort Pierce, Florida). See also various govern- 
mental publications, as Frank Benton's Honey-Bee, 
United States Department of Agriculture (1899); 
Also a valuable phamphlet on " Queen-rearing," by 
Phillips ; and another on foul brood, entitled " Bac- 
teria of the Apiary," issued in 1907. 




A mooly, one-half Galloway, on left, and a three-fourths bison on right, with a full-blood bison cow and calf in center. 




Two half-bred cows 
Plate VII. Various forms of cattalo 



BISON 



BISON 



287 



Figs. 324-326. Plates I 



BISON AND CATTALO. 

and VII. 



The genus Bison of the bovine family includes 
the American bison, commonly called "buffalo," and 
the European aurochs (Bison bonasus), together 
with certain extinct species. Bisons are distin- 
guished from domestic cattle chiefly by their great 
size, massive fore-quarters, and shaggy appearance. 
The head is broad and carries 
short, strong horns that curve 
upward and inward from the „,„,„. ,u,„i (K ,„,.«„»,„ 
sides of the forehead. The heavy, 
low-carried head is supported by 
strong muscles attached to spe- 
cial vertebral processes that rise 
on the back over the shoulders. 
These muscles give the neck its 
heaviness. The fore-quarters are 
higher than the hind-quarters, 
which are comparatively light. 
The tail is short. The coat con- 
sists largely of short, curled, 
crisp "wool." It is shaggiest 
about the head and shoulders. 
The face is heavily covered, and 
the eyes nearly lost ; a great 
beard falls from the throat and 
chin. The heavy growth of hair 
continues back over the neck, 
shoulders and fore-legs, especi- 
ally in the bulls. Average 
weights for mature animals are 
given as 1,000 to 1,200 pounds for cows and 1,800 
to 2,000 pounds in bulls. This indicates that the 
cows are much less massive than the bulls. 

Breeding. 

In its wild state, the bison was gregarious, 
traveling and feeding in small companies. At the 
rutting period, by common consent, great numbers 
of these scattered bands came together in one vast 
herd. The mating season occurred in July, August 
and September, when the herds were on their summer 
pasture and in the best of condition. At this time 
there was a fierce struggle for supremacy among 
the bulls, and the breeding was accomplished only 
by the strongest. The period of gestation is about 
nine months, the offspring, usually a single calf, 
coming in the spring. The American bison will 
breed in captivity, and is fairly prolific. Some bison 
cows will produce a calf every year, while, with 
many others, every other year is the rule. 

Bison. Bison bison, Linn. (Bison Americanus, 
Gmelin). Bovidoe. 

By E. H. Baynes. 

At present, the bison has his strongest hold on 
the American people by reason of his historic 
interest. He stands out in bold relief against the 
most picturesque background the history of our 
country affords. He is associated with the Indians, 
with the early explorers and settlers of this conti- 
nent — with many poetic and many dramatic scenes, 



such as may never be witnessed again. He is and 
always must be the leading animal character in the 
story of America's early days, and for this fact 
alone the still-remaining remnant of his once 
mighty race should be carefully preserved. 

Of the agricultural value of the bison, however, 
comparatively little has been said, probably because 
very little is known. Indeed, it is surprising that 
so little attention has been given to the commer- 




Fig. 324. The American Bison. 

cial uses of an animai so large, so very closely 
allied to our domestic cattle, and which is known 
to have been for centuries the chief source of food, 
clothing and shelter for hundreds of thousands of 
Indians. Information on this subject in the pos- 
session of the writer is very meager, yet it tends 
to show that, in the hands of intelligent, pro- 
gressive cattle-men and farmers, the bison might 
become of considerable agricultural value. 

For robes and coats. 

Undoubtedly the bison product best known and 
most thoroughly tested is the pelt or "robe." 
Twenty-five years ago, when the great massacres 
had almost exterminated the animal, there were 
hundreds of thousands of these skins in use. Great 
numbers were made into carriage robes, and a 
few of these, usually much worn, may still be seen. 
The writer has never met any one who has used a 
bison robe who did not speak warmly in its praise ; 
and he has repeatedly been assured by proprietors 
of livery-stables and others who have had wide 
experience in such matters that, since the disap- 
pearance of the bison hide from the market, they 
have never seen its equal as a winter carriage 
robe. Perhaps because of its once great popularity, 
its name survives in many places where today a 
winter carriage robe of any kind is referred to as 
a " buffalo." The prices asked today for " buffalo 
robes" in good condition, usually range from $50 to 
$200, according to size and general appearance. 

The use of the bison skin as a heavy winter over- 



28? 



BISON 



BISON 



coat was also important. The writer is acquainted 
with a man who is wearing a bison ulster said to 
have been in use every season for twenty years. 
The hair is worn off in many places, but its owner 
stoutly declares that there is yet ten years' wear 
in the garment. 

For meat. 

It is seldom that one has an opportunity to test 
the quality of bison flesh, but the excellence of this 
product has been testified to by so many persons 
in times past that there seems little reason to doubt 
it. By reason of the peculiar conformation of the 
bison, no doubt the cuts taken from the anterior 
part of the body would average comparatively 
larger, and those from the posterior part compara- 
tively smaller than similar cuts taken from domes- 
tic cattle. In flavor and texture, bison meat is said 
to be indistinguishable from ordinary beef. Occas- 
ionally it is seen in eastern markets, and the ultra- 
fashionable sometimes pay one to two dollars a 
pound for choice cuts for their holiday menus. 

For wool. 

Attempts were made to utilize bison wool, but 
the failure of the supply of raw material put an 
end to experiments in this direction. As is well- 
known, bison grow a very heavy winter coat, which 
is shed in patches during the following spring and 
summer. This coat consists chiefly of brown wool, 
which, if properly clipped, would probably prove a 
valuable product. In 1905, the writer collected 
some of this wool, and submitted it to several 
woolen manufacturers, all of whom were keenly 
interested. One of them had the material thoroughly 
tested in his mills, with the result that he found it 
stronger, grade for grade, than sheep's wool, and 
that it felted beautifully, which his foreman 
had assured him it would not do. This manufac- 
turer expressed the opinion that if bison wool could 
be secured it would for a time demand a very high 
price as a novelty, and that afterward, if it proved 
durable, there would be a good market for it, for 
the manufacture of gloves, stockings and other 
articles not requiring to be dyed the lighter, 
brighter colors. 

It is likely that the best method of shearing a 
bison would differ somewhat from the methods now 
employed in shearing sheep, but that the operation 
would present no serious problems to an up-to-date 
cattle-man, is reasonably certain. 

For draft. 

That bison can be broken to the yoke, if taken 
young, is a fact that has been demonstrated fre- 
quently. The writer has a team of bison oxen, 
which he reared on cow's milk from the age of 
three weeks, and which now, at the age of three 
years, are still tractable in yoke or harness. They 
were not so easy to break as domestic steers, but 
are capable of much greater speed, and are prob- 
ably stronger, weight for weight. There is no 
doubt that, at any work in which the chief requi- 
sites are speed and endurance, bison would preve 
much superior to domestic oxen. 



Rearing. 

The "artificial" rearing of bison calves is a simple 
matter, if they are taken from their mothers when 
not more than two weeks old. They will suck a 
domestic cow, or drink from a bottle, a pail, or an 
ordinary calf-feeder. One fairly good fresh cow 
will supply milk enough for two bison calves. 

Most of the calves are born in April and May. 
They are remarkably strong and vigorous, and 
within a few minutes are ready to fight if inter- 
fered with. They are tawny reddish in color, the 
shade varying greatly in different individuals. In 
the course of a few weeks, dark brown hair is 
seen replacing the natal fur in places, often on the 
face and in a line down the middle of the back. 
By the end of the summer all but the late calves 
are clothed completely in the dark brown pelage 
of the adult animal. 

On the range, buffalo calves suck their mothers 
for the greater part of a year. In the Corbin 
Game Preserve, in New Hampshire, the writer has 
watched them nursing until December, at which 
time they are separated and yarded for the winter. 
It is not unlikely that this accounts, at least in 
part, for the fact that their mothers sometimes 
come in poor and thin and perhaps unfit for ser- 
vice the following summer. It occurred to the 
writer that, if the calves were weaned as domestic 
calves are weaned, the cows would probably pro- 
duce offspring practically every year, which is not 
the rule at present, although some cows do, even 
under existing conditions, produce a calf every 
spring for several years in succession. 

Although so fond of milk, the little fellows 
begin to sniff at and nibble the grass blades within 
forty-eight hours after they are born. They are 
much wilder than domestic calves, and, if weaned, 
care must be taken that they do not injure them- 
selves. One of a number of calves weaned by the 
writer leaped against a fence post and broke a 
fore-leg. Such accidents can be avoided by keep- 
ing the youngsters in pens fifteen or twenty feet 
square with solid board walls, for a few days until 
they get used to the presence of those who are to 
care for them. 

As is well known, the bison can thrive with con- 
ditions under which domestic cattle would perish. 
His warm robe as well as his general conformation 
enable him to weather storms and low tempera- 
tures which would be fatal to range cattle. He 
can also forage for himself under very trying con- 
ditions. In a climate like that of New Hampshire, 
however, where the ground is apt to be covered 
with deep snow from November until March, they 
require feeding for about five months in the year. 
In the Corbin Preserve, where, at this writing, 
April 1, 1908, there is a herd of 137 head, the ani- 
mals are yarded during the winter and early 
spring, and fed on hay. According to William 
Morrison, who has had charge of this herd for 
many years, a calf in its first winter consumes 
about half a ton of hay. Each succeeding winter, 
he states, it eats about half a ton more, until a 
maximum of three tons is reached. No other food 
whatever is given, but running water is accessible 



BISON 



BISON 



289 



at all times. For full information on this subject, 
the reader is referred to an article entitled " A 
Great Buffalo Herd in Winter Quarters," published 
in "Suburban Life," February, 1906. 

Bison, however, will eat almost anything that 
domestic cattle are fond of. The writer has tried 
them with corn meal, "middlings" and mixed feed, 
and they not only ate what was given them but 
would walk into the barn and steal the food at 
every opportunity. 

Bison naturally are not vicious animals, though 
now and then a bull develops a bad temper, and 
many of the cows are very waspish when their 
calves are young. However, thousands of visitors 
pass through the Corbin Preserve every summer, 
often close to the herd, and, from first to last, hun- 
dreds of men have been employed there, yet, with 
one slight exception, no one has ever been injured 
by a bison. The exception occurred some years 



Cattalo. 

The cattalo is a hybrid between the native bison 
and the domestic cow. The bison is the one native 
American quadruped that gives promise of con- 
tributing any important share to agriculture ; and 
even this noble animal has not yet been domesti- 
cated or bred for agricultural purposes. He is now 
a park animal. The most promising attempts yet 
made to preserve the bison in any economic rela- 
tion is by combining his blood with that of domes- 
tic cows. Even this experiment has not yet gone 
far enough to enable us to arrive at anything like 
a conclusion as to the ultimate merits of the 
hybrids. The experiments have been scattered, 
mostly haphazard, and all of them without real 
scientific study and control. Under such conditions 
it is not strange that there are the most diverse 
opinions respecting the future of this race of 




Fig. 325. Cattalos. One-half Galloway on left, with her three-fourths calf in the foreground; in the middle, a possibly 
one-half cow; and, beyond and above the calf, a three-fourths cow. 



ago, in the bison yards, when a cow, in defence of 
her newly-born calf, chased William Morrison, and, 
as he was retreating over the fence, pinned his 
leg to the boards. It should be added that this 
man is in the habit of taking unnecessary risks, 
and that the writer has known him to be more 
seriously injured by other kinds of animals. 

Among the good points looked for in an adult 
pure-blood bison bull, may be mentioned, great 
height of hump, massive front, broad forehead 
with deeply-curved horns, which should be of great 
diameter at the base and taper rapidly to a point, 
and a short tail. The space between the horns 
should be filled with long, black hair, which will 
sometimes almost hide the horns themselves. A 
heavy growth of similar hair on the fore-legs also 
adds greatly to his appearance. The amount of 
hair will vary from year to year, even in the same 
individual, but the more there is the handsomer he 
will be. 

The bison cow is not nearly so fine-lookmg as 
the bull. Her hump is not so high, and usually 
she presents a much less shaggy appearance. Her 
horns are much smaller at the base and taper much 
more gradually. 

C 19 



animals. Many obstacles have developed in the 
breeding of these hybrids, but the difficulties will 
probably not prove to be insurmountable when we 
once come to study the subject carefully, on the 
basis of well-planned experiments. It will be rather 
an economic question, whether they will be really 
of sufficient superiority to common cattle in any 
respect to make, their breeding worth while. 

The chief prospective value of the cattalo is as 
a range animal, under conditions in which common 
cattle do not thrive. Some persons think that, with 
the passing of the unfenced ranges, the usefulness 
of the cattalo will be small. Others, however, think 
that the cattalo may compete with cattle in con- 
ditions under which cattle thrive, in the produc- 
tion of valuable robes and of a greater quantity of 
meat. It is probable that the animal will be adapt- 
able and valuable chiefly in inhospitable places 
where cattle yield small returns, and in the larger 
half-wild ranching of the West and North. 

There is no recognized or authoritative spelling 
of the word that designates this group of hybrid 
animals. Such combinations as cattlo, cattloe, 
catalo, catalow, cattalow, cattelo, are more or less 
used. The name, under any spelling, is yet unknown 



290 



BISON 



BISON 



to the lexicons and encyclopedias. It is now pro- 
posed to adopt the spelling cattah, as being best in 
form, most conformable to the two words from 
which it comes(cattle and buffalo), and perhaps more 
euphonious. This word is here used to designate all 
hybrids of bison and cattle of whatever blood and 




Fig. 326. At top, a bison buU: a Galloway cow; a direct 
hybrid between a bison bull and a Galloway cow. 

whichever parental way the cross is made. The 
accent is on the first syllable, as in buffalo. 

There are no recognized authoritative sources of 
information on the cattalo. The following facts 
have been gleaned by the Editor from an extensive 
correspondence and inquiry on the subject. 

Description. 

The cattalo is characterized by large size, being 
heavier than either race from which it comes, 
great hardiness, and rather remarkable feeding 
qualities. It is also said to be gentle and easily 
handled. Individuals vary greatly in form ; some of 



the half-breds are straight on the back and a? 
square as Shorthorns, while perhaps 50 per cent 
will have half humps and resemble the bison in 
general conformation. The color depends somewhat 
on the parentage. Crossed with Galloway or Aber- 
deen-Angus cows, the hybrids come either brown 
after the bison, or black, after the mother, more 
commonly the latter. A small percentage come 
perfectly brown. The "fur" is more dense than that 
of the bison, particularly on the three-fourths and 
seven-eighths bison hybrids ; and, instead of the 
shaggy shoulders, the fur is equally distributed, 
being nearly as long on the rump as on the 
shoulders. It is a beautiful glossy coat, said by 
some persons to be more handsome than the coat 
of the pure-blood bison. The cattalo has the voice 
of the bison. 

The hardiness of cattalos is indicated by the 
fact that they can live entirely in the open, winter 
and summer, with no feed but grass. In the winter 
they dig in the snow for food. Especially note- 
worthy is the fact that they face storms and bliz- 
zards, and never leave the plains to seek shelter ; 
hence, storms will not drift them. They can thrive 
without water for three days at a time, so that 
they can herd at a distance from streams. They 
herd in droves instead of separating as do domestic 
cattle. 

History. 

From a very early date it has been known that 
the American bison could be domesticated. As 
early as 1701, according to Hornaday (The Exter- 
mination of the American Bison, Smithsonian Re- 
port, 1887), the Huguenot settlers at Manikintown, 
on the James river, a few miles above Richmond, 
began to domesticate bison. In 1786, or there- 
abouts, bison were domesticated and bred in cap- 
tivity in Virginia, and it is said that in some of the 
northwestern counties the mixed breed or hybrid 
was common. In 1815, a series of experiments in 
cross-breeding the bison and domestic cattle was 
begun by Robert Wickliffe, of Lexington, Kentucky, 
and continued by him for nearly thirty years. In 
1877, S. L. Bedson, of Stony Mountain, Manitoba, 
secured a young bison bull and four heifer calves, 
with which he later undertook to produce hybrids 
on domestic cattle. In 1880, Charles Goodnight, of 
Goodnight, Texas, roped four bison calves from the 
scattering wild herds, which he raised and bred on 
domestic cattle. From this start he now has seventy 
head, and during this time he has disposed of about 
twenty-five or thirty head. In 1885, he began 
crossing bison bulls with Aberdeen-Angus cows. 
In 1885, C. J. Jones, of Topeka, Kansas, who has 
been recognized as a leader in the efforts to estab- 
lish the cattalo, purchased his first hybrid calves 
in Manitoba. These are still alive. In 1887, the 
first hybrid calves were born in his herd. Both 
Goodnight and Jones have continued their efforts 
to the present time. The success attained by these 
early breeders in securing what seemed to be a 
valuable hybrid, led many persons to take up the 
experiment, and today efforts are being made in 
many parts of Canada and the United States, 



BISON 



BISON 



291 



The statistics of bison and cattalos as recently 
completed by Dr. Hornaday are as follows : 

American Bison, of Pure Blood. 





Males 


Femal's 


Calves 
in 1907 


Total 
on Jan. 
1. 1908 


Total in 
1903 


Captive in the 

United States . 

Captive in Canada 


506 
214 

720 
54 

774 


610 
262 

872 
76 

948 


203 
98 

301 
22 

323 


1,116 

476 


969 
41 


Total in America 
Captive in Europe 


1,592 
130 


1,010 
109 


Total in captivity 

Wild bison in the 
United States, 

Wild bison in Can- 
ada, estimated. 

Total pure-blood 
bison, Jan. 1, 

Number of own- 
ers of pure- 
blood bison, in 

Number of own- 
ers of pure- 
blood bison, in 
Europe. 


1,722 

25 
300 

2,047 
45 
19 


1,119 



Bison-Domestic Hybrids, or Cattalos. 



In the United States . . . 

In Canada 

In Europe 

Total on January 1, 1908 . 




243 

17 
21 

281 



The object of the breeders of cattalos seems to 
have been to preserve the hardiness and rustling 
qualities of the bison in an animal that would easily 
be domesticated and would yield a large quantity 
of good meat ; and at the same time to secure a 
valuable pelt. There is need for a domestic meat- 
producing animal adapted to elevated and cold 
regions, as in the Rocky mountains and Alaska. 
If a breed of cattalos can be established, it prom- 
ises to meet the need. 

The early breeding efforts, — and the same is 
true in a measure of the recent efforts, — were 
attended with considerable loss and discourage- 
ment. The domestic bull will not cross on the pure- 
blood bison cow, so that the cross is restricted to 
the use of bison bulls on domestic cows. It was 
difficult to get hybrid calves, and many domestic 
cows were sacrificed in the effort. Hiefers that 
conceived, died. Domestic cows carrying a half- 
bred bull calf, either aborted or died. Mr. Jones 
estimates that in his early experiments he got one 
hybrid to every thirty cows bred to bison bulls. 



In 1893, he was able to secure 60 per cent of the 
calves. Notwithstanding these setbacks, the ex- 
periment has been continued until the feasibility 
of producing and rearing cattalo cows has been 
established. These hybrid cows are more prolific 
than bison cows, and breed equally well to the 
domestic bull and to the bison bull. There seems 
to be no evidence that fertile hybrid bulls have 
ever been produced in the first cross ; and very 
few infertile ones have been born and lived as a 
result of the first cross. The reason assigned to 
the inability of the domestic cow to produce a 
male bison calf is, that even in the half-bred male 
animal, the spinal processes of the dorsal verte- 
bras are so high that the pelvis of the domestic 
cow does not admit of their passage through. It 
is also said that the body of the domestic cow 
"fills up with water," especially if she is fat, 
which makes difficult parturition. By crossing the 
half-bred cows back to the pure-blood bison bull, 
both male and female calves are produced. 

James Philip, of Fort Pierre, S. D., who has a 
large herd of bison, says that some of these | bulls 
are fertile, while a very large percentage of the J 
bulls are fertile, either | bison or | domestic. Mr. 
Jones states that the greatest amount of bison 
blood he has been able to get in a fertile bull is |. 
He has not yet bred his J and ^f bison bulls, and 
is unable to say whether they are fertile or not. 
He finds that about one-third of the f bison hybrids 
are bulls, while a larger percentage are males in 
the J bison hybrids ; and the same is true as we 
approach the domestic bull. N. E. McKissick, of 
the Union Stock Yards, South St. Paul, Minn., who 
bred cattalo for James J. Hill, writes : 

"Hybrids breed among themselves, although they 
are not nearly so sure breeders as full-bloods or 
hybrids on full-bloods. By crossing full-blood bison 
bulls and hybrids, the results are the same as in 
breeding grade cows to a full-blooded sire ; further 
crossing improves the grade. Breeding a domestic 
bull with a bison or hybrid cow is not nearly so 
successful as breeding a full-blood bison bull to 
domestic cows, and it is only a small percentage of 
domestic cows that will breed with bison. In our 
hybrids we had just about the same percentage of 
males and females. I used a three-quarter hybrid 
bull on Mr. Hill's herd, and cannot see but that 
I got just as good results as I did with a full- 
blooded bison bull." 

Michael Pablo, of Ronan, Montana, also states 
that the hybrids will breed among themselves. He 
has had considerable experience in handling bison, 
and has delivered 400 head of bison to the Cana- 
dian government. 

The Mossom Boyd Company, Bobcaygeon, On- 
tario, began a careful series of experiments in 
crossing bison and domestic cattle, more especially 
Aberdeen-Augus and Herefords, in the year 1894. 
The results of these experiments to date were pre- 
sented to the American Breeders' Association, at 
its fourth annual meeting in January, 1908. The 
following extract is made from that report : " I 
would tentatively list the following characters as 
dominant : The whole body - color of the bison ; 



292 



BISON 



BUFFALO 



the white face of the Hereford ; the polled head 
of the Augus ; the hump of the bison, dominant 
but somewhat modified ; the width of the hind- 
quarters of the beef breeds ; the width in front 
of the beef breeds ; the voice of the bison. As to 
whether the period of gestation in the bison differs 
in length from that of the domestic cow, I do not 
know, but in the case of thirty-nine successful 
hybrid births, the time varied from 244 to 277 
days, with an average of 264 days, which is an 
ordinary period for the domestic cow, although 
somewhat shorter than the average. 

"Thirty calves of the second generation com- 
prised twelve bulls and eighteen females, or 40 
per cent bulls, as compared with 15J per cent bulls 
in the first cross. Some of these calves were sired 
by domestic bulls, and are consequently one-quarter 
bison ; others were sired by pure bison bulls, and 
are therefore three-quarters bison. The one-quar- 
ter and three-quarters bison are markedly different 
from the half-bloods. The one-quarter bison very 
much resemble domestic cattle, and the three-quar- 
ter bison are nearly like pure bison." 

There is difference of opinion among breeders as 
to how long the bison characters will hold when 
the hybrid cows are bred to domestic bulls. Mr. 
Pablo thinks that if the domestic bull is used on the 
third generation the bison characters will largely 
disappear. Some of Mr. Goodnight's animals, with 
only one-eighth bison blood, showed bison charac- 
ters. Others think that four or five crosses would 
be necessary to eliminate the bison characters. 

The best results seem to follow the use of Gallo- 
way and Aberdeen-Angus cows for crossing with 
bison bulls. Hereford and Shorthorn cows have 
been used, .but with less satisfactory results. A 
good result of choosing the solid black cows is that 
the hybrids have a rich dark coat without streaks. 

Distribution. 

The distribution of the effort to breed cattalos 
is very wide. The largest number of hybrids are 
to be found in Montana, Texas, Arizona, California, 
South Dakota, Ontario, Minnesota and Oklahoma. 
They are represented by greater or less num- 
bers in Iowa, Michigan, New York, North Dakota, 
Alberta, Utah, Wyoming and Quebec. They are also 
to be found in England and Russia. 

Feeding and care. 

The cattalo requires little feeding or attention, 
and will make more rapid gains on the same food 
than will domestic cattle. It requires no shelter, 
winter or summer. Ordinarily, no artificial feeding 
is necessary. The cattalo has very thorough diges- 
tion ; as a result, the manure is said to be of little 
value. One of the greatest difficulties in breeding 
cattalos is that they are usually too fat. 

Use. 

For robes. — There seems to be no difference of 
opinion in regard to the excellence of the robe 
from a cattalo, especially when the cross has been 
made with a black domestic cow. The robe is rich 
and glossy, large and durable, and commands a 



high price on the market, perhaps twice as much 
as a "buffalo" robe. The "fur" or hair is of a 
soft and pleasing texture. The value of the hides 
varies from $75 to $200, and may be more. 

For meat. — The meat from the cattalo is said to 
be excellent and to resemble domestic beef some- 
what closely. The carcass is heavy, and the calves 
fatten very readily. The meat brings a high price, 
sometimes selling at $1.25 to $2 per pound by the 
quarter. James Philip reports the sale of a cattalo, 
which dressed over 900 pounds of excellent beef. 

BUFFALO or WATER-BUFFALO. Bubalus buba- 
lis, Lyd. [Bubalus buffalus, Blum. Bos bubalus, 
Brise. Bubalus bos, Watt (tame B.). Bubalus 
ami, Ken. & Shaw (wild B.)]. Bovidce. Bubalus 
(Latin), Boubalos (Greek), Biiffel (German), Buffle 
(French), Bhains, Bainsha (male), Mhains (female) 
Arna (wild B. male), Ami (wild B., female), 
(Hindu), Moonding (Soudan), Karbo or Karbou 
(Malay), Carabao (Philippines). Figs. 327, 328, 
Plate VII, Vol. I. 

By F. Lamson-Scribner. 

The buffalo is a draft animal of the bovine 
family, also valued for its milk, hides and horns. 
The millions of Orientals, whose chief and often 
only diet is rice, are largely dependent on the 
water-buffalo in raising their supply of this cereal. 
In fact, this is the only animal the natives of the 
low and humid regions of India, China and the 
Philippines can use to cultivate the great rice-fields 
of those countries while covered with water — a 
system almost universally practiced. The buffalo 
loves to wallow in mud and water, and its home is 
in marshy districts and along the river-bottoms in 
regions of high temperature and heavy rainfall ; 
and there it is as useful to the natives as are the 
dromedary and camel to the inhabitants of the dry 
and desert regions of northern Africa. 

Description. 

The water-buffalo is the largest of the Bovidse, 
measuring, in the larger breeds, up to six and one- 
half feet in height at the shoulder, and ten feet in 
length from the muzzle to the base of the tail ; 
body well rounded and large of girth ; withers 
sharp and elevated ; shoulders well formed ; hind- 
quarters less well developed ; thighs thin ; head 
comparatively small ; muzzle large and carried well 
forward ; limbs short and massive ; horns large 
and much flattened, or somewhat triangular toward 
the base, deeply ringed, directed backward or down- 
ward, finally curving upward or inward and becom- 
ing scimiter-shaped, usually very long, sometimes 
attaining the length of five or six feet ; tail short, 
reaching to the hocks ; skin a very dark bluish or 
grayish black, rarely brownish or dingy white, 
thinly covered with coarse black hair ; hair on the 
forehead and knees more dense ; young calves well 
covered with brown hair all over. The color of the 
water-buffalo is not unlike that of the elephant, 
and their motions are similar ; the resemblance is 
so striking that a casual view of a moving herd of 
buffalos suggests a roving band of elephants. 



BUFFALO 



BUFFALO 



293 



There are other species of buffalo aside from the 
one that we are now considering and which is the 
buffalo of history. The best known other species 
is the African buffalo (Bubalus Gaffer), which is 
not domesticated in American territory. In Amer- 
ica the word buffalo is commonly but erroneously 
applied to the bison (which see). 

History. 

There is no doubt that the domestic breeds origi- 
nated from the wild buffalo of India, but when 
domestication began, or at what periods these ani- 
mals first appeared 
in the countries 
where they are now 
common, is doubt- 
ful or unknown. It 
is said that they 
were introduced 
into Italy in the 




Fig. 327. Buffalo cow and calf 






Philippine islands. 



sixth century, and into Egypt some time prior to 
this period. They were in the Philippines when 
those islands were first visited by the Spaniards ; 
but further than this, little is known of their 
origin or history. 

Distribution. 

From India, where small herds of wild buffalos 
are still found in the grassy jungles along the great 
rivers and in the open moist prairies — the finest 
occuring in Assam and Burma — the domesticated 
animal has spread, in comparatively recent times, 
through southern China, the Straits Settlements, 
Java, Ceylon, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philippine 
islands. To the westward, it has extended to south- 
western Asia, Africa, along and far up the Nile, 
and to the countries of southern Europe. Great 
numbers are kept on the bottom lands of the Dan- 
ube, the Theiss, and the Drave in Austria-Hungary, 
and in Italy, on the plains lying to the north and 
east of Naples. In this last region, known as 
"Terra di Lavoro," it is reported that there are 
12,000 buffalos, bred mainly for their milk for 
cheese-making. The cheese is all consumed locally, 
as it is not adapted for export. Small importations 
have been made into Algeria and Cape Colony. In 



one importation into South Africa, it is recorded 
that two or three animals of the consignment soon 
died from " heart-water," a disease induced by the 
tortoise-shell tick, common in Cape Colony. 

Buffalos, of what appears to be the Jafarabadi 
variety, have been introduced into Trinidad, South 
America, where they are used as draft animals and 
are worked entirely by Hindu coolies. There are 
about thirty of these buffalos on the sugar estate 
of Mr. L. Bert de Lamarre, at Tacarigua, and a 
smaller herd at Chaguana. They are fed the ordi- 
nary forage of the country, with the addition of a 
little coconut-meal and molasses ; they breed 
freely on both estates ; they are not troubled 
by ticks or other insects, and, while an occa- 
sional animal may show dangerous tendencies, 
as a rule they are very docile and easily man- 
aged. They enjoy but do not seem to require a 
daily bath. [This information relative to the buf- 
falo in Trinidad has been furnished the writer by 
0. W. Barrett, of the United States Department of 
Agriculture.] 

Breeds and types. 

In India several breeds are recognized, but in 
some cases their characters do not appear to be 
defined very clearly, while in others the recogni- 
tion is purely local. Watt (Dictionary Economic 
Products of India) recognizes the following five 
breeds : 

(1) Jafarabadi or Nadhiali, distinguished by the 
remarkably large frontal bones, short, broad, much 
flattened horns, which are directed sharply back- 
wards and downwards, then abruptly upwards, so 
that the points are turned inward (horns in the 
males sometimes eight inches broad at the base); 
body very large and well set ; temperament mild ; 
cows noted for their great yield of milk. 

(2) Ramnard. — Horns of medium length, flat- 
tened, directed backwards, curving inwards toward 
the tips ; body low, thick set and deep chested ; 
hair brown or dun-colored ; cows good milkers. 
This is an excellent variety, belonging to the 
Madras breed, and is found in the district lying to 
the southeast of Madura (Wallace). 

(3) Gujarat, Talabda or Gaujal. — Much smaller 
than Jafarabadi buffalos, with comparatively short 
horns ; milk limited in quantity but richer than in 
other breeds. 

(4) Nagpur. — Horns remarkably long, sweeping 
downwards and backwards and then upwards ; 
bodies low, massive and well set ; hair black ; 
males usually very large and used for hauling 
heavy loads ; cows excellent milkers. This breed 
is very similar to the long-horned Bombay buffalos 
and is probably identical with that breed. 

(5) Deeeani. — Horns of medium length, directed 
backwards, downwards and then upwards, nearly 
in the form of a half circle ; hair brown or chest- 
nut. This breed is comparatively small and very 
hardy. The cows are fairly good milkers. 

Kundi or Khundi, according to Wallace, is a 
name applied to a local breed that is kept for 
milking purposes in the neighborhood of Cawnpore. 
It is probably only a form of the Jafarabadi buffalo. 



294 



BUFFALO 



BUFFALO 



The Madras buffalo is a small, inferior variety with 
horns of medium length, black skin and light gray 
hair. Cinghalese buffalos resemble the Madras breed 
and are even worse milkers. The Palia variety, 
from the Nariad district, is small and resembles 
the Talabda, but is more hardy. A local breed of 
the Southern Maratha country is the Jowari, 
medium in size, with rather long horns, skin usu- 
ally black, but sometimes brown or chestnut, hair 
usually dun or dull white. The Toda buffalos of 
the hill district near Utakamand are low-set, mas- 
sive, long-horned animals noted for their superior 
milking qualities. Fairchild (Bulletin No. 27, 
Bureau Plant Industry, United States Department 
of Agriculture) refers to the excellent milking 
qualities of the Delhi buffalos from Delhi, India, 
and the Surti variety from Gujarat. The former 
yields over thirty pounds of milk per day, and 
sells in Bombay for $56, gold ; the latter yields 
about twenty pounds of milk per day and sells at 
$33 to $36, gold. 

The different breeds of buffalos vary in size, the 
largest, weighing 1,600 to 2,000 pounds, occurring 
in Assam, while the smallest are found in Madras, 
where occasionally they do not exceed thirty inches 
in height when fully grown, and are correspond- 
ingly light in weight. This variation is due largely 
to good care and some attention to correct princi- 
ples of breeding in the one case, and lack of all 
care and attention in the other. Environment has 
played an important part, also, in the development 
of the breeds as they exist today. The conditions 
in Assam are evidently favorable to large growth 
of bone and muscle, while the drier and less favor- 
able climate of Madras has tended toward the pro- 
duction of a race of dwarfs. The milking breeds 
are doubtless the result of long and careful selec- 
tion, and the enormous development of the frontal 
bone in the Jafarabadi buffalos, so abnormally 
increased in some cases as completely to cover the 
eyes, is solely the result of artificial selection for 
the purpose of increasing the strength of the skull, 
in order that they may withstand the rush of com- 
bat. These animals fight by butting, and owing 
to their great weight and enormous strength, the 
shock of a well-directed charge is terrific. The 
backward growth and curvature of their horns 
renders these useless in thrusting or piercing, and 
buffalos depend on their immense ramming power 
to stun or overthrow an adversary. 

The wild water-buffalo is generally larger and 
better developed than the domesticated breeds, with 
longer horns, and is far more active in its movements ; 
some authors have treated it as a distinct spe- 
cies. It is one of the most formidable and danger- 
ous of the big game of India, quite a match for the 
Bengal tiger, and in a charge will sometimes over- 
throw an elephant, on which animal buffalos are 
hunted. This superiority of development in the wild 
breed is due doubtless to natural selection, the 
largest and strongest males driving away or killing 
the weaker bulls in the rutting season, and taking 
full possession of the cows in their immediate 
localities. Wild bulls sometimes invade domestic 
herds which may be in the neighborhood of their 



native haunts, and, appropriating the females, im- 
part their superior qualities to their progeny. This 
has been offered as an explanation for the excel- 
lence of the Assam buffalos over those breeds in 
regions far removed from the wild stock. When 
roused, the domesticated animal, ordinarily very 
docile, becomes hardly less dangerous than its wild 
parent of the jungles. Formerly the Jafarabadi 
buffalos were bred to supply animals to fight in the 
bull-rings of the Indian rajas. 

In general, it may be said that very little effort 
or care is taken to maintain distinct breeds or to 
keep pure those that are somewhat clearly defined, 
and in consequence there is more or less confusion 
in regard to their characters and limitations. This 
is manifestly the case in the Philippines, where the 
buffalo, or carabao, as it is called throughout the 
islands, is valued almost altogether as a beast of 
burden, cows and bulls being everywhere worked 




Fig. 328. Carabao with load of rice straw. Philippines. 

indiscriminately. There is no evidence of any effort 
having been made to improve the stock, or any 
recognition of distinction in breeds. 

Feeding and management. 

In buffalo countries stabling is little thought of 
and hardly needed, the animals being kept in the 
open or under the shelter of bamboos or friendly 
trees, rarely under a root of any kind. Little 
attention is given to their feed, which usually 
is limited to the coarser grasses on which they are 
allowed to graze, with an occasional feeding of 
rice or "paddy" straw when pasture is insufficient 
or inaccessible. When grazing where there are 
cultivated crops, buffalos are usually guarded by 
boys, and the relation between the beast and the 
boy is often one of manifest affection, and some- 
times even jealousy is shown on the part of the 
animal. It is a common sight in the country to see 
boys sitting on the backs of the buffalos while they 
are quietly grazing, and directing the animals by 
the nose-strings, should they attempt to pass out 
of bound. Buffalos become much attached to their 
little herders, following them about like a dog, and 
becoming active protectors in case they are exposed 
to danger. 

Working animals are driven or guided by a long 
rope, that is fastened to a ring in the nose, and 
then passed around the horns to the hand of the 
driver. In some cases the Bose-ring is omitted, the 



BUFFALO 



BUFFALO 



295 



>-ope being fastened only to the base of the horns. 
Ferking on the rope, in ways understood by the 
animal, serves to direct his course, or hasten his 
motions. Buffalos are usually driven single or tan- 
dem ; rarely are they yoked in pairs. 

In the middle of the day, when the weather is 
hot, buffalos will lie for hours in pools or streams 
with only their horns and faces above the surface. 
When the water is not deep enough completely to 
cover their bodies, they will dip their heads below 
the surface, then suddenly raise them, causing a 
stream of water to flow over their exposed backs. 
If kept too long from their accustomed water or 
mud bath, the working animals become unmanag- 
able and dangerous, and if near a pool will break 
away from the driver and rush into it. If kept too 
long in the hot sun away from water, death of the 
animals may result. 

The buffalo is distinctly the brown and yellow 
man's beast of burden ; it has no friendship for the 
Caucasian, and instances are cited when animals 
that would permit all manner of liberties from 
brown and half-naked Filipino children, would 
become excited on the approach of a white man to 
the point of attacking him viciously. The Ameri- 
can or European who attempts to drive a carabao 
may quickly find the relations reversed, and be 
forced to seek safety in flight. 

Telling the age. 

The age is judged by the condition of the incisor 
teeth, which is much more reliable than by the 
number of rings on the horns. At the age of ten 
months the young buffalo has a full set of eight 
milk incisors in the lower jaw. In the third year 
the central pair is replaced by two permanent 
teeth ; two more permanent teeth appear in the 
fifth and two in the sixth year. In the seventh 
year, the last of the milk incisors disappear, and 
when the animal is eight years old the incisors are 
permanent, the earlier ones being much worn. At 
twelve years, the " uncertain age " has arrived, and 
beyond this period it is impossible to determine how 
old the animal may be. 



For milk, butter and cheese. — Certain breeds of 
buffalos are noted for the abundance and richness 
of the milk that they yield, and are kept almost 
solely for dairy purposes. Such are the famous 
Jafarabadi or Bombay buffalo, and the Talabda or 
Gujarat. When well cared for these animals will 
yield thirty to forty pounds of milk, making one to 
two pounds of butter per day. In some localities, 
the whole milk is used in manufacturing cheese, 
which is said to be of fairly good quality. The 
yield of milk of the Italian buffalo cow averages 
fourteen liters per day [a liter is about one and 
three-fourths pints], which, used whole, will make 
nearly three kilos of cheese. The milk has a blu- 
ish tint, and to the European or American taste 
a slightly musky or insipid flavor, but it is rich and 
the yield per animal is nearly twice that of the 
cattle of the same region. Buffalo's milk is remark- 
ably rich in butter-fat, amounting to nearly twice 



the percentage of that of a good Jersey cow. The 
following are recorded analyses of the milk, the 
first being from buffalo cows in Italy, the second 
from cows in India : 

Italian Indian 

Per cent Per cent 

Water 82.2 82.05 

Fat 7.95 7.99 

Casein 4.13 4.00 

Milk-sugar 4.75 5.18 

Salts 0.97 0.78 



100.00 



100.00 



All attempts to raise the milking breeds of cattle 
of western Europe, or of the United States, in the 
tropical countries best suited to the buffalo, have 
proved to be complete failures. Attempts at cross- 
ing buffalos with cattle have been futile. 

For beef. — Buffalo meat is poor in quality and has 
a strong, unpleasant taste. It is eaten only by the 
poorer classes and semi-civilized or savage tribes. 
The latter sometimes allow it to become putrid 
before consuming it. 

For draft. — While of primary importance in the 
cultivation of rice lands, and, in the Philippines, in 
working the sugar plantations, the buffalo is used 
also as a draft animal for hauling merchandise and 
farm products, and its great strength is utilized in 
dragging heavy timber from the forests. Some- 
times, although rarely, it is harnessed to vehicles 
to carry the traveler over unfrequented routes, an 
exceedingly slow means of conveyance but accept- 
able at times, and quite in keeping with the customs 
of the country. 

For hides and horns. — The hides and horns of 
the water-buffalo are valuable in commerce. The 
leather is comparatively light, durable and impervi- 
ous to water. Besides supplying the local demands, 
large quantities are annually exported from Manila, 
mostly to the Chinese and Indian markets. 

For hunting. — Bulls of the larger breeds are 
used in India in hunting tigers, for which animals 
they have no fear and will even attack and kill 
them in single combat. In the marshes, buffalos 
are employed by sportsmen hunting water-fowls and 
other game-birds. 



Price of i 

The price of buffalos varies, like that of other 
stock, with the age and usefulness of the animal 
and with the demand. The prices paid under con- 
tract for working animals by the civil government 
of the Philippines, in importations from China, 
ranged from $40 to $79, Shanghai currency, the 
greater number being purchased at the latter price. 
In Assam, the average price for males is Rs. 45 ; 
for especially fine animals, Rs. 80. The value of 
cows depends on their age and milking qualities, 
full-grown animals in breeding condition ranging 
from Rs. 70 to Rs. 100 ; unusually excellent milk- 
ers bring a much higher price. In Bombay, cows 
are sold at Rs. 10 per ser (2 lbs.) of milk given per 
day. Wallace cites an instance of a cow that gave 
24 ser daily. In Italy they are valued at 600 to 900 
francs ; in Hungary, at $50 to $100. [A rupee 
(Rs) is about 45 cents ; a franc about 20 cents.] 



296 



BUFFALO 



CAMELS 



The diseases of buffalos are the same as those 
that attack cattle; the symptoms are identical and 
the diseases are subject to the same treatment. 
Very rarely is any treatment or remedy applied by 
the natives or any attempt made on their part to 
separate diseased from healthy animals. 

According to the Philippine census, there were 
1,172,223 buffalos in the islands in 1902, valued 
at 49,319,755 pesos (a peso is about 50 cents). In 
the same year the loss from disease, chiefly rinder- 
pest, amounted to over 42 per cent of the entire 
number ; in some localities the mortality ran as 
high as 70 per cent. A part of this loss is attrib- 
uted to hemorrhagic septicemia (see page 132), 
surra (see page 140) and foot-and-mouth disease (see 
page 143). The cause of hemorrhagic septicemia 
is obscure ; surra, in some instances at least, follows 
the use of virulent blood containing the organisms 
of this disease in inoculations against rinderpest ; 
foot-and-mouth disease is common in Manila and 
other ports, where shipments are made by steamers 
and where the animals are kept in corrals or much 
used in the streets and roads. It is not serious 
except in complication with rinderpest. 

The mortality among the buffalos imported into 
the Philippines from China in 1903-04 was 47.6 
per cent ; in the case of one shipment it amounted 
to 100 per cent. These animals were regarded as 
healthy or free from disease when accepted, and the 
great mortality that almost immediately followed 
their importation has never been clearly accounted 
for. It may have been due, in part at least, to the 
inexperience of those in charge, the use of defective 
serum and the incautious use of virulent blood in the 
simultaneous inoculations. The whole endeavor to 
aid the Filipinos by these importations was experi- 
mental, and proved to be a very costly experience. 

The use of anti-rinderpest serum, hypodermic- 
ally injected in proper quantity, has been found 
effective in the treatment of the disease in the 
Philippines, affording immunity for a period vary- 
ing from one to two months. Permanent immunity, 
it is said, is secured by the simultaneous method of 
inoculation, which consists in injecting into one side 
1 cc. of virulent blood from a sick animal and 30 
cc. of serum at the same time on the other side. 
Animals already diseased have been cured by inject- 
ing anti-rinderpest serum directly into the jugular 
vein. The simultaneous method of treatment can 
not be employed when other diseases, especially 
surra, or hemorrhagic septicemia, exist as compli- 
cations. The Director of the Insular Bureau of 
Agriculture states (Report for 1906, p. 177) that 
under the conditions which prevail in these islands 
the serum method promises the best results for 
general use. The simultaneous method may be used 
to advantage where the country is densely settled 
and the animals assembled in large numbers, pro- 
vided no complicating diseases prevail at the time 
of inoculation. The deferred method, — inoculation 
with virulent blood followed in about ten days 
with serum, — is practicable only with small herds 
of valuable animals, and when complications might 
follow the simultaneous method. 



In India, inoculation has been proposed as a 
general panacea for all cattle diseases, but in gen- 
eral application it has proved disappointing. In 
cases in which the animals can be carefully nursed 
during the fever resulting from the operation, it 
might prove perfectly successful. One of the great 
difficulties that stand in the way of its introduc- 
tion on a large scale is the fact that often two or 
three separate and distinct diseases have to be 
guarded against. 

Other diseases that affect the buffalo are guti, 
kachua, marki, haiza (cholera) and matikhowa 
(earth-eating). These are local Indian or Hindu 
names. 

Literature. 

Watt, Dictionary of the Economic Products of 
India, Vol. V.; Agricultural Ledger (Calcutta), 1894, 
No. 14 ; Wallace, Indian Agriculture ; Shortt, Man- 
ual of Indian Cattle and Sheep ; Buchannan, Journey 
from Madras, Vols. L, II. and III. ; Jerdon, Mam- 
mals of India (1874); Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. 
IV. ; Balfour, Encyclopaedia India, Vol. I. ; New 
International Encyclopaedia, Vol. III. ; David G. 
Fairchild, Bulletin No. 27, Bureau of Plant Industry, 
United States Department of Agriculture ; Paul G. 
Woolley, Bulletin No. 12, Bureau of Government 
Laboratories, Philippine islands (1903); J. W. Job- 
ling, Bulletin No. 4, Bureau of Government Labora- 
tories, Philippine islands ; Census of Philippine 
islands, IV. ; Annual Reports of Philippine Com- 
mission ; Consular Reports on Cattle and Dairy 
Farming (1887); J. J. Carter, Veterinary Journal, 
N. Series 5 (1902), No. 29; Natal Agricultural 
and Mining Record, VII. (1904); Analyst, 26 (1901). 
[See Vol. L, page 131.] 

CAMELS IN NORTH AMERICA. Camelus, spp. 
Camelidce. Figs. 8, 9. 

By G. A. Mack. 

According to a writer in the International 
Encyclopedia, North America was the original 
home of the Camelidae. The oldest form (Prototy- 
lops), hardly larger than a jack-rabbit, yet camel- 
like in many particulars, is found in the upper 
Eocene rocks. A steady increase of size goes 
through the ascending formations of the Miocene, 
until we reach Procamelus, found in the Loup Fork 
beds of Wyoming, which was as big as a sheep and 
very llama-like. During the Miocene, the western 
American plateau seems to have been an arid desert, 
and under such conditions were developed the large, 
splayed feet, bereft of the useless side toes, the 
great sole-pads, and the pouched stomach that 
characterize the race. At the close of the Miocene, 
however, there came about a steady change toward 
a warmer, moister climate, inducing forest growth, 
which put an end to camel life in North America. 
Meanwhile they had migrated into South America, 
where fossil remains of great size are found, and 
where the family still survives, in the modified and 
perhaps degenerated forms of the llamas (Fig. 11); 
and northwestward to Siberia, thence into Central 
Asia, where their remains are found in the Pliocene 



CAMELS 



CAMELS 



297 



rocks of India, but not earlier. There the con- 
ditions were favorable, and the modern camels seem 
to have developed. 

The genus Camelus is composed of two species, 
the true or Arabian camel (Camelus dromedarius), 
having one hump, and the Bactrian camel (Camelus 
bactrianus), having two humps. These humps are 
stores of flesh and fat, and may be entirely ab- 
sorbed in case of famine. After a long journey 
with little or no food, they are noticeably smaller, 
and may even disappear. 

Importation of camels to America. 

Efforts have been made to introduce camels into 
America for transportation purposes. It is recorded 
that camels were taken to Peru shortly before the 
beginning of the seventeenth century, and also that 
a few reached Jamaica and Virginia, but without 
great success. In ante-bellum days, supplies for the 
military posts in western Texas, New Mexico, and 
Arizona were shipped to Indianola, Texas. Thence 
they were conveyed by trains of wagons, drawn by 
oxen or mules, to points in the interior. Much of 
the territory traversed was a desolate waste, and 
stretches of forty to ninety miles between water- 
ing-places were frequent. The trails were marked 
by the bones of countless animals that had died of 
thirst, and even human lives were sacrificed to the 
necessity of relieving, as promptly as possible, the 
wants of some lonely garrison in the wilderness. 

So slow, dangerous and costly was the method of 
transportation then in use, that the War Depart- 
ment looked about for a better way, and finally 
suggested to Congress the importation of camels to 
serve as burden-bearers in the arid Southwest. 
Just who conceived the idea is not positively known. 
The credit is given to Major G. H. Crosman and 
Major Henry C. Wayne, two military commanders. 
Jefferson Davis, then in the Senate and afterward 
Secretary of War, took great interest in the mat- 
ter, and worked for its accomplishment. Many 
others interested themselves in the question and 
an effort was made in the winter of 1852-53 to 
authorize the Secretary of War to make an impor- 
tation of camels and dromedaries. But it was not 
until two years later that the department was 
authorized and directed to attempt the experiment 
by the following resolution, approved March 3, 1855 : 
"Thirty-third Congress, Second Session, Chapter 
169, Section 4. And be it further enacted, That the 
sum of $30,000 be, and the same is hereby, appro- 
priated, to be expended under the direction of the 
War Department in the purchase of camels and im- 
portation of dromedaries, to be employed for mili- 
tary purposes." 

February 2, 1857, Congress, by resolution, called 
on the Secretary for information "showing the 
results of the trial of the camel as a beast of bur- 
den and for the transportation of troops." Follow- 
ing is an excerpt from Mr. Davis' report : " Under 
the appropriation of $30,000, seventy-five camels 
have been imported. The aid furnished by the Sec- 
retary of the Navy in the use of a store-ship return- 
ing from the Mediterranean greatly reduced the 
cost of transportation, enabled the department to 



introduce a much greater number of camels than 
was originally calculated, and has secured to the 
government the means of making the experiment 
on a scale which will sufficiently demonstrate the 
adaptation of the animal to the climate and circum- 
stances of our country and its value for military 
purposes. The limited trial which has been made 
has fully realized my expectations and has increased 
my confidence in the success of the experiment." 

From the mass of correspondence accompanying 
the report, it is learned that Major Henry C. Wayne 
was detailed to buy the camels. He went first to 
England, and while there saw Prof. Richard Owen, 
who assured him that there would be no difficulty 
in acclimating and breeding the camel in the United 
States. Wayne also visited the Zoological Garden to 
study the feeding, care and hygiene of the camels 
and dromedaries in that institution. Further inves- 
tigations were made in France and the Crimea. In 
six months spent in Egypt and neighboring coun- 
tries, he secured thirty-three camels, including two 
fine specimens presented to him by Bey Mohammed 
Pasha. There were seven males in the consignment. 
The average price paid was about $250 per camel. 
Six Arabs and a Turk were employed to attend the 
camels on the ship. 

Embarking with his charges February 11, 1856, 
he arrived at Indianola, May 14. The animals were 
in good condition, considering their long confine- 
ment on shipboard, and were, with the exception of 
a few boils and swelled legs, apparently in health. 
Major Wayne eventually became enthusiastic, and 
requested permission to hire a breeding farm for his 
charges. The department replied that the establish- 
ment of a breeding farm did not enter into its plans, 
its object being merely to ascertain whether the 
animal was adapted to military service and could be 
economically and usefully employed therein. 

In June, 1856, Lieutenant D. D. Porter was sent 
after another load of camels. On December 13, he 
wrote that he expected to be at New Orleans with 
the store-ship Supply and a cargo of forty-four 
camels some time in January. It was not, however, 
until February 10, 1857, that forty-one camels 
(three having died) were landed at Indianola from 
the steamer Suwanee. Lieutenant Porter has this 
to say regarding the animals, as he observed them 
in North Africa: "In their campaigns against Al- 
giers, the French were surprised to see their camels, 
although reduced to skeletons, making forced 
marches with their loads. Mules in their condition 
could not even have carried their saddles. A camel's 
flesh is as good as beef. You can hardly tell one 
meat from the other. Camel's milk is very good, as 
I can testify, because I used it in my coffee." 

The camels seem to have been used with greater 
or less success for the next few years. Late in 
1857, Lieutenant E. F. Beale employed camels in 
a survey to open up a wagon road from Fort Defi- 
ance, New Mexico, to the eastern frontiers of Cali- 
fornia. The journey occupied forty-eight days. 
Lieutenant Beale praises highly the service ren- 
dered by the camels on th is occasion. John B. Floyd, 
then Secretary of War, made repeated efforts to 
induce Congress to make another appropriation to 



298 



CAMELS 



CAMELS 



continue the experiment on a larger scale, but to 
no avail. Following this, many of the camels were 
held at the various military posts in California, 
where they received scant attention. On September 
9, 1863, the War Department ordered the camels 
in California to be sold at public auction. It is 
thought that many of these animals eventually 
found their way into circuses, menageries and 
zoological gardens, and others were abandoned. 
Some of the remainder of the camels were still at 
Camp Verde, the camel station, at the close of the 
Civil war. These were likewise disposed of at pub- 
lic auction, and some of them were driven into 
Mexico. 

About 1861, a San Francisco company imported 
twenty Bactrian camels from Central Asia, more 
than half of which were employed in Nevada in 
carrying salt. It is supposed that these were after- 
ward taken to Arizona. 

Having reached this point, the student of camel 
history steps from the solid ground of official record 
to flounder amid the fantasies of the newspaper 
paragrapher, supported only by the recollections of 
the oldest inhabitant. Search as one may, no fur- 
ther word can be found in Government archives 
concerning this experiment in transportation, nor 
of the subsequent history of the poor animals aban- 
doned to their fate in a strange country. That they 
were so abandoned, there is indubitable evidence, 
though it may well be doubted that they were 
turned loose in obedience to a formal order. The 
remaining unsold camels, not having proved so 
useful as was anticipated, were scattered in small 
bands among the different posts. Tired of caring 
for the animals, and receiving no further instruc- 
tions regarding them, it is likely that the comman- 
dants of the posts where they chanced to be, turned 
them out, expecting them to feed and remain in 
the vicinity, where they could be recaptured when 
wanted. They evidently did not know that the camel 
is the most losable animal ever domesticated. The 
liberated beasts, with one accord, whether intending 
to take ship at Indianola, or to foot it back to Egypt, 
headed southeast. Ultimately they reached the 
Texan coast. If any of the animals remained in 
New Mexico or Arizona, persistent epistolary perse- 
cution of postmasters, and others in those parts, 
has failed to produce testimony to that effect. 

Regarding the camels that drifted to the coast, 
much information is obtainable. Captain Thomas 
Field, of Victoria, Texas, supplies many interesting 
details, some of which appear to fill in apparent 
gaps in the official record. In 1857, Captain Field, 
then twelve years old, began a long-continued ac- 
quaintance with the camels. Some time in that year, 
he and other boys in that vicinity followed for miles 
a caravan of camels that passed through Victoria. 
The animals, which he says had been kept for 
months at Indianola to recuperate from the effects 
of their ocean voyage, were on their way to El Paso, 
in charge of Arab attendants and a troop of soldiers. 
Captain Field thinks there were more than one 
hundred camels in the train. That, of course, is a 
too liberal view of the matter. It is possible that 
the drove brought over by Major Wayne was held at 



Indianola until the arrival of the lot imported by 
Lieutenant Porter. If that was the case, the Cap- 
tain saw seventy-four adult camels. He says there 
were camel colts — or is it calves? — with the cara- 
van ; but surely there could not have been enough 
of them to bring the total number to 100. After 
having remained near Victoria a day or so to re^t 
and readjust saddles and packs, the procession set 
out for San Antonio. So far everything was satisfac- 
tory, the first report to Washington was favorable, 
and the problem of transportation seemed to have 
been solved. At San Antonio soldiers and citizens 
turned out to welcome the exiles from Egypt. 

When the line of march was taken up for El Paso, 
the rough rock-road began to tell on the camels. It 
was soon found that the pads of their feet were 
wearing to the quick, while in some cases stone- 
bruises appeared. The problem of shoeing a divided 
foot without a hoof on it proved unsolvable. Black- 
smiths made half shoes, hinged shoes and solid 
shoes, but in the absence of hoofs to which to nail 
them, no way to retain them in place could be 
devised. Then the butcher was applied to for a sup- 
ply of rawhide, and the feet of the camels were 
wrapped in that material. The rawhide shoes served 
the purpose, but wore out about as fast as they 
could be made. 

At the outbreak of the war, Captain Field joined 
the Fourth Texas cavalry, and saw service in New 
Mexico. There, at different forts, he came across 
small bands of camels, " laid up for repairs." When 
he returned, in 1865, to his home near the mouth 
of the San Antonio river, in Refugio county, he 
found his cameline friends had preceded him. As 
the camels worked southward, most of them struck 
into the country between the San Antonio and 
Guadaloupe rivers. Being unable to cross either 
and apparently unwilling to turn north again, they 
found themselves stopped at length by the junction 
of the two rivers. That is in the vicinity of Hines 
bay, and thereabouts the beasts remained. A few 
that turned south farther west than the main 
bunch were stopped by the Guadaloupe at Camp 
Verde, 200 miles higher up. Although the camels 
around Hines bay proved a decided nuisance to the 
settlers, no attempt was made to capture them, nor 
were they molested in any way. The opinion pre- 
vailed at that time that government property was 
best let alone. Some time in 1868, however, a 
traveling showman named Robertson passed through 
the county, and, learning of the presence of the 
camels, and the desire of the neighborhood to be 
rid of them, rounded up eleven head and took them 
away. What he did with them is not known. 

Enjoying perfect liberty in an almost semi-trop- 
ical country, it seems strange that the herd should 
not have increased instead of retrograding. Cap- 
tain Field saw a two-year-old in 1866. Being notedly 
long-lived beasts, it seems impossible that all could 
have died of old age within ten years. Despite the 
general good treatment which, the captain says, 
the animals received, it is probable that the taste 
of camel steak was not altogether unknown in that 
region. No one attempted to make any practical use 
of the roaming animals. 



CAT 



CAT 



299 



Literature. 

Charles C. Carroll, The Government's Importa- 
tion of Camels, Circular No. 53, Bureau of Animal 
Industry, United States Department of Agriculture; 
G. A. Mack, An Experiment in Transportation, 
Shield's Magazine, May, 1906. This article is adapted 
from these two sources. Wortman, Bulletin, Amer- 
ican Museum Natural History, X, New York, 1898, 
contains notes on the American fossil camels. 

CAT. Felis domesticus. Felidm. Figs. 329, 330. 

The domestic cat has played its part in the 
advancement of agriculture, as in the pioneer days 
it made living possible in the new country, with its 
innumerable host of rodents, especially mice, which 
otherwise would have riddled the pioneer's store of 
provisions. And today it is found on the farm, shar- 
ing with the dog the police duty of the buildings 
and grounds, as well as satisfying a natural desire 
for animal companionship. 

The cat may be a nuisance, however, unless care- 
fully managed and controlled. Being allowed free 
access to the sick and the well, and being herself 
subject to germ diseases, she may be a carrier of 
contagion. On the Pacific coast she breeds count- 
less fleas. It is as a destroyer of birds, however, 
that the cat is a most serious menace to agriculture. 
At a time when we are trying to spread a love of 
birds and of nature, we should see to it that, in pro- 
tecting birds, the children are not merely rearing 
more feed for cats. Bells on cats may prevent their 
catching mature birds, but they do not hinder them 
from robbing nests or taking young birds ; they 
are, therefore, not of much use until after the fledg- 
ling season is over. Of all domestic animals, the cat 
is the only one that is allowed to roam at will with- 
out being regarded as a trespasser or nuisance. All 
cats should be confined to the buildings of the 
owner ; or, if not controllable, they should be 
limited by cages (or wire-screen rooms) or allowed 
to run from a wire to which they are secured by a 
collar and cord. Herein lies the solution of the 
problem, — the treating of all roaming cats as wild 
animals and trespassers. It is just as much one's 
duty to keep his cats at home as to keep his horses, 
dogs and chickens at home. Mice and rats should 
be destroyed by constant use of traps. Many of the 
birds are protected by law, and yet persons who 
think that they respect the law may allow their cats 
to roam at will. It may be true that some birds 
are themselves a menace to agriculture, but cats do 
not discriminate; the fundamental point is that cats, 
as well as other live-stock, should be controlled. 

Cats and their care. 

By E. R. B. Champion. 

The many varieties of cats known today are 
founded on but two types, the long-haired cat of 
the East and the short-haired cat of Europe. Show 
cats of both groups are judged by practically the 
same standard as to color and conformation. In 
both types the head should be as large as possible, 
round in shape, with large, full eyes, small ears 



set far apart on the skull, and a short, wide nose. 
The ears and feet in the long-haired species should 
be well feathered or "tufted" with long hair, as 
this is a sign of high breeding. The body should be 
short and compact, the tail short and tapering and 
carried low ; but it should be of such length, that 
it does not touch the ground when the cat is in 
motion. The legs should be thick and short. The 
only cats that differ in appearance from the above 
standard are the Manx, Siamese and Abyssinian. 
These varieties are very rare in this country. The 
coat of a long-haired cat is soft and silky, hanging 
in wavy masses, whilst that of the short-haired cat 
is harsh, short and has an even glossy appearance. 
The color of the eyes differs with each variety ; for 
example, a white cat should have blue or orange 
eyes ; a blue cat, either long- or short-haired, 
should have orange eyes, as should also a black, 
tabby, smoke, cream, orange, or tortoiseshell ; the 
chinchilla and shaded silver should have eyes of a 
deep blue-green, sometimes called "eau de nil." 

Breeds and types. 

As has been said, cats are commonly divided 
into two groups or types, the long-haired and the 
short-haired. Within these groups, color and con- 
formation, more especially the former, are the 
marks of distinction, and the varieties are bred for 
these features. We have chiefly the self-colored 
and the tabby types. A self-colored cat is of one 
uniform shade or 
solid color, as 
black, white, 
orange and blue. 
The varieties of 
tabby and the 
combinations of 
color are several 
—blue, orange, 
brown, silver 
(Fig. 329), gray 
and tortoise- 
shell. 

Long - haired 
cats have long 
been known in 
India, France, 
China and Per- 
sia. Formerly 
the several va- 
rieties were 
more or less dis- 
tinct and were sub-divided into Angora, Persian 
and other classes. These varieties have been so 
interbred for years that it has been considered 
advisable to designate them all as " long-haired 
cats," as it would be impossible to distinguish any 
one characteristic breed in the present day. 

Colors known solely to the long-haired cat are 
the chinchilla, shaded silver, and self-orange. The 
first named is the rarest of all, and it is very diffi- 
cult to secure a fine specimen. The coat should be 
of a pale silver-gray, almost white at the roots. 
There should be no tabby markings, and it is this 
elimination of stripes that makes it such a task to 




Fig. 329. A prize-winning, long-haired 
silver tabby. Lady Vere de Vere, 
winner of eighteen prizes in Eng- 
land and America. 



300 



CAT 



CAT 



breed a fine specimen. The shaded silver should be 
silver evenly tipped with dark shadings on face, 
back and legs. It is a very handsome cat. Like the 
chinchilla, it should have green eyes and be free 
from tabby markings. The self-orange, as its name 
implies, is of one uniform shade of orange, free 
from tabby marking, and with deep orange eyes. 

Tabbies should have a pure ground color with 
broad, black markings ; for example, a brown tabby 
is practically sable or tawny colored, marked with 
dense black stripes. The orange tabby is marked 
with a deeper shade of orange instead of black, and 
in this particular differs from other tabbies. It has 
been the standard for many years that all tabbies 
should have deep, orange-colored eyes, but there is 
now a movement among breeders to introduce 
green or emerald eyes for the silver tabby. 

The cream-colored cat is very rare in the short- 
haired varieties, although there are many long- 
haired specimens. The color should be clear biscuit 
or fawn, and the eyes orange-colored. 

The smoke cat, known to both long-haired and 
short-haired varieties, is, in the latter, an appar- 
ently black cat, but the fur at the roots is pale, 
clear silver. In the long-haired variety, the silver 
undercolor breaks through, forming a pale silver 
ruff around the face, and pale silver fur on the 
underside of the body and tail ; no trace of tabby 
marking is allowable. 

The tortoiseshcll cat, both a long- and a short- 
haired type, is of three distinct colors, red, yellow 
and black, evenly distributed over the body, face, 
legs and tail in patches. No ticking or tabby mark- 
ing is desirable. Curiously enough, cats of this 
color are always females. 

The Siamese cat is a distinct variety of short- 
haired cat, peculiar to Siam, as its name denotes, 
where it is highly prized, and propagated under 
Royal supervision. The color of a "Royal Siamese," 
as it is termed, is a clear fawn or dun, with ex- 
tremeties — viz, nose, ears and feet — of deep choco- 
late or even black. The tail is shorter than in the 
ordinary short-haired cat and should be shaded 
with the dark chocolate color. The coat is partic- 
ularly short, close, and of an even velvety texture, 
and the eyes should be an intense blue. Some 
authorities contend that the Siamese should have 
a "kinked" tail, but many persons consider this 
eccentricity due to the inbreeding which undoubt- 
edly exists among these cats in Siam. Inbreeding, 
if practiced to a very great extent, will produce 
many deformities, and seems especially to affect 
the spine. The Siamese is the hardest variety of cat 
to raise; it seems very susceptible to cold and damp, 
and also to a form of brain trouble. The shape of 
the head, both in Siamese and in Abyssinian cats, 
differs from other varieties, being more like that 
of the original wild cat, that is, wedge-shaped. 

The Abyssinian cat resembles in its coloring the 
Belgian hare rabbit. The fur is of a rufus-red color, 
ticked evenly with black, with a black stripe down 
the spine, continuing to the extremity of the tail. 
This cat resembles in size the domestic or short- 
haired cat. The coat should be close and soft, and 
the brighter in color the better. The writer has 



never seen specimens of this variety in America, 
but they are bred in England, where there is a 
"Specialty Club " to encourage their propagation. 

The Manx cat (Fig. 330) is native to the Isle of 
Man. It is noticeable primarily for its absence of 
caudal appendage, and for the length of the lower 
joints of its hind legs, which gives it, when in 
motion, somewhat the action of a rabbit. These 




Fig. 330. A Manx cat. 

cats are very rare in this country. For exhibition 
purposes they should show no trace of tail and 
should also have the characteristic action of the 
true Manx cat. In colors they correspond with the 
varieties known as short-haired domestic cats. 

Breeding. 

In breeding cats, it should be remembered that 
they are carnivorous animals, and therefore it is 
not advisable to start breeding on such an exten- 
sive scale that it is impossible to feed them in a 
natural way. Breeders should limit their opera- 
tions to raising a few certain colors. Cats are 
prolific breeders, and, if allowed to do so, will raise 
three to four families in one year. If they are 
desired for exhibition, however, only one litter a 
year should be attempted, as much finer specimens 
will thus be secured and they will be less likely to 
contract diseases. 

Breeding cats should be chosen for their pedi- 
gree and conformation. To attain the best results, 
one should not cross different colors or varieties, 
but breed blue to blue, black to black, and so on. 
In striving to secure a type of cat as near perfec- 
tion as possible, a certain amount of inbreeding is 
necessary. This is true in breeding all animals, 
and although show specimens can be, and are 
secured without it, it will be found that the good 
points of parents will not be reproduced in the off- 
spring unless inbreeding is resorted to in order to 
fix the type. 

If one is breeding self-colors, as black, white, or 
blue, special attention must be paid to the sound- 
ness of the color ; whites must be free from cream i- 
ness ; blacks must be coal-black, with no white 
hairs and no shading of the color toward the roots 
of the fur ; the blue cat should be a uniform shade 
of blue throughout. 

In breeding tabbies, either long-haired or short- 
haired, the principal point is distinctness and depth 
of markings, with purity of ground color. As the 
best known variety of tabby is the brown, this 
will serve to illustrate what we mean. In this 
variety, the ground color must be as clear a sable 



CAT 



CATTLE 



301 



or ta\ ny color as possible, not ticked with black, 
and the markings, to be perfect, must be a deep, 
dense black, not ticked with the brown of the 
ground color. The tabby markings should corre- 
spond on both sides of the cat, and should form 
distinct lines or necklaces about the throat and 
chest. The tail also must be tabbied. 

Feeding and care. 

In raising cats, meat should be the staple diet. 
This may be mixed with green vegetables, but 
farinaceous and starchy foods, such as rice, oat- 
meal and potatoes, should be strictly avoided ; 
water should be given to drink, and no milk. The 
latter is peculiarly indigestible to cats. 

Cats should be kept excessively clean, both as to 
the freedom of their coats from all vermin, and 
also in regard to their quarters. They are natu- 
rally very clean in their habits. If properly treated, 
they are gentle and docile in disposition. 

Diseases. 

Cats are very susceptible to dampness. While 
they will flourish in a dry, clear, cold, and require no 
heat in such a climate, dampness will bring on many 
ills, such as pneumonia, opthalmia and distemper. 
The principal causes of mortality in kittens are 
indigestion and distemper. By strict attention to 
cleanliness and diet, the former may be avoided to 
a great extent. Th3 latter, an infectious disease, 
is frequently contracted through undue exposure, 
or more commoily from infected cats. The princi- 
pal remedies for indigestion are sub-nitrate of 
bismuth and pepsin. For distemper, there is no 
known cure. It is a disease rarely contracted by 
animals over one year old. The best treatment is 
warmth, nourishm?nt and tonic. Quinine in very 
small doses is beneficial. The most common remedies 
used in opthalmia are boracic acid and sulfate of 
zinc lotions, and the oxids of mercury, both yel- 
low and red, in very severe cases. In giving medi- 
cine and applying external lotions to cats, it is 
well to remember that preparations of carbolic acid 
or coal-tar are peculiarly poisonous to cats, as is 
also any preparation of opium. 

Organizations and records. 

Some of the principal organizations for improv- 
ing the condition of the cat in this country are, 
The Beresford Cat Club, of Chicago, The Atlantic 
Cat Club, The Lockehaven Cat Club, The Short- 
haired Cat Society, The Buffalo Cat Club and The 
Washington Cat Club, among many others. There 
are also two associations of breeders formed for 
the purpose of maintaining proper registration of 
pedigrees, making show rules and regulations and 
similar work. These are the American Cat Associ- 
ation, with headquarters in Chicago, and the Cat 
Fanciers' Association, with its secretary in Buffalo. 
There are many foreign organizations, notably in 
Great Britain. 

The first registry of cats to be founded in America 
was the Beresford Cat Club Studbook in Chicago. 
In Great Britain there are the National and the 
Cat Club studbooks (the latter now discontinued). 



Literature. 

Much has been written about cats. The follow- 
ing references will suggest other sources of infor- 
mation : John Jennings, Domestic and Fancy Cats; 
Frances Simpson, The Book of the Cat ; G. Stables, 
Cats : Handbook to Their Classification, Diseases 
and Training ; H. Weir, Our Cats, Varieties, Habits 
and Management. 



CATTLE. Bos taurus, Linn, and B. Indicus, Linn. 
Bovidas. Figs. 331-394; also Figs. 14-16, 35-3S, 
45-49, 131, 132, 276; also Fig. 1. 

Cattle are the most important domestic animals 
of the English-speaking peoples. They are beasts 
of labor, and they afford meat, hides, and milk ; 
and from the milk are made cheese and butter and 
many products of lesser importance. Cattle are 
animals for poor and rich alike. With a very few 
acres of land, a few fowls and a cow, a family can- 
not starve. In great herds of many highly developed 
and elaborately recorded breeds, cattle afford enter- 
tainment for the wealthy. In all regions of men 
between these two extremes, cattle are sources of 
subsistence and satisfaction. 

Cattle have responded remarkably to the needs 
of man by varying under his care, and developing 
into many forms. There are no cattle so dwarf as 
are the smallest ponies among horses, although the 
Kerry is very small, but diminutive races would 
undoubtedly have developed if there had been any 
utility in preserving them ; yet there are great 
ranges of size and shape and temperament. Color 
ranges from clean white to jet-black, through 
roans, grays, bays, and various grades of brown- 
reds, and with many brindled and parti -colored 
kinds. The first great development of cattle was 
for labor. With the increasing use of the horse 
and of machinery, this utility of cattle has fallen 
away. Perhaps fashion and the mere desire to 
move quickly have had something to do with this 
disuse ; it is probable that work oxen can be 
economically used at the present time in American 
agriculture to a greater extent than they are now 
employed. The second great evolution of domestic 
cattle was into breeds that are specially adapted 
for the producing of beef. The third stage is the 
special development of the dairy cow, coincident 
with the growth of cities, and the demand for more 
of the amenities of living. There has arisen a 
strong divergence in form of body and in consti- 
tution between the beef type and the dairy type. 
This divergence has emphasized the departure from 
the older unpedigreed cattle, so much so that we 
now often speak of animals that are profitable in 
production of both beef and milk as "dual-purpose 
cattle." 

With the development of understanding of the 
physiological laws of feeding, cattle-farming has 
taken on a new significance and impetus. New 
interests have centered about it. To this interest 
is now to be added a rational practice in stable 
construction and in general care, and a new reali- 
zation of what is meant by cleanliness. Breeding 
is taking new direction. In the meantime, the 



302 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



general agricultural economy has undergone great 
change, calling for new adaptations in the cattle. 
According to theYearbook for 1906, United States 
Department of Agriculture, the number of cattle in 
America was as follows : 





Tear 


Total 


Dairy cows 


United States: 








Contiguous — 








On farms . . . 


1907 


72,534,000 


20,968,000 


Not on farms . . 


1900 


1,616,422 


973,033 


Noncontiguous : 








Alaska (on farms') 


1900 


18 


13 


Hawaii (on farms) 


1900 


102,908 


4,028 


Porto Rico . . . 


1899 


260,225 


73,372 


Total United States(ex- 






cept Philippine Is.) . 




74,513,573 


22,018,446 


Canada : 








New Brunswick . . 


1905 


230,000 


111,084 




1906 


2,963,618 


1,129,047 




1906 


521,112 


170,143 


Saskatchewan . . . 


1906 


472,854 


112,618 




1906 


950,632 


101,245 


Other 


1901 


2,123,932 


1,033,295 


Total Canada .... 


7,262,148 


2,657,432 



The same Yearbook gives the number and value 
of milch cows and other cattle in the United States: 



Index to Cattle Articles 

Pace 

Origin of Domestic Cattle 302 

Selection and Management of the Dairy Herd . . . 303 

The Production of Milk 309 

Feeding Dairy Cattle 313 

Feeding Beef Cattle 317 

Determining the Age of Cattle 321 

Common Ailments of Cattle 321 

Aberdeen-Angus Cattle 330 

Ayrshire Cattle 333 

Brown Swiss Cattle 337 

Devon Cattle 339 

Dutch Belted Cattle 341 

French-Canadian Cattle 343 

Galloway Cattle 345 

Guernsey Cattle 348 

Hereford and Double-Standard Polled Hereford Cattle 351 

Holstein-Friesian Cattle 355 

Jersey Cattle 361 

Oxen 366 

Red Polled Cattle 367 

Shorthorn and Polled Durham Cattle 369 

Sussex Cattle 376 

Some of the Lesser Known Breeds of Cattle .... 377 

Origin of Domestic Cattle. 

By Frederick B. Mumford. 

Domestic cattle have been derived from at least 
three distinct prehistoric species, Bos primigenius, 
B. longifrons, and B. frontosus. The first, B. 
primigenius, also called Urus, was the species do- 
mesticated by the Swiss lake-dwellers, and existed 





Milch cows 


Farm value 


Other cattle 






Number 


Price 
per head 


Number 


Price 
per head 


Farm value 


January 1, 1867 

January 1, 1907 


8,348,773 
20,968,265 


$28 74 
31 00 


$239,946,612 
645,496,980 


11,730,952 
51,565,731 


$15 79 

17 10 


$185,253,850 
881,557,398 



The Canada Yearbook for 1905 gives the value 
of milch cows in Canada in 1901 as $69,237,- 
970, and of other horned cattle, $54,197,341. The 
number of milch cows in Canada in 1871 is given as 
1,251,209, and in 1901 as 2,408,677 ; the number 
of other horned cattle in 1871 is given as 1,373,081, 
and in 1901 as 3,167,774. 

Literature. 

The literature on the types and breeds of cattle 
is scant, and for the most part is combined with 
discussions of the other common farm stock. There 
are few monographs. Plumb, Types and Breeds of 
Farm Animals, Ginn & Co. (1906); Shaw, The Study 
of Breeds, Orange Judd Co. (1905) ; Wallace, Farm 
Live-stock of Great Britain, Orange Judd Co. 
(1908); Allen, American Cattle, New York (1890); 
Flint, Milch Cows and Dairy Farming, Boston 
(1889); Housman, Cattle: Breeds and Management, 
London (1897); Consular Report, Cattle and Dairy 
Farming, Washington (1887); Youatt, Cattle: Their 
Breeds, Management and Diseases, London (1835); 
Brooks, Agriculture, Vol. Ill; Craig, Judging Live- 
stock ; Sanders, Breeds of Live-stock. See special 
references given under the several breeds. 



in considerable numbers down to historic times in 
the forests of Europe. Cassar mentions this animal 
as having been seen in large numbers in the Her- 
cynian forest, and describes it as being little 
smaller than an elephant, but with the form and 
character of a bull. 

The Friesland cattle of continental Europe and 
the Pembroke cattle of Wales are supposed to 
have descended from the Urus. Degenerate exam- 
ples of this species exist at the present time in the 
parks of Great Britain, Cadzow forest and Chilling- 
ham park containing the purest specimens of these 
animals. They are white with reddish ears, and 
become fierce and dangerous when angered. The B. 
longifrons, or Celtic ox, formerly wild in Sweden, 
was also bred by the ancient lake-dwellers.^ It is 
smaller than our modern breeds. Owens regards 
this species as the original of the Welsh and High- 
land breeds of cattle, and later of the Shorthorn. 
B. frontosus was larger than B. longifrons, but 
existed with it in Scandinavia. The mountain 
cattle of Norway are supposed to have been derived 
from this species. 

The domesticated cattle of the world are now 
thrown into two species: the Bos iaurus, or common 




Plate vm. Types of beef cattle.-Hereford bull above, Aberdeen-Angus bull below 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



303 



cattle of Europe and America, and the B. Indicus, 
the humped cattle of India, also called zebus. The 
humped zebus were domesticated in Egypt 2,000 
years before the Christian era. They are distin- 
guished from common cattle principally by an 
immense hump of fat over the shoulder and a loose 
and very large dewlap, drooping ears, short horns 
and thin, sloping hips and rumps. They are exten- 
sively employed as beasts of burden and are often 
used as saddle animals. They have an easy trot or 
gallop, with great powers of endurance, being able 
to cover sixty or seventy miles in a day. The 
appearance of a male albino among the herds is 
hailed with great joy, and this animal becomes the 
sacred bull of India and plays a very important 
part in certain religious festivals. The zebus enjoy 
a dry, warm climate and avoid water. [The Zebus, 
also known as Brahmin or Sacred cattle, are dis- 
cussed at length on pages 378, 379.] 

The prevailing type of cattle common to Europe 
and America belongs to the species B. taurus. 
Prom this animal all the various races and breeds 
have descended. This form early reached a high 
degree of development in Europe, and from this 
center has been widely dispersed to every civilized 
country on the globe. The first attempts at selec- 
tion were very crude, and little progress was made 
toward the present-day highly specialized forms. 
The systematic improvement of cattle by man be- 
gan about the close of the eighteenth century. 
The greatest progress was made in Great Britain, 
and to Robert" Bakewell (1725-1795), of Leicester- 
shire, England, must be given the credit of produc- 
ing such markedly superior animal types as justly 
to have entitled him to the distinction of being 
called the father of the science and art of modern 
cattle-breeding. 

The domestic races of cattle which exhibit 
enough fixity of type to be called distinct breeds 
are very numerous. A general classification divides 
existing breeds into beef and dairy cattle. No 
sharp line of distinction exists between the two, 
although there is a wide difference between the 
extreme development of these two types. The most 
common special beef breeds in America are Short- 
horn, Hereford, Aberdeen-Angus, Galloway, Sussex, 
Polled Durham and Polled Hereford. The extreme 
dairy types are represented by the Jersey, Holstein- 
Priesian, Ayrshire, Guernsey, Dutch Belted, French- 
Canadian and the Kerry. Several existing breeds 
are valued for both milk and beef, and are called 
dual-purpose cattle. The breeds belonging to this 
class are the Red Polled, Brown Swiss, Devon and 
some families among Shorthorns. At a recent 
meeting of the American Brown Swiss Cattle 
Breeders' Association, however, a resolution was 
unanimously adopted to breed the Brown Swiss only 
for the distinct dairy type. Miscellaneous other 
breeds are represented in America in small num- 
bers. [Some of these lesser known breeds are 
discussed on pages 377-382.] 

For further discussions of the zoological relations 
of cattle, see the standard zoologies ; Lydekker, 
Wild Oxen, Sheep and Goats ; Robert Wallace, 
Farm Live-Stock of Great Britain. 



Selection and Management of the Dairy Herd. 
Figs. 331-335. 

By J. M. Trueman. 

In selecting a dairy herd it is necessary to have 
clearly in mind the type that is best for the pro- 
duction of milk. It is not to be expected that the 
animal that possesses the ability to use food econom- 
ically for the production of meat will also be able 
to use it economically in the production of milk. 
The giving of milk is a different function from 
the production of meat. Those animals that give 
large quantities of milk for the sustenance of their 
young are likely to become thin during the milking 
period. The production by a cow of thirty, forty, 
or fifty pounds of milk per day calls for the use of 
food-materials in such quantities as to make it neces- 
sary for all the energies of the body to be devoted 
to that one object. Furthermore, the ability to pro- 
duce milk in large quantities at the expense of 
laying up body fat becomes so characteristic of 
the good cow that she remains comparatively thin, 
even when well-fed and not milking. It is true that 
individuals are found that are fairly large milkers, 
and yet show a beef type; these cows are rare, 
however, and it has not been proved that they are 
economical producers of both beef and milk. 

The general-purpose cow. (Figs. 49, 385.) 

Many breeders have tried to establish a breed of 
cows that would be fine milkers, and whose off- 
spring would at the same time be valuable as feed- 
ers for the butcher. They have failed to produce 
a general-purpose or dual-purpose cow of much 
merit, and must continue to fail to the end of time, 
for the simple reason that a high development of 
either function must always be at the expense of 
the other. The cow that will use her food for the 
production of 8,000 pounds of milk per year will 
not transmit to her offspring the ability to pro- 
duce a fine carcass of beef. 

The dairy cow. (Figs. 331, 332.) 

The cows that should be selected for a dairy herd 
are characterized by spareness of form, good heart 
and lung development, and large digestive appara- 
tus. A spare form, accompanied by good appetite 
and vigorous health, indicates that the food is used 
for the production of milk. Lung and heart power 
are shown by depth and width of chest, and thick- 
ness through the girth. The ribs should be well 
sprung. The floor of the chest should be wide, 
without a coarse, heavy brisket as in beef cattle. 
The skin should be soft and pliable, indicating good 
circulation. Good appetite and great digestive 
powers are shown by a general vigorous appearance, 
large muzzle and large abdomen. In viewing the side 
of the cow, the rear half of the body should show 
deeper and heavier than the front. The back line 
and belly line should diverge from front to back, 
showing a large development of abdomen and 
udder. This divergence must not be secured by 
lack of depth in the front of the body, but by extra 
depth in the rear half. 

The tendency to use food for the production of 



304 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



milk, or the dairy temperament as it is called, is 
shown by lack of fullness and roundness in the 
muscles all over the body. The thigh is thin and 
in-curved. The shoulder is bony and the withers 
thin and wedge-shaped. The healthy cow should 
have a general appearance of vigor 
and alertness, and at the same time 
show a bony framework, not too 
prominent and not coarse. The 
best type is shown in Figs. 331, 
332, in which is seen a strong, vig- 
orous body, without any tendency 
to fleshiness. The reverse of this 
type is seen in Fig. 333, in which 
we have the tendency to lay on 
flesh, and the small udder that be- 
longs to the beef type. [See pages 
50, 310.] 

The best dairy cows possess, 
besides the proper form, a typical 
disposition. They are quiet, docile, 
motherly cows, that are able to 
produce large quantities of milk 
for their offspring, and yet per- 
fectly willing to give the milk to 
the milker instead of to the calf ; 
cows that are not too timid and 
nervous, and yet of a fine quality 
and even temperament that appre- 
ciate good treatment and comfortable quarters. 

The dairy bull. (Fig. 334.) 

The bull is a very important part of the herd. 
It is not possible to say definitely from his appear- 
ance whether or not his get will have dairy merit. 
The best that can be done is to select for dairy 
form as closely as possible, and to pay close atten- 
tion to the breeding and constitution. The bull 
should be a "pure-bred." He should have a recorded 
pedigree that shows the performance of his ances- 



tors. A bull that has a good pedigree, and shows a 
vigorous, well-formed body without being beefy is 
the one to buy. The type is illustrated in Fig. 
334. Here we have a fine, vigorous, alert, sym- 
metrical animal, that shows no indications of heavi- 





Fig. 332. Champion Holstein-Friesian cow, Colantha 4th's Johanna. 



Fig. 331. Cow of dairy type. Rose. 

ness or coarseness. It is not necessary to look for 
extreme fineness of bone, or slenderness of form in 
the bull, for it must be remembered that the male 
above all things should be strong and vigorous. On 
the other hand, undue coarseness of bone and heavi- 
ness of shoulder should be avoided. 

The indiscriminate use of scrub bulls cannot be 
too severely condemned as a business proposition. 
It has been well established that careful breeding 
and selection of bulls gives them prepotency, or 
the ability to get uniformly a better class of calves 

than the scrub. 
This is just as 
true of the cow 
as of the bull. 
Pure blood 
may not be 
good blood in 
some cases. It 
may be weak- 
ened by bad 
breeding methods and 
careless selection. But 
good pure-bloods, — and 
these can always be se- 
cured, — are far superior 
to the average grades that 
are to be had, and very 
much better than most 
crosses. In selecting a 
dairy herd, get the best 
blood the available money 
will buy: in the bulls first, 
and then in cows. On this 
foundation, success may 
Adv. R. No. 1849. be expected. 



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305 



The dairy herd. 

It is important to note that it is necessary to 
study individuals in selecting a dairy herd. No 
breed uniformly possesses dairy merit. Some breeds 
possesses it in greater numbers than others, but 
the ability to use food economi- 
cally for the production of milk 
is an individual characteristic 
and not a breed trait. Cows pos- 
sessing this dairy temperament 
may be found in all breeds, but 
cannot be found invariably in all 
the individuals of any one breed. 
Of course they are found in larg- 
est numbers in the dairy breeds; 
so much so that it would be folly 
to attempt to select a dairy herd 
from anything except a dairy 
breed. The particular breed to 
select from will depend entirely 
on the preference of the dairy- 
man, and the conditions in which 
he is placed. It will generally 
be better to confine attention to 
one breed in each herd, rather 
than to mix several breeds. In 
many cases, by adhering to one breed, a working 
dairy may be bred up to such an extent as to make 
the sale of high-bred grades or of pure-blood ani- 
mals more profitable than the production of milk. 
Under proper management these two products may 
well be developed together, and enhance greatly 
the money-making power of the herd. It may be 
well, however, to emphasize "proper management," 
as the average dairyman will find it a difficult mat- 
ter to handle the production and sale of high-priced 
stock successfully. 

From the foregoing it will be surmised that the 
best way to get a good dairy herd is to breed one. 
Such a conclusion is undoubtedly correct. It is not 
easy to find animals of the right 
quality on the market. If found 
at all, they must be picked up 
here and there at high prices. 
In general, then, it is best to 
breed up a herd rather than to 
try to keep it up by buying. 
Having decided to follow this 
method, the best start possible 
should be made. The cows to 
start with should be of the best 
type and performance to be had, 
and should be bred to the best 
pure-bred bull that the available 
money will buy. If the record 
of the cow's performance is at 
hand, it should show a yearly 
production of at least 6,000 
pounds of milk, and 250 pounds 
of butter-fat. That is not a high 
record, but is fair to start with. 
If 8,000-pound cows can be had with 300 pounds of 
butter-fat, so much the better. Do not use a cow 
that will not produce more than 4,000 pounds of 
3.5 per cent milk in a year. Four thousand pounds 

C20 



would not be so bad if it tested 6 per cent of but- 
ter-fat, thus giving 240 pounds of fat. 

The care of young stock. 
Having selected the foundation of a herd, the 




Cow not of the dairy type. 



next important point is the selection of the calves 
that are to be reared. This is not an easy propo- 
sition. The best we can do is to raise the well- 
developed heifer-calves from the best cows. Only 
those that are plainly deficient need be killed at 
birth. The majority of the heifers will be healthy 
and vigorous, and can be given a trial. Most of the 
bull-calves should be killed at once or sold to men 
who will fatten them for veal. It will seldom pay 
the dairyman to use six weeks' milk to fatten a 
dairy calf for veal. 

The heifers should be fed on skimmed milk and 
quickly taught to eat meal and hay or grass. The 
feeding of whole milk is not necessary for any 




Fig. 334. Two-year-old Jersey bull. 

length of time. What is wanted is a growing 
healthy animal with a good appetite, and not a 
pampered fatling. 

The heifers should be bred at about twenty-one 



30G 



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months old, so that the first calves will be dropped 
at two and one-half years. This breeding-age may 
be varied somewhat, according to the development 
of the animal. If large and strong, breeding at 
eighteen months will do no harm ; if backward, it 
had better be put off till two years old. 

The first period of lactation will give a fair idea 
of the capabilities of the yonng COW. It is at the 
end of this first period that vigorous weeding out 
should take place. Every heifer that has failed to 
show good milking qualities, and a strong tendency 
to turn feed into milk, and to continue it until 
within .at least six weeks or two months of the 
next calving time, should he discarded. 

A heifer would be called promising if she pro- 
duced 200 to 250 pounds of butter-fat within a 
year after dropping her first calf. A heifer falling 
below 200 pounds of fat would he regarded with 
suspicion, ami should be discarded, unless there were 
some special reason for giving her another trial. 
This is the best time to turn the poor heifers into 
beef, and that is their only destiny. If not good 
dairy performers, they are likely to lie in f.-iir flesh, 
and as they are young and tender the butcher will 
pay more for them now than at any other time. 
They will generally bring a price that will pay the 
cost of raising them, and sometimes a little more. 
If they are kept for several years, however, they 
are constantly adding to their cost and becoming 
poorer beef. A more rigid weeding out should take 
place again at the end of the second period of lac- 
tation. Those heifers that were given a second trial 
should be dropped, unless they have materially im- 
proved on the first year's record. It is a poor prac- 
tice to keep any cow that is not doing well. Every 
animal in the dairy herd should be an economical 
producer. 

The length of the milking period has a great deal 
to do with the amount of milk produced in a year. 
It is important that the heifer shall milk persist- 
ently. This habit may be encouraged in the young 
cow by delaying her second pregnancy. Do not 
breed the second time until at least six months 
after dropping the first calf. This leaves her free 
to devote her energies to the production of milk. 
It must be remembered that the heifer is still grow- 
ing, and needs to develop a vigorous body. The first 
pregnancy and the lactation period following tend 
to establish the milking habit, or, in other words, 
to develop dairy temperament. The giving of milk, 
well started, may be continued for some months 
without subjecting the young cow to the strain of 
raising two calves within a short period. If she 
does not respond to this management, but "goes 
dry" in six or eight months, she had better be 
turned over to the butcher at once. 

The time of year at which the calves shall be 
dropped is worth considering. The prices of dairy 
products are invariably much higher in the fall and 
early winter than in the spring and early summer. 
For this reason, it is good business policy to have 
a large flow of milk in the fall. This is accomplished 
by having a majority of the cows freshen in the 
fall ; local conditions will determine just how many. 
One of the great advantages of dairying as a busi 



ness is the fact that the income is continuous. 
There is no waiting until the crop is planted, tilled 
and harvested, but the returns come in each week 
or month. For this reason, all the cows should not 
calve during anyone Season. On most farms the 
b.st results will be obtained by having the majority 
of the calves dropped in the fall, and the remainder 
distributed evenly in the Other BBS 

The care of the bull. 

The age of the bull for use in the herd is impor- 
tant. It has been the custom in this country | 
very young bulls. This, in itself, may not be a bad 
practice, provided the young animal is not Died too 
much ; but to dispose of a bull as soon as hi- is two 
years old, without knowing whether or not his 
calves will be great producers, is unwise. He may 

I [ great value, and should be kept long enough 

to demonstrate his worth. 

If not properly handled, a bull is liable to hi 
cross and dangerous. He should always be given 
sufficient exercise, and nei lb- should 

never be given an opportunity to do damage. Keep 

him in a will-fenced yard, and do not let him run 
with other cattle, lb- should be fed liberally on a 
Well-balanced ration that too fatten- 

ing. By firm and kind treatment, most bulls will 
remain perfectly safe to handle until they are too 
old for service. A bull should be at his best at tive 
to ten years of age, ami yet comparatively !'• 
kept after they are three. 

The cure of the herd. 

There are two distinct methods of managing the 
feeding and stabling of a dairy herd. The first is 
the one more commonly used, in which the cows 
are pastured during the entire grazing .season, and 
stabled during the winter, and the second in which 
they are kept more or less closely confined during 
the entire year, and furnished with green crops as 
much of the time as possible. This method is called 
the soiling system, and is not in very general use, 
though it has some advantages over pasturing. 
More cows can be fed on a given number of 
and more of the manure can be saved. The labor 
is much greater, however, and it is a serious 
disadvantage. It is doubtful whether the extra 
returns per acre pay for the increased cost in hand- 
ling the green crops. Furthermore, it is somewhat 
easier to keep cows in a vigorous, healthy condi- 
tion when ranging free on pasture. [Bee Vol. II, 
pages "it'i'.t "iT 1.] 

A compromise between the two systems has of 
late given excellent results. This consists in put- 
ting up an extra amount of silage that may be fed 
during the late summer months. SB the pastures 
dry up. Nothing is better than the fresh pastures 
of spring and early summer, and a larger numKr of 
cows may be pastured per acre early in the Season 
than would be possible if the pastures were to he 
depended on for the entire summer's feed. As the 
grass begins to get short and dry in Augfl 
possibly in duly, it is supplemented with silage. 
This makes an agreeable substitute to tin 
and they will eat it heartily, and keep up in milk 



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307 



flow. Silage is also a good food for the cows that 
are soon to freshen, and will put them in good con- 
dition for parturition, and for heavy milking. It 
may be fed advantageously in the stable in connec- 
tion with a grain ration. It is generally advisable 
to use grain in the ration, even when on pasture, 
unless the grass is very rich and abundant. It 
cannot be too strongly impressed on the mind of 
the dairyman that the cow must be supplied liber- 
ally with food of good quality, and with pure water 
in abundance, if she is to do her best. 

Stabling. 

Over a large part of this country, it is important 
that the cows be provided with shelter from the 
sun in summer weather. The heat and flies com- 
bine to make them so uncomfortable that doing 
anything like their best 
becomes impossible. 

Over a large part of 
the United States, dairy 
cattle must be housed 
several months in a year. 
The barn should be light, 
well ventilated and 
warm enough to prevent 
water freezing in the 
coldest weather. The 
cows must be kept in the 
barn, at least in the 
northern two-thirds of 
the country, for three to 
six months. It is impor- 
tant that they be kept 
comfortable and healthy, 
and maintain good ap- 
petites. In order to do 
so, they must not be 
kept too closely housed. 
Fresh air and a limited 
amount of exercise in 
the open are both con- 
ducive to making the 
cow enjoy life, and keep- 
ing her in vigorous 

health. The cow should be made to enjoy living 
every hour of every day. Close stabling for days 
at a time without any opportunity to move away 
from the stall is not good management. For 
this reason it is not well to depend too much on 
systems of watering while the cow is standing in 
the stall. She needs the change and the exercise to 
to be derived by going out of the stable to drink. 
That does not mean that she should go out in the 
cold and drink ice-water. A sheltered drinking- 
tank in which the water is not allowed to become 
freezing cold should be easily accessible to the herd. 

It has often been said that all the exercise a cow 
takes and all the animal heat that is used up in 
being turned out in the cold is at the expense of 
food that should have been saved or used for pro- 
duction. Such a statement fails to note the fact 
that it requires healthy, vigorous bodies to make a 
good use of food, and that the gain in vigor and 
appetite from exercise in fresh air more than off- 



sets the loss in food. The ideal method of stabling 
is to furnish each cow with a box-stall. This is not 
practicable with the general herd. It may be done 
when breeding high-priced pure-breds. The com- 
mon method is to tie by the neck in stanchions or 
by a strap. If the stanchion is used, it should be a 
swinging one, fastened by a short chain at each 
end. A good stanchion of this style will give the 
cow considerable freedom, and yet keep her within 
bounds. The old rigid stanchion should not be used. 
If the cows are kept properly groomed and bedded, 
they will be comfortable, tied in the swing stanch- 
ion and standing on a platform of wood or cement. 
Probably the most comfortable stall next to the 
roomy box-stall is one of the Bidwell or Drown type, 
in which the cow is not tied, but is kept in her 
place by a chain fastened behind her. 




Fig. 335. A method of stable management,— the covered barnyard. 

A number of successful dairymen have adopted 
the method of tying the cows only while milking 
and allowing them to run loose in a large room the 
remainder of the time. This room or barn, without 
stalling, is supplied with feed-racks and an ample 
watering-trough. Here the cows can move about 
at will and lie down in a perfectly natural position. 
They will be more comfortable than in any other 
way of stabling. This is well illustrated in Fig. 335. 
They should all be dehorned, or the "boss" cows may 
injure those that are more timid. Dehorning is good 
practice, no matter how the herd is stabled. [See 
page 150.] The length of time the cows are turned 
loose may be determined by each dairyman. Some 
will find it convenient to keep them in the stalls 
during the day and turn them loose at night, and 
others will keep them tied only long enough to milk 
and feed some grain. Silage may either be fed in 
the manger, while the cows are tied in stalls, or be 
put in the racks. It is probably a better practice 



308 



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to feed the silage in connection with the grain 
ration in the mangers. Each cow can be given the 
proper amount in this way, and there will be no 
danger of the stronger ones eating too much and 
the timid getting too little. 

This method of handling the herd saves the 
manure in good condition. The floor, which may be 
of cement or of dirt, should be kept covered with 
straw, or some other absorbent. This need not be 
cleaned out for several days, or even weeks. The 
constant trampling of the cattle makes a compact 
mass of manure that is in excellent condition to pre- 
vent loss of fertility. It may be hauled out at any 
convenient time. The building should be provided 
with large doors, so that the manure-spreader may 
be driven inside and loaded. 

In considering methods of stabling, it should be 
remembered that the dairy cow needs to be kept 
clean. Milk is used for food, and it should be pro- 
duced in as clean a way as possible. This is more 
easily accomplished by keeping the cows loose 
than" in any other way, provided plenty of bedding 
material is used. The cows should be regularly 
groomed — not only for cleanliness, but because it 
improves the health and increases the comfort of 
the cows, as well as increasing their efficiency. 
[See pages 147, 148.] 

Feeding the dairy cow. 

In feeding the dairy cow, those foods should 
be chosen that will produce a vigorous muscular 
growth. In general, the dry matter of the ration 
should consist of one-third concentrated food, or 
grains, and two-thirds roughage. The average cow 
will make good use of seven to ten pounds of grain 
per day, and fifteen to twenty pounds of hay and 
corn-fodder, or forty pounds of silage and five to 
ten pounds of hay. Feed a variety whenever possi- 
ble. Do not make variety by feeding one or two 
grains for a few weeks and then changing to 
another mixture, but put as many varieties as pos- 
sible, or as is economical, into one mixture, and 
feed that steadily for months. 

The great point to be considered in feeding is to 
keep up an even flow of milk. This can be accom- 
plished only by regularity in feeding, and by furnish- 
ing good food in abundance. Just as the young 
heifers must be encouraged to milk out a full lacta- 
tion period of eleven months, or more, so the mature 
cow should be kept up to a large flow as long as 
possible. It is the persistent milker that makes the 
big yearly record, and yearly records are what is 
wanted. 

In feeding the calves and young heifers, good 
growth must be the object in view. Whole milk 
need not be given the calves for more than a few 
days. Skimmed milk, with some cooked corn meal 
or linseed meal in small quantities, will give rapid 
and vigorous growth, and produce as good a dairy 
cow, or even better than one that is fed whole 
milk and fattened from the time of its birth. Some 
dairymen contend that the young heifer may be 
fattened without any harmful result. They assert 
that if she has the dairy temperament the fat will 
soon disappear when she begins to milk. Possibly 



CATTLE 

that is true, but she is more likely to have dairy 
temperament if the habit of using food to lay up 
body-fat has never been acquired. Feed the heifer 
for good body development. This is accomplished 
by using nitrogenous grains and a fair proportion 
of roughage. [For a full discussion of feeding, see 
pages 58-118 ; also, pages 313-317.] 

Feeding the dairy bull. 

The bull should be well fed and given daily exer- 
cise. Keep him vigorous, not fat and lazy. Put 
him in a tread-mill and make him walk for two or 
three hours per day. Feed him ground oats, wheat 
bran, gluten meal, oil-meal, silage and clover hay ; 
do not make his grain ration too heavy, not more 
than five or six pounds per day for a 1000-pound 
animal. 

Milking. 

One of the problems that gives trouble to every 
dairyman who keeps many cows is how to get them 
milked. Hand-milking is the universal custom, and 
a careful milker cannot be equaled by any machine 
that has yet been devised. It is almost impossible, 
however, to secure careful milkers at anything like 
common farm wages, and in many places they can- 
not be secured at any wage. In this dilemma, the 
dairyman is almost forced out of business. A num- 
ber of milking-machines are on the market, and 
their ultimate success may be considered assured. . 
[For a fuller discussion of milking see pages 312, 
313.] 

Value of the individual. 

In the management of a dairy herd it is impor- 
tant that the value of each individual be ascer- 
tained. Perhaps nowhere else does the custom of 
judging results by totals cause the farmer greater 
loss. There are thousands of cows that do not pay 
for the feed they eat each year, to say nothing of 
making a profit. These cows are kept at work 
because their deficiencies are hidden by the good 
work of other cows. The farmer is fairly well 
satisfied if his dairy herd shows a profit of a few 
hundred dollars per year, but he fails many times 
to realize that his profit would have been just as 
large or larger with only half as many cows. If those 
cows that are not profitable, or are actually being 
kept at a loss, were weeded out of the herd, the total 
profits would be increased. An account with each 
cow is easily kept. [See page 181.] It necessitates the 
weighing and testing of a certain number of milk- 
ings. The amount of butter-fat given in a year is 
the best measure of a cow's value. Fortunately, the 
Babcock milk test furnishes a cheap, simple, speedy 
and accurate method for determining the percent- 
age of fat. The milk should be weighed from each 
cow three consecutive days in each month. The 
average for the three days is multiplied by the 
days in the month, and the result will be the num- 
ber of pounds given per month. A composite 
sample should be taken of these six milkings and 
tested for fat. The percentage of fat secured, 
multiplied by the pounds of milk per month, will 
show the pounds of fat per month. In this way it 



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309 



is soon possible to discover whether or not any par- 
ticular cow is profitable. Not only does it show the 
value of the cow as a milker, but it gives the best 
of information on which to base operations of 
breeding. 

Literature. 

W. A. Henry, The Feeding and Management of 
Cattle, published in special report on Diseases of 
Cattle and Cattle Feeding, United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry 
(1892) ; H. E. Alvord, The Dairy Herd, Its Forma- 
tion and Management, Farmers' Bulletin No. 55, 
United States Department of Agriculture ; W. A. 
Henry, Feeds and Feeding, Chapter XXVIII, Madi- 
son, Wisconsin ; The Creamery Patron's Handbook, 
published by The National Dairy Union, 154 Lake 
Street, Chicago ; Farrington and Woll, Testing Milk 
and Its Products. The articles in dairy papers and 
reports of dairy associations are innumerable. 

The Production of Milk. Figs. 336-339. 
By H. H. Wing. 

Dairy husbandry may be defined as including 
those branches of agriculture that have to do with 
the production of milk and its manufacture into 
butter and cheese and the various other products 
that may be made from it. It also includes the 
marketing of milk to be consumed in its original 
form or in the various allied products, such as 
cream, buttermilk, and the like. 

Man has used the milk of animals as a part of 
his food from the very earliest times, and early 
learned to manufacture both butter and cheese, but 
the development of dairy husbandry as a special 
branch of industry is comparatively modern, and it 
is only within very recent times that the arts con- 
nected with this industry have been brought to 
their present state of perfection. 

At various times and in various countries the 
milk of a considerable number of different animals 
has been used for purposes of food or manufacture. 
Of these animals, besides the cow, may be mentioned 
the goat, the mare, the ass, and the ewe ; but, with 
the possible exception of the goat, the cow is the 
only animal that has been bred and developed to 
give milk in excess of that demanded by the young, 
and cows' milk is the chief milk used at the present 
time in civilized countries for purposes of food or 
manufacture. The amount of goats', mares', and 
ewes' milk utilized is so small as to be entirely in- 
significant. In all discussions pertaining to dairy 
husbandry, cows' milk, and cows' milk alone, is un- 
derstood. Recently, in the United States, there has 
been an effort to introduce the milch goat, more 
particularly for furnishing milk to be consumed 
as such that is supposed to have certain advan- 
tages over cows' milk. The attempt, however, is 
still in the experimental stage. [See Goats; also 
the article on Buffalo.] 

Dairy husbandry, as a profitable farm industry, 
depends very largely on the economical production 
of milk, and that dairyman is the most successful 
who produces the largest amount of milk from a 



minimum number of animals and at a minimum 
cost for food and labor. Cows with a capacity to 
secrete large quantities of milk for long periods of 
time are the foundation of a successful dairy enter- 
prise, and it matters little how much care and skill 
are used in the processes of manufacture; if the 
cows are not good and satisfactory producers to 
begin with, there can be little profit. 

The function of milk production is closely con- 
nected with maternity, and the production of a calf 
is the common and practically indispensable incen- 
tive to secretion ; but the modern dairy cow has 
been bred and developed to give milk so far in ex- 
cess of the demands of the calf, and for so much 
longer period of time, that, once the secretion has 
been induced, we may look on its continuation as 
depending entirely on the individual capacity of 
the animal and the amount and nature of the food 
furnished to her. 

Briefly speaking, then, the secretion of milk 
depends on the individual capacity of the cow and 
the amount and kind of food-supply. Nothing is 
better understood by dairymen than that the varia- 
tion in natural capacity to secrete milk is very great 
in individual animals, and that, in order to secure a 
satisfactory flow of milk, animals must be selected 
that have this natural capacity. A large number of 
individuals, even among those breeds that have 
been especially selected, bred and developed to 
secrete milk, fail to produce in a satisfactory 
way. 

The average production per animal in the United 
States is scarcely sufficient to pay the cost of food 
and labor, to say nothing of interest or profit on 
the investment. According to the United States 
census reports of 1900, the average annual produc- 
tion per cow was 3,600 pounds of milk, equivalent 
to' about one hundred and fifty pounds of butter. 
This, at $1.25 per hundred weight for the milk, or 
25 cents a pound for the butter, would yield $45 
or $37.50 per cow, respectively. The cost of food 
may be reckoned at not less than $40 per cow per 
year. It would seem that a cow must produce 
a considerable amount in excess of the average, 
before the owner can expect any satisfactory return 
for his labor or investment. 

The tendency or capacity to give milk is con- 
ceded to be subject to heredity, and very much 
progress has been made in the last half century in 
developing breeds of cows that not only are large 
producers of milk themselves, but that transmit the 
tendency and capacity to give milk to their descen- 
dants in both the male and the female line. In this 
way there have been developed several breeds 
of cattle, the Jersey, the Guernsey, the Holstein- 
Friesian, the Ayrshire and others, chiefly distin- 
guished for the high average production of the indi- 
viduals composing them ; while a few individuals 
in various breeds have distinguished themselves by 
the production of an amount of either milk or but- 
ter-fat so far in excess of the average as to entitle 
them to the rank of phenomenal animals. In the 
United States, the highest accredited yield of milk 
for a year is 30,318.5 pounds, made by the Holstein- 
Friesian cow, Pietertje 2d, from February 24, 1887, 



310 



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to February 23, 1888. The largest production of 
butter-fat for the same length of time is 998.256 
pounds, and was made by the Holstein-Friesian cow, 
Colantha 4th's Johanna, for the year ending Decem- 
ber 22, 1907. The highest weekly production of 
butter-fat is 28.176 pounds, made from February 6 
to 13, 1907, by the Holstein-Friesian cow, Colantha 
4th's Johanna (Fig. 332). A daily milk yield of 
more than 100 pounds has frequently been made. 
A yearly production of 8,000 pounds of milk, or 
300 pounds of butter-fat, equivalent to 350 pounds 
of butter, would indicate a profitable dairy cow, 
and with care in breeding and selection it is not 
at all difficult to secure an animal that will pro- 
duce this amount ; and a dairyman satisfied with a 
less production than this could hardly be called 
enterprising or successful. 

The dairy type. 

It has long been recognized that there is a 
greater or less degree of correlation between the 
general form and outward characteristics of the 
animal and her capacity to secrete milk. This sub- 
ject has been studied with a great deal of care, and 
the so-called typical dairy form has been described 
by many writers with a greater or less degree of 
particularity. As is to be expected, the supposed 
correlations between form and function have given 
rise to many theories that have not found firm 
foundation in fact. Nevertheless, the leading char- 
acteristics of the so-called typical dairy form are 
well recognized. They include, first, the wedge- 
shaped form, that is, a greater development of the 
skeleton of the hinder part of the animal, so that 
in outline, particularly as viewed from the side, 
the animal has a wedge-shaped appearance, caused 
by the top and bottom lines diverging from before 
backward ; second, the angularity caused by the 
prominence of the bones of the shoulder, back, hips 
and pelvis, and by the lack of muscular develop- 
ment, which gives to the beef-animal its character- 
istic smoothness and roundness of form ; third, the 
abundance of fatty secretions in the skin, particu- 
larly inside the ears and thighs, and along the 
back-bone, and at the root of the tail ; fourth, 
the large development of the mammary gland, or 
udder, and the large size of the blood - vessels 
connected with it, particularly the exterior veins 
extending along the abdomen, usually called milk 
veins. [See pages 50, 303.] 

The characteristics of the dairy form are com- 
monly studied by means of a score-card or scale of 
points, in which the various characteristics are 
described more or less minutely. The scales of 
points used by the various breeders' associations 
and educational institutions differ somewhat, but 
in the main they agree very closely. [For a dis- 
cussion of score-cards, the reader should consult 
pages 44-55.] 

It should be borne in mind that the correlations 
between form and function in the dairy cow are 
not as yet reduced to so great a degree of accuracy 
i !iat the form is to be taken as a better indication of 
(he merits of the animal than her known capacity 
f r secretion. In other words, an authentic record 



of the production of a dairy cow is by far the uest 
indication of her productive capacity. This is so 
well recognized that the best breeders and the more 
enterprising breeders' associations are spending 
large amounts of money, time and effort in secur- 
ing authentic records of production of their animals 
to be used as a basis for selection in the improve- 
ment of future generation. 

Importance of proper feeding. 

The care of the animal, and especially the food 
supplied to her, have a not less important bearing 
on the profitable and economical production of milk 
than the selection and breeding of the animal. 
Much attention has been given to the question of 
intelligent and rational stock-feeding, particularly 
along the lines of dairy production, and it is not 
proposed to enter into detail here further than to 
call attention to the fact that unsatisfactory pro- 
duction of milk is due to an insufficient food supply 
much oftener than has been supposed. While it is 
undoubtedly true that there are many animals that 
can not be made to increase their production, no 
matter how abundantly or skilfully they are fed, it 
is still true that there are many animals whose 
production would be materially increased, and that 
from being entirely unprofitable could be made 
profitable merely by more liberal feeding. A demon- 
stration of this sort, made at the Cornell Univer- 
sity Agricultural Experiment Station several years 
ago, showed that the milk supply could be nearly 
doubled in the same animals in a single year merely 
by more abundant food. [See pages 308, 313-317.] 

Milk secretion. 

The manufacture and quality of dairy products 
depends in large degree on the character of the 
milk. Hence, a knowledge of the nature, compo- 
sition, and quality of milk is of importance to those 
engaged in the manufacture of products from it. 

Milk may be defined as an emulsion of fats in 
a watery solution of milk-sugar, proteids, and salts. 
It is an opaque, yellowish white fluid, with a faint 
alkaline reaction, and a slightly sweetish taste. It 
is a true animal secretion, formed in the mammary 
gland, partly by transudation or osmosis directly 
from the circulation of the animal, and partly by 
metabolism taking place in the cells composing the 
tissue of the gland itself, the exact manner of the 
formation of its various constituents being more 
or less uncertain. [See Milk as a Market Product, 
pages 176-187.] 

The mammary gland, or udder (Figs. 336, 337), 
is a spongy mass of tissue situated without the 
body cavity and held in place in a fold of the skin 
by a network of fibrous bands. It is a double organ, 
and in the cow each gland is partially subdivided 
into two parts, called quarters, each furnished with 
a single orifice or teat. The essential parts of the 
gland are a system of canals or ducts, originating 
at or near the orifice and extending by subdivision 
all through the mass of udder and ending in a group 
of secreting follicles or acini. The whole structure 
is abundantly supplied with blood-vessels, nerves, 
and lymphatics, and is bound together with a mass 



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311 



of connective tissue in which there is deposited 
more or less fat. 

The prime, but by no means indispensable incen- 
tive to the secretion of milk, is the birth of young 
by the animal. Cases are not uncommon in which 
milk has been secreted by virgin animals, and 




f 

Fig. 337. 
Fig. 336. A well-formed udder. A poorly formed udder 

instances are on record in which it has even been 
secreted from the rudimentary glands of the male. 
For some time before the birth of the young, the 
udder takes on a gradual enlargement, which 
increases rapidly for a few hours, or occasionally 
a day or two before birth. In case of the cow, milk 
usually appears in the udder before the birth of the 
calf, but not often to any very great extent. 

Immediately after birth, there can usually be 
drawn from the udder, several quarts of milk, 
which is, however, quite distinct in character from 
that secreted later. This first milk is known as 
colostrum. It is thicker, denser and more viscous 
and higher colored than normal milk. It is charac- 
terized by a much less content of water, by the 
fact that the fat is variable and sometimes much 
higher, but often considerably lower than that of 
normal milk ; but chiefly by the character of the 
proteids. Colostrum milk contains large amounts 
of albumin and comparatively small amounts of 
casein. It also contains a greater or less number 
of microscopic bodies known as colostrum corpus- 
cles, which are supposed to represent the 
contents of the recently broken down tissue, 
and in some cases the colostrum contains 
more or less of tissue debris. Colostrum has 
a more pronounced odor and flavor than the 
normal milk, and is considered unfit for con- 
sumption or manufacture. It cannot, how- 
ever, be considered in any sense injurious, 
and it has a laxative effect which makes it 
particularly useful for the young animal. It 
is unfit for manufacture into butter and 
cheese mainly because of the mechanical 
difficulties interposed by the presence of the 
large amount of albumin. As the flow of 
milk becomes established, the milk gradu- 
ally loses its colostrum character, and in the 
course of a few days takes on its normal 
characteristics. The proportion of albumin 
in colostrum is sufficient to coagulate the 
whole mass if it is heated to a temperature of 
about 180° Fahr. When the proportion of albumin 
is reduced to such an amount that the milk no 
longer thickens when it is boiled, it is ordinarily 



milk. This may occur as quickly as the third milk- 
ing after parturition and is seldom delayed beyond 
the eighth or ninth, unless there is serious inflam- 
mation of the udder or some other constitutional 
disturbance of the animal. 

Of the various constituents of milk, the water, 
fibrin, albumin and salts are transuded 
directly from the blood-vessels in the 
walls of the secreting follicles into the 
cavity of the follicle, and so find their 
way into the milk-ducts and finally to 
the orifice. Casein, fat, and sugar are 
not found in the blood, and they are gen- 
erally considered to be metabolic prod- 
ucts formed from the constituents of the 
blood through the metabolic activity in 
the cells making up the tissues of the 
follicles. It has been affirmed that in the 
formation of these substances, it is nec- 
essary that there should be a rapid cell growth 
and destruction in the tissue of the gland. Whether 
this is necessary or not, the secretion of the milk 
is undoubtedly accompanied by great cell activity. 
For a short time after calving, the amount of 
milk secreted increases until a maximum amount 
is reached, which is usually within a month of 
calving. From this time on, the flow of milk is 
maintained with a good degree of regularity for 
several months, and in exceptional cases may con- 
tinue without material falling off for a year or 
more. The continuation of the flow depends on sev- 
eral conditions. In the first place, there is a natural 
tendency for the flow to decrease, due to the shrink- 
ing of the blood-vessels in the udder, and a conse- 
quent less flow of blood in this direction. This 
tendency is increased after the cow has again 
become pregnant, and in many cases a noticeable 
falling off in the flow of milk occurs about this 
time. The character of the food and the regularity 
and thoroughness of milking are also important 
factors in maintaining the flow of milk. In order 




Fig. 338. A traveling dairy, as seen in parts of the Old World and Span- 
ish America, and also in Key West, where this picture was taken. 



taken to have changed from colostrum to normal 



to maintain the flow of milk without shrinking, it 
is not only necessary that the animal be abundantly 
fed, but the character of the food is also an im* 
portant factor. This is particularly the case in 
cows that drop their calves in the spring, for as 



312 



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the grasses grow harder, and the pastures less 
abundant in late summer, the tendency to shrink 
from this cause occurs at about the same time that 
the cow again becomes pregnant, and the milk-flow 
notably dim inishes. Succulent, easily digested food, 
particularly after the fourth or fifth month of lac- 
tation, is a great aid in maintaining the flow of 
milk. 

Milking. 

The secretion of milk is also influenced by the 
milker and the attitude of the animal toward him. 
The milk-ducts in the udder are provided at various 
points with more or less well-developed sphincter 
muscles, or valves, that are connected with the 
muscular system of the animal, and are more or less 
under her control. Any fright or disturbance of 
the animal at or near the time of milking is likely 
to be followed by contraction of these muscles, and 
the animal "holds up her milk." On the other 
hand, if the milker is kind and gentle, in many 
cases the cow seems to transfer to him some of the 
affection she would naturally bestow on her off- 
spring, and the milk is not only given down freely, 
but there is reason to suppose its secretion may 
even be stimulated. Experiments have shown that 
certain persons are able to secure more milk from 
certain cows than others, merely through the per- 
sonality of the milker, and not because of any 
superior skill. 

Regularity of milking is also an important fac- 
tor in maintaining the flow. If the milking is 




Fig. 339. Milking machine in place. 

irregular, so that the udder becomes over-distended 
with milk, this causes an irritation that results in 
a marked shrinkage of secretion. 

The quantity of milk secreted is also to some ex- 
tent determined by frequency of milking, and cows 
will give more when they are milked at frequent 
intervals. This factor acts only within narrow limits, 
and the point is soon reached when increased fre- 
quency of milking is not followed by increased pro- ' 



duction. While there is little experimental evidence 
at hand on this point, the opinion of careful dairy- 
men is that the greatest quantity of milk is secured 
when the interval of milking is so timed that the 
udder becomes moderately distended between each 
two milkings. Most cows will give rather more 
milk if milked three times a day than they will 
if milked only twice, and in cows secreting large 
amounts — eighty pounds or more — there is an in- 
crease in production if the cows are milked four 
times rather than three times a day. The common 
practice, of course, is to milk only twice a day, 
and it is better if the intervals are timed as 
nearly as possible at twelve hours apart. 

The frequency of milking also has a certain 
effect on the quality of the milk, notably the per- 
centage of fat, and it is noted that there is a tend- 
ency for the percentage of fat to rise when the 
cows are milked frequently. Like the amount of 
milk, this effect does not continue when the milk- 
ings are very frequent. The most notable case of 
this sort is that when the cows are milked twice a 
day at unequal intervals in the "great majority of 
cases the percentage of fat is decidedly higher at 
the milking following the shorter period. Even 
this is not universally true. It is the common 
opinion that the secretion goes on more rapidly 
while the animal is being milked, and the condi- 
tions most favorable to a large secretion favor 
milking as rapidly as possible, without discomfort 
to the animal, and with a more or less stroking 
motion on the udder, especially toward the last. 

The operation of milking gives opportun- 
ity for considerable skill, and a rapid, care- 
ful, skilful milker will do very much toward 
increasing the amount of milk that an animal 
will give during the period of her lactation. 
Milking, however, is laborious, and, to many, 
irksome ; so that in large dairies it is often 
difficult to secure skilful milkers. This has 
given rise to the attempt to devise machines 
for removing milk. While many apparatuses 
have been devised for this purpose, none has 
been at all successful until very recently. 

Milking machines (Fig. 339). 

The only milking machine in America that 
can be said to be at all successful at the pres- 
ent time is the Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy. It 
operates by an intermittent exhaust on the teats of 
the cow. Its successful operation requires a power, 
through vapor or steam engine, or otherwise, suffi- 
cient to maintain a vacuum pressure of somewhat 
less than twenty pounds to the square inch, a system 
of pipes leading to all parts of the stable, with an 
outlet between each two cows, and the milking 
machines themselves with their tubes and connec- 
tions. The milking machine consists of a pail, on 
which is fitted, air-tight, a lid on which is the 
"pulsator." It is furnished with rubber connections 
on the one hand to the exhaust pipe, and on the 
other to the cow's teats through the medium of 
carefully fitted "teat cups." The pulsator is an 
ingenious arrangement of cylinders and valves by 
means of which the vacuum pressure on the pail is 



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313 



intermittently and automatically increased and 
decreased. This change of pressure transmitted 
through the tubes to the teat cups simulates the 
sucking action of the calf's mouth on the teats, 
and so serves to draw the milk from the udder into 
the pail. Each machine is fitted with connections 
for two cows, and a single operator can manage 
two or three machines at the same time, thus milk- 
ing four or six cows at once. The time required to 
draw the milk from a cow is little if any less than 
is required to draw it by hand. These machines 
have been in operation now for several years in a 
more or less experimental way, and their present 
status is about as follows : The expense of equip- 
ment with an outfit of three machines is not less 
than $500, so that their use is not economical in a 
dairy of less than thirty cows. The mechanical 
parts of the machine are fairly perfect and durable, 
and work with a good degree of reliability ; never- 
theless, some little mechanical skill is desirable in 
the operator. The machine will draw the milk uni- 
formly and completely from the great majority of 
cows. An occasional cow cannot be milked, and 
frequently more or less milk is left in the udder. 
Most users of milking machines practice hand- 
stripping afterward. Some users complain that 
their cows tend to go dry sooner when milking 
machines are used. The efficacy of the milking 
machine depends to a good degree on adjusting 
the teat cup carefully to the size of the teat. 
Several sizes of teat cups are provided, and either 
the cows must be arranged in the stables according 
to the size of the teat, or the teat cups must be 
changed frequently. The milk is drawn into a cov- 
ered pail and is not exposed to the air of the sta- 
ble, which is a factor of considerable importance 
in securing clean milk. The milking machine is 
equipped with numerous closed rubber tubes and 
other parts that are not easily kept clean without 
constant care and attention. It is said, however, 
that by the use of antiseptic solutions the diffi- 
culty in keeping the machine clean is not great. 

Literature. 

For literature concerning the physiology of milk 
secretion, see R. Meade Smith, Comparative Physi- 
ology of Domestic Animals ; Aikman, Milk : Its 
Nature and Composition; Martiny, Die Milch; Kirch- 
ner, Milchwirttischaft; Wing, Milk and Its Products. 

Feeding Dairy Cattle. Figs. 340-342. 

By F. W. Well. 

The feeding of dairy cattle in its relation to milk 
production has received considerable study, but 
much remains to be learned. It is the purpose of 
this article to set forth in a brief way only a few 
of the important facts that have been gleaned. 
Publications devoted especially to the subject 
should be consulted for fuller details. [See refer- 
ences to literature at end of article.] 

The dairy calf. 

In the feeding and the development of the dairy 
calf, feeds of a fattening tendency are to be avoided, 



and only such fed as tend to develop a vigorous 
muscular system. With this end in view, the feed- 
ing of full milk to the dairy calf is discontinued 
after a few days, especially in case of milk rich 
in butter-fat, and separator skimmed milk is fed 
in its place, the change from one feed to another 
being made gradually, so as not to give rise to 
digestive disorders. A small quantity of some con- 
centrated feed, as shorts, linseed meal or flaxseed 
meal boiled into a jelly with water (one part meal 
to six of water), is fed daily with the skimmed 
milk. If the milk is not fresh from the separator, 
it must always be heated to blood-heat before being 
fed to the calf. If, however, a practice of feeding 




Fig. 340. Young-Stock stable. Showing arrangement of 
stanchions and mangers in a dairy-barn. 

cold milk is followed, and the milk is always cold, 
but not ice-cold, no injurious results will follow, 
provided, of course, the change has been gradual 
from the warm mother's milk. It must be kept in 
clean pails. Cleanliness is, in general, a most im- 
portant factor in calf-feeding. 

The amount of meal added to the skimmed milk 
is gradually increased in the first three weeks to 
about one pound a day. At six or eight weeks old, 
other feeds are given, preferably oats, wheat mid- 
dlings, or a mixture of both, and at about three 
months old these feeds should gradually replace the 
more expensive concentrates for the sake of econ- 
omy. Some feeders report good results from feeding 
farm grains with skimmed milk after the first week. 
The calves will gradually learn to eat hay, if it be 
placed before them ; a fine quality of clover hay or 
early-cut hay is generally reserved for this pur- 
pose. The object in view throughout the first year 
should be to keep the calves in a healthy growing 
condition, and to feed only easily digestible feeds 
that will cause a rapid, normal growth without 
deposition of unnecessary body fat. Other desirable 
foods for older calves than those mentioned are 
mill feeds, oil-meal, small grains, especially barley, 
brewers' and distillers' grains, malt - sprouts, and 
the like. Cottonseed meal, on the other hand, should 
be fed only sparingly or not at all. 

Fall calves, as a rule, are to be preferred to 
spring calves on dairy-farms, both because they 
can receive better care and attention during the 
winter months than in summer, and because they 



314 



CATTLE 



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will go on pasture in the spring at an age when 
their digestive apparatus is developed so that the 
green grass may form their main food, supplemented 
with some grains when pastures are scant. The 
time of calving of cows in a dairy herd, however, 
must be distributed over the year to some extent, 
so as to insure a fairly uniform milk supply 
throughout the year. 

The dairy heifer. 

The practice of good dairy-farmers as to time of 
breeding heifers differs considerably. The best 
results, however, may be expected by breeding so 
that the heifer will come in at about two years of 
age. A persistent milking habit is favored by con- 
tinuing to milk the heifer for about ten months 
during the first lactation period, if possible. As the 
time of parturition approaches, the feeding of the 
heifer should be plain, without stimulating foods 
that may have a deleterious influence on the fcetus 
and cause abortion, as fermented or decayed feeds. 
Good, clean hay from clover or mixed grasses, corn 
fodder, corn silage (made from well-matured corn, 
and fed in small or medium quantities, not to exceed 
twenty-five to thirty pounds a day) or roots should 
form the main reliance ; preferably both dry r.nd 
succulent roughage is fed, and, in addition, small 
amounts of ground oats, bran, shorts, gluten feed 
or corn, the last feed being given only when the 
heifer is in poor flesh. Shortly before calving, the 
feeding of all grain feeds, except perhaps a couple 
of pounds of bran, is discontinued, and dry roughage 
and roots (or a little good silage) are fed till the 
cow freshens. Directly after calving, a warm, thin 
slop of oat-meal, bran, or shorts, is given, or warm 
water only; for a few days until the danger of fever 
is over, the amount of feed should be very light, 
and gradually increased for two to three weeks, 
when the cow may be put on full feed. By this 
time, or before, the maximum production of butter- 
fat, and generally also of milk, will be reached. 

A heifer with her first calf should receive spe- 
cial care and be fed liberally, since she is growing 
and producing milk at the same time. A good sup- 
ply of protein feeds must be furnished in her 
ration to meet the requirements of the body for 
nitrogenous food components. Corn meal is espe- 
cially valuable at this time for heifers that show 
a tendency to "milk their flesh off." This heavy 
feeding should be continued up to drying-off prior 
to the second calving. Further details as to meth- 
ods of feeding will be found below, after a more 
general discussion of problems connected with the 
feeding of dairy cows. 

The dairy cow. 

Before explaining the method of feeding dairy 
cows, some general principles connected with the 
subject should receive attention, in order that we 
may more clearly understand the special problems 
that present themselves under the varying condi- 
tions of the different sections of our country. 

Feeding standards. — The studies of the princi- 
ples underlying the nutrition of farm animals 
which were made, especially by German scientists, 



during the middle and the latter part of the last 
century, crystallized into so-called " feeding stand- 
ards " that show the quantities of total dry matter 
and of digestible food components required daily 
by farm animals under different conditions as to 
age, weight or production. Of these, the standards 
proposed by the German investigator, Emil V. 
Wolff, have become best known in this country, 
and are generally referred to as the Wolff or 
simply the "German feeding standards." The 
Wolff standard for dairy cows provided for 24.5 
pounds of total dry matter in the daily feed of a 
dairy cow, and for a content of 2.5 pounds of 
digestible protein, 12.5 pounds digestible carbohy- 
drates, .4 pound digestible fat ; nutritive ratio, 
1:5.4. 

Up to within recent years it was generally 
thought that this standard was equally applicable to 
all milch cows, and to conditions in the new world, 
as well as in the old, as was the case with those 
proposed by the same scientist for other classes of 
farm animals. It was first shown by investigations 
made in this country in the early nineties that the 
rations fed by practical American dairymen in 
different parts of our country contained, as a rule, 
considerably more starchy components than called 
for by. the Wolff standard, and were, therefore, of 
a wider nutritive ratio than this standard. During 
the past dozen years, evidence furnished by both 
careful investigations and practical experience 
has gradually accumulated, showing that the exact 
nutritive ratio of the ration of a dairy cow, or the 
amount of digestible protein which it must con- 
tain, is not a matter of the great importance it 
was long held to be, provided a good supply of 
total digestible matter and a certain minimum of 
digestible protein be supplied in the food of the 
cows. The amount of the production of dairy cows 
is the controlling factor as to the quantity of 
digestible food materials they require, and large 
producers must receive considerably heavier 
rations than cows that are nearly dry, or than 
poor milch cows. The rations fed cows of differ- 
ent productive capacity, or to the same cow at 
different stages of its period of lactation, there- 
fore, must differ radically as to quantities, but not 
necessarily, or to the same extent, as to quality. 

As regards the nutritive ratio of the rations, it 
may vary from 1:5 to 1:9 without greatly in- 
fluencing the quantity or the quality of the produc- 
tion of the cows ; ordinarily, however, somewhat 
better results are obtained, under otherwise simi- 
lar conditions, by feeding rather narrow rations 
than wider ones. Such ratios will favor the pro- 
duction of a maximum milk yield, of the best 
quality that the cow is capable of producing, but 
the effect of the character of the ration on the 
fat content of the milk is not very marked. 

The fact that the manurial value of nitrogenous 
stuffs is higher than that of starchy feeds, further- 
more, adds to the value of rations of relative 
narrow nutritive ratios, as it renders the manure 
from cows fed such rations more valuable than in 
the case of low-protein rations. The market prices 
of the different classes of feeding-stuffs are the 



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315 



main factors that will decide how narrow nutritive 
ratios can be profitably fed in different localities ; 
where nitrogen feeds are relatively cheap, they can 
enter more largely into the make-up of the rations 
than where the opposite conditions obtain. 

We may say, in general, that a good dairy cow 
in full flow of milk should receive twenty-five 
pounds of dry matter, fifteen to eighteen pounds of 
digestible matter, and at least two pounds of diges- 
tible protein. Cows of large productive capacity 
may be fed to advantage considerably larger quan- 
tities of food materials than those given, while low 
producers, or dry cows, require much less. For dry 
cows, rations containing less than twenty pounds 
of dry matter, twelve pounds of digestible matter 
and one and one-half pounds of digestible protein 
are ordinarily sufficient to maintain body weight 
and insure a normal development of the foetus, if 
they are in calf. 

In discussing the feeding of dairy cows, we may 
conveniently consider separately the summer 
period when the cows are pastured or fed soiling 
crops, and the winter period, when they are fed 
winter rations in the stable. 

(1) Summer-feeding of dairy cows. — The favor- 
able influence of early summer pasturage on the 
milk secretion of cows, both as regards yield and 
quality, and more especially its fat content, has 
been known to observing dairy-farmers as long as 
milk records have been kept or tests of milk have 
been made. Ample pasturage is one of the essen- 
tials of successful dairy-farming where the soiling 
system has not been introduced. In the early 
part of the season, the cows, as a rule, will find a 
sufficient food supply on the pasture alone ; but, 
later in the season, it will often be necessary to 
supplement the pasture with soiling crops or 
summer silage, or, if neither is available, to feed 
grain feeds. Trials at a number of experiment 
stations have shown that the feeding of grain to 




Fig. 341. Truck used in handling rough feed and scale for 
weighing same. 

cows on pasture is profitable only when there is a 
scarcity of pasturage. In the case of heavy milk- 
ers, however, it will be advantageous to feed at 
least a few pounds of wheat bran, or wheat bran 
and oats, throughout the season, in order to insure 
a maximum production. 

Soiling. — The use of soiling crops or summer 
silage on dairy-farms is an important feature of 
intensive dairy-farming, as two to three times as 



much green forage may be secured per acre by 
this system as by pasturing, and it enables the 
farmer to maintain, so far as possible, the milk 
production of his herd during the trying "fly 
time," when hot weather and flies combine to 
reduce the production of the cows, both for the 
time being and for the remainder of the lactation 




Fig. 342. Truck and scales used in weighing grain feeds. 

period. A variety of soiling crops is fed in different 
sections : corn, alfalfa, peas and oats, rye, rape 
and the like. Some of these crops, as rye, rape and 
oats, should be fed with care, in small quantities 
at the start, and always after milking, so that they 
will not give rise to bad flavors in the milk or the 
products made therefrom. [See Soiling, Vol. II, p. 
569.] 

Summer silage is a highly-prized feed on many 
American dairy-farms. Generally a small, separate 
silo is filled in the fall for the purpose of feeding 
the silage in late summer, when drought and hot 
weather are likely to cause serious damage to pas- 
tures. The more common silage crops are corn, red 
or other clover, and alfalfa, corn being of most 
importance in the greater part of agricultural 
America. Thirty pounds of soiling crops or silage 
is an average allowance for dairy cows on poor pas- 
tures, and as much as sixty pounds of soiling crops 
or forty pounds of silage may be fed in the case of 
large cows, during seasons of drought when pastures 
are scant. 

(2) Winter-feeding of dairy cows. — The cows 
are fed in the stable during one-half of the year or 
more, and as the system of feeding during this 
period is necessarily most expensive, the profit of 
the dairy will depend to a large extent on the 
economy of the winter-feeding. Economical feed- 
ing in cases of good dairy cows does not mean 
scant supplies, but the kind of feeds and feed com- 
binations that will be likely to produce best results 
for the least money. Only cows that respond to 
liberal feeding and are fed liberally will prove 
profitable dairy animals. 

No detailed discussion of feeding-stuffs adapted 
to the feeding of cows will be given in this article, 
since the characteristics of the different kinds of 
feeding-stuffs and separate feeds are discussed 



316 



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elsewhere. [See pages 58-118.] A few general 
suggestions, however, may prove helpful. 

Succulent feeds, whenever possible, should be pro- 
vided for dairy cows during their entire lactation 
period; silage and roots are the main available feeds 
of this character during the winter period, and in 
corn-growing sections, at least, the former has 
been found to yield the largest and cheapest quan- 
tities of food materials per unit of area. Roots, 
however, are valuable substitutes when there is no 
silo on the farm; they are fed especially in Canada 
and by farmers who adhere more or less to Euro- 
pean methods of agriculture. In the case of heavy 
producers and cows "out of condition," roots are 
often fed, because of their dietetic effect, as appeti- 
zers, and because of their favorable influence on the 
digestion of animals. 

Corn silage. — The silo enables dairy-farmers to 
utilize the large supply of food material in the 
corn plant with the least possible loss and expense. 
For this reason, and because of the advantage of 
having a palatable, highly nutritious and relished 
succulent feed conveniently at hand throughout 
the season, the silo is now generally regarded as 
next to a necessity on dairy - farms, at least in 
corn-growing sections. The whole corn plant, ears 
and all, as a rule, is run through a feed-cutter, 
this having been found the most economical method 
of handling the crop. The corn is harvested when 
nearly ripe, and cut into one-half- to three-fourth- 
inch lengths in filling the silo. 

Silage is greatly relished by cows and can be fed 
in large quantities if made from well-matured corn. 
Ordinarily, the best results are obtained when not 
over forty pounds of corn silage is fed per head 
daily, and it is always fed with some dry roughage, 
either hay or corn fodder. Since the corn plant is 
rich in carbohydrates, protein feeds, as clover hay, 
wheat bran or oil-meal, should always be fed with 
corn silage or corn fodder. Clover silage, alfalfa 
silage, and the like, are fed in somewhat smaller 
quantities than corn silage. [See Silage-Cropping, 
Vol. II, page 566.] 

Dry roughage. — Hay from the grasses or legumes 
is a common coarse cow feed in this and other 
dairy countries. Early cut hay is more valuable, 
ton for ton, than late cut, but the yield obtained 
will be somewhat lower in the former case. Clover 
hay, or hay of other legumes, stands first in value 
as dry roughage for dairy cows. It is preferably 
fed long. Pure timothy hay is a poor cow feed, 
especially if late cut; mixed timothy and clover hay 
is the more valuable for cows the less timothy 
there is in it. Among other kinds of hay that are 
fed and relished by dairy stock are millet, oat, 
sorghum, alfalfa and pea. 

Corn stover (corn-stalks, corn fodder) is fed on 
the best American farms whole or cut, after hav- 
ing been shocked in the field. By the primitive 
method of feeding corn-stalks, in which the stalks 
are left standing in the field and the cows are sent 
out to nibble off the leaves and stalks during the 
fall and winter, less than one-half the food value 
in the stalks is utilized. Even when the shocks 
are left in the field, exposed to rain and weather 



for only a couple of months, not less than one- 
fourth to one-third of the original food material in 
the stalks is lost. This loss can be partially 
avoided by placing the cured fodder under shelter 
and feeding it cut, but the most convenient and 
economical method of utilizing the corn crop on 
most American dairy-farms, doubtless, is to place 
it in a silo and feed it as silage. 

Straw of the small grains is not often fed to 
dairy cows in this country, as we have an abun- 
dant and cheap supply of roughage in corn-stalks. 
When a quantity of fine, bright oat-straw is avail- 
able, it is well worth feeding in moderate quanti- 
ties, not to exceed one-half the weight of total 
dry roughage fed. The different kinds of straw are 
valued for feeding purposes in the following order: 
oat-, barley-, wheat- and rye-straws. 

Concentrated feeds ("concentrates"). — The com- 
mon concentrated feeds used on American dairy- 
farms are the cereals and mill refuse, starch or 
glucose factory refuse, brewery and distillery feeds 
and oil-meals, especially linseed and cottonseed 
meals. The amounts of these feeds that can be fed 
to dairy cows with profit will depend on the price 
of the feeds, the production of the cows, and the 
prices obtained for the products sold. In general, 
the carbohydrates of feed rations are supplied by 
farm-grown crops, while nitrogenous feeds are 
largely purchased, except when leguminous crops, 
as the clovers, alfalfa, peas, beans, and the like, are 
grown. By the culture of crops of the latter class, 
the amount of protein foods that it will be neces- 
sary to purchase will be reduced to a minimum. 
Bran may be partially replaced, nearly ton for ton, 
by carefully cured alfalfa hay, or by five to six 
tons of pea-vine silage. Roughly speaking, the 
cereals may be considered of equal food value for 
dairy cows, and of about similar value as bran or 
shorts, in the rations ordinarily fed. Cottonseed 
meal, gluten meal and oil-meal likewise possess 
nearly equal food value, with the first two feeds 
occasionally ahead. The comparative value of 
different feeding-stuffs, however, depends, to a 
large extent, on the combination in which they are 
fed, a starchy feed being of greater value to a 
farmer having a good supply of protein feeds, than 
to one who has mainly starchy feeds to select 
from. 

The quantities of grain feeds fed by American 
dairy-farmers vary considerably, from a few 
pounds to as much as eighteen pounds per head 
daily. Only exceptionally large producers will give 
economical returns for more than six or eight 
pounds of grain feed daily, with abundant rough- 
age of good quality at hand. It is a good rule 
to feed as many pounds of grain feeds a day 
per head as the cow produces pounds of butter-fat 
during the week, and to feed as much roughage in 
addition as the cow will eat up clean. 

Rations for dairy coirs. — It is important in mak- 
ing up rations for dairy cows, as for other classes 
of farm animals, to see to it that a liberal amount 
of easily digestible substances is supplied ; nearly 
one-half of the dry matter of the ration should be 
supplied in the form of concentrated feeds in case 



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317 



of milch cows, the amount fed being governed pri- 
marily by the production of the cows. No moldy 
or decayed feeds should be fed, and, in the case of 
wet feeds, particular attention must be given to 
keeping clean the mangers and the premises about 
the stable. A variety of feeds is always fed to 
dairy cows, often as many as half a dozen different 
feeds, so as to stimulate the appetites of the 
animals. The modern dairy cow is the product of 
special-purpose breeding and high feeding, and un- 
less special pains are taken to cater to her wants, 
she will not be able to reach and maintain the high 
standard of production which may reasonably be 
expected of her. 

The time of feeding is also important. The feed- 
ing should be as regular as the milking. Many 
farmers feed either hay or grain directly before or 
during milking, but as a rule, this is not to be 
recommended, both because of the tendency it has 
to interfere with the letting-down of the milk and 
the danger of contamination of the milk with dust 
and bacteria that it involves, especially when hay 
is fed that way. A good order of the day's work 
in the dairy-barn during the winter is as follows : 
First, in the morning, milking, then feeding grain, 
feeding silage, cleaning gutters, watering, feeding 
hay, grooming, turning out in the yard (on pleasant 
days for one or two hours in the early afternoon), 
watering, cleaning stable, feeding grain, milking, 
feeding silage, and arranging bedding. 

The following twelve rations for milch cows are 
given as samples of the systems of feeding to be 
recommended in different parts of the country (for 
further discussions of rations, see references below) : 

(1) Hay, 20 lbs.; oats, 3 lbs.; corn-and-cob meal, 
3 lbs.; oil-meal, 2 lbs. 

(2) Hay, 10 lbs.; corn-stalks, ad lib.; wheat bran, 
3 lbs.; corn meal, 2 lbs.; cottonseed meal, 2 lbs. 

(3) Roots, 60 lbs.; stover, ad lib.; oats, 3 lbs.; 
bran, 3 lbs.; gluten feed, 3 lbs. 

(4) Corn fodder, ad lib.; corn silage, 40 lbs.; 
shorts, 2 lbs.; dry brewers' grains, 2 lbs.; oil- 
meal, 2 lbs. 

(5) Silage, 40 lbs.; hay, ad lib.; bran, 4 lbs.; 
oats, 2 lbs. ; gluten meal, 2 lbs. 

(6) Corn silage, 45 lbs.; hay, ad lib.; oats, 4 lbs.; 
oil-meal, 2 lbs.; cottonseed meal, 1 lb. 

(7) Corn silage, 35 lbs.; clover hay, ad lib.; bran, 
oats and corn meal, 2 lbs. each. 

(8) Clover silage, 25 lbs.; hay, 5 lbs.; corn-stalks 
ad lib.; oats, 3 lbs.; corn meal and oil-meal, 2 lbs. 
each. 

(9) Clover or alfalfa silage, 30 lbs.; hay, ad 
lib.; bran, 4 lbs.; middlings, 3 lbs.; oil-meal, 1 lb. 

(10) Alfalfa hay, 20 lbs. ; oats, 4 lbs. ; corn meal, 
2 lbs. 

(11) Hay 20 lbs.; cottonseed hulls, 10 lbs.; cot- 
tonseed meal, 4 lbs. ; wheat bran, 2 lbs. 

(12) Corn silage, 30 lbs.; cottonseed hulls, 12 
lbs. ; bran, 6 lbs. ; cottonseed meal, 3 lbs. 

The dairy bull. 

The bull at the head of a dairy herd should 
receive a iarge share of his food in the form of 
dry roughage, hay from grasses or legumes, corn- 



stalks, and the like, with only limited amounts of 
concentrated feeds. Of the latter, wheat bran, 
shorts, oats and a little corn meal are to be pre- 
ferred. Roots are good as a relish, while corn 
silage and other kinds of silage should be fed very 
sparingly to breeding bulls. Fattening foods and 
excessive grain-feeding should be avoided, so that 
the animal may be kept in a vigorous active condi- 
tion. All corn and other fattening feeds for this 
reason are to be fed with care ; high feeding and a 
lack of exercise are common causes of impotency 
in bulls ; a wrong system of feeding management 
has been the cause of shortening the period of use- 
fulness of many bulls. 

Literature. 

Jordan, Feeding of Animals, pp. 304-323, 
328-331 ; Henry, Feeds and Feeding, pp. 401-479; 
Connecticut (Storrs) Experiment Station Reports, 
1893-1901 ; Georgia Experiment Station Bulletin 
No. 49 ; Kansas Experiment Station Bulletin No. 
81 ; Maryland Experiment Station Bulletin No. 84; 
Michigan Experiment Station Bulletin No. 149, and 
Dairymen's Report, 1899, p. 127 ; Mississippi 
Experiment Station Bulletin No. 70 ; Missouri 
Experiment Station Bulletins Nos. 53-58 ; New 
Jersey Dairy Commissioner's Report, 1897, pp. 
23-34 ; Pennsylvania State Board of Agriculture 
Bulletin No. 16 ; Rhode Island Experiment Station 
Bulletin No. 77 ; South Carolina Experiment Sta- 
tion Bulletin No. 67 ; Tennessee Experiment 
Station, Press Bulletin, 1900 ; Wisconsin Experi- 
ment Station Bulletins Nos. 33, 38, 116, 117. 

Feeding Beef Cattle. Figs. 343-345. 

By Howard R. Smith. 

In the production of beef in America there are 
two systems in practice : (1) breeding and fatten- 
ing cattle in the farming or grain-growing sections; 
(2) breeding and growing cattle in the grazing dis- 
tricts, and transporting them later to those parts 
of the country devoted to the growing of grain, 
where they are fattened for market. Extending 
from north to south through the western part of 
North America, adjoining and including the moun- 
tain ranges, is a wide stretch of country unfit for 
farming purposes, because of its physiography and, 
particularly, its lack of rainfall. While much of 
this land has little or no market value, it produces 
nutritious grasses, which will furnish sustenance 
to a limited number of cattle, sheep, or horses, 
animals that are adapted to travel over a con- 
siderable area to gain access to water and sparse 
vegetation. The conditions which prevail in this 
so-called range country are such as to make the 
cost of feeding an animal one year a matter of 
small expense, and it is because of this that cattle- 
men on the plains keep the offspring of their herds 
until fairly mature in frame though thin in flesh. 
It will also be understood, that when cattle thus 
reared are purchased by farmers at the ranches 
where grown, or at stock markets, they should be 
fed and handled in a manner somewhat different 
from those bred on farms. 



318 



CATTLE 



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The farmer is not justified in keeping cattle of 
his own raising until they are three or four years 
old, as is done by ranchmen. The price of farming 
lands would not warrant such a procedure. It is a 
well-established fact that the older and larger an 
animal becomes, the more food is required for body 
maintenance, — for body heat, heart action, lung 




expansion,andotherfunctional activities, — and con- 
sequently an increasing amount of food is required 
for a given gain. In a general way, the two-year-old 
steer will require approximately one-third more food 
for a given gain than will the yearling, and the three- 
year-old one-third more than the two-year-old. 
This is also true with cattle on the range, but there 
the extra food required in later years is offset by 
the smaller percentage of calves produced from a 
range herd of cows compared with a herd on the 
farm. Moreover, farm cows are kept primarily for 
milk and secondarily for calves, and it is to the 
interest of the farmer to keep more cows and 
correspondingly fewer steers. Farm-grown stock, 
therefore, should be fattened as baby-beeves, year- 
lings, or twos. 

Baby-beeves. 

Baby-beeves are cattle that are finished for 
market at the age of ten to sixteen months. This 
industry is now made possible by the fact that we 
have types of cattle that can be made fat at that 
early age. It is also encouraged by the packing- 
house buyers through their will- 
ingness to pay as much per hundred 
weight for young fat cattle as for 
older ones in the same flesh. Feed- 
ing for baby-beef is no doubt most 
practicable on farms that are 
partly devoted to the keeping of 
cows, or breeding ewes, animals 
which utilize the surplus roughage 
ordinarily grown on farms. Baby- 
beeves require heavy grain-feeding 
from start to finish, and it is evi- 
dent that this form of beef produc- 
tion would be less profitable if 
grain were scarce and high in price 
and rough feed a drug on the market. It requires 
beef-bred bulls of low and compact build to produce 
calves suitable for baby-beef. There is a larger 
proportion of individuals of that type among Aber- 



deen-Angus and Herefords than other breeds, and 
these are also early maturing. 

Calves that have had an abundance of milk from 
the dam, and liberal rations of grain both before 
and after weaning, can be made into prime baby- 
beef as early as ten months of age, though it is 
customary to feed a few months longer than this. 
The object is to hold the milk flesh and put on 
more besides. Corn is to be largely depended on, 
both because of its cheapness and because of its 
fattening character, rich as it is in starch and oils. 
It gives best results, however, when fed with some 
food rich in protein, as, for example, oil-meal or 
gluten feed. Whenever the market price of oats is 
on a par with corn per hundred, it is well to make 
the grain ration about one-fourth oats by weight. 
This grain, because of its bulk, serves to make a 
heavy feed of corn more permeable to digestive 
juices, and less likely to cause founder. In fact, 
one could afford to pay perhaps ten cents per hun- 
dred more for oats than for corn, for the sake of 
having a small quantity to mix with corn. If bran 
is fed, oats can be dispensed with. Furthermore, 
bran will furnish more protein than oats, but its 
price is often such as to make it a more expensive 
source of protein than oil-meal, the latter being 
three times as effective as bran for that purpose. 

A calf intended for early baby-beef, given all the 
grain he wants, and weighing 400 to 500 pounds at 
six months, will consume per day approximately 
five pounds of corn, two pounds of oats, and one- 
half pound of oil-meal, and such a ration with plenty 
of good clover or alfalfa hay should give excellent 
results, if supplied regularly. With roughage other 
than the legumes, — clover, alfalfa, or cowpeas, — 
the oil-meal should be increased to one pound per 
day. The same weight of bran could be substituted 
for the two pounds of oats and the one-half pound 
of oil-meal, if more available. The market does not 
countenance poorly finished baby-beeves, and it is 
therefore necessary to increase the daily ration as 
fast as it will be consumed by the calves, although 
it is never desirable to put in the feeding bunks 
more than will be cleaned up between the two 
feeds, morning and late afternoon. Corn silage is 
proving popular for calves, because of its succu- 




Fig. 344. Aberdeen-Angus calves nursing. 

lence and its tendency to prevent digestive dis- 
orders resulting from heavy grain-feeding. The 
feeding can be made lighter early, if the calves are 
not to be finished until sixteen months of age. 



CATTLE 



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319 



Skimmed-milk calves, although thinner at wean- 
ing time, are sometimes sold as baby-beef if well fed 
until sixteen or eighteen months of age. Heifer 
calves are preferred because they seem to take on 
flesh earlier than do male calves. In fact, the use 
of heifers for baby-beef production is the best solu- 
tion of the heifer problem, because young heifers 
are discounted at the markets much less than are 
older heifers often well along in pregnancy. 

Long yearlings. 

Fattening long yearlings, — cattle eighteen to 
twenty-three months old, — promises to be a popu- 
lar method of producing beef on farms having an 
abundance of good summer pasture. It is a method 
less to the extreme than baby-beef production, 
yet having to some degree the same advantages, 
notably, larger gains per food consumed and 
quicker returns than are made by keeping cattle 
until older. It is ahead of baby-beef production in 
that more beef is made from hay and grass and 
the final weight represents a relatively smaller 
consumption of grain. 

Taking it for granted that the calves are born 
in the spring, they are given little or no grain 
before or after weaning from the pail or the cow, 
as the case may be. A luxuriant growth of grass 
is depended on for the fall months, and when 
winter sets in the calves are supplied with a small 
allowance of grain in addition to a liberal feed of 
hay. It is intended that such calves shall be given 
pasture without grain the following summer and a 
full feed of grain the next fall and winter. With 
such a course mapped out for them, it would seem 
that the winter ration should be such as to make 
their going on pasture the following summer a 
pleasure rather than a hardship. This would not 
be accomplished were a heavy winter grain ration 
dropped when the cattle go on grass. 

In this connection, the results of a test made at 
the Nebraska Experiment Station with fifty grade 
Hereford calves averaging 500 pounds each, are of 
interest. One lot was fed liberally on hay, mostly 
alfalfa, and no grain ; another lot, the same kind of 
hay, though less of it, and three pounds of grain 
each per day; while a third lot was given still less 
of the same kind of hay and six pounds of grain 
each per day. The last-named lot made the largest 
and most economical gains during the winter, but 
the discontinuance of grain on pasture the follow- 
ing summer told on their summer growth, and they 
finished the year with gains costing $3.46 per hun- 
dred compared with $3.14 for those which had 
received three pounds each, and $3.17 for those 
which had received no grain, hay being worth at 
the time $6 per ton and grain $1 per hundred 
pounds. No doubt the " no grain " calves consumed 
more grass, which was not accounted for in the 
experiment, but which would have made the results 
still more in favor of a light grain ration rather 
than no grain in winter. Cured grass is not the 
equal of fresh grass, and a little grain with it is 
an advantage ; but care should be taken that not 
enough grain be supplied to make the winter ration 
superior to grass alone which is to follow it. 



As to the character of the ration, it may be said 
that if the roughage is in large part alfalfa, clover 
or cowpea hay, the small grain ration may consist 
of corn alone ; but if roughage other than these 
legumes is fed, then the corn should be supple- 
mented with an equal weight of bran, or one-third 
to one-half of that weight of oil-meal. Well-bedded 
barns or sheds closed on all sides, but with windows 
and doors always open and with a well-drained 
yard adjoining, will give the most approved quar- 
ters for wintering such calves. 

After a summer of pasture, they may be fed, 
while yet on grass, fodder corn which has been 




Fig. 345. Feeding beef calves, showing feed-pens and mule- 
drawn car. S. At. S. ranch, Stamford, Texas. 

planted rather thick to make the ears smaller in 
size and easier for yearlings to masticate. When 
placed in the yards, this same fodder corn may be 
fed in racks in the morning, the remaining half of 
the full feed to be supplied as shelled corn fed in 
open bunks during late afternoon, with a liberal 
feed of alfalfa, clover, or cowpea hay given at the 
same time of day. With any rough feed other than 
these legumes, as sorghum or millet, the grain fed 
at night should be one-fifth to one-fourth oil-meal, 
gluten or cottonseed meal. In other words, if these 
yearlings, when once on a full grain feed which has 
been brought about by a gradual increase during 
a period of four to six weeks, are each consuming 
per day eight pounds of corn on the stalk and 
eight pounds of grain at night, one and one-half 
to two 'pounds of that grain should be oil-meal, 
gluten meal or cottonseed meal, and the remainder 
shelled corn. It is assumed that there is one pig 
for each steer, to consume corn in the droppings. 
Feeding in this manner throughout the winter will 
put the cattle in good finish by spring, when they 
should weigh 1,100 to 1,200 pounds at twenty- 
three months and will command a good price. 

Short two-year-olds. 

Finishing short two-year-olds by feeding grain 
in connection with spring and summer pasture 
accomplishes a still greater saving of grain than 
the method just described, because, with this 
system, a light grain ration is fed the first winter 
and something less than a half feed of grain the 
second winter. When corn is high in price and hay 
and grass are abundant, this method is very satis- 
factory. By it one takes advantage of the fact 
that a full feed of grain on grass is not more than 



320 



CATTLE 



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two-thirds of a full feed with hay ; and even larger 
gains are to be expected when full-fed on grass. 
Here again we are confronted with the fact that 
fresh grass will go farther in beef production than 
will dried grass in winter. Soaked shelled corn 
seems to be most effective for spring and summer 
feeding, and nothing else is needed unless the grass 
is timothy or prairie, when additional protein 
should be supplied by the use of coarsely ground 
oil-cake or some other protein food. Summer-fed 
cattle should be marketed in July. Cattle would 
better be kept from grass entirely if an earlier 
market is sought, because the first few weeks on 
grass produces a shrink. On the other hand, cattle 
should not be held much later than July, because 
of the hot weather and flies. 

Fall-feeding two-year-olds. 

Fall-feeding two-year-olds with corn fodder (corn 
on the stalk) on pasture is a most excellent prac- 
tice on farms situated for it. Corn may be fed as 
soon as it is sufficiently ripe to go in the shock ; in 
other words, after the ears harden and the husk 
turns brown, yet while many of the stalk leaves 
are green. Immature corn should not be cut and 
fed to fattening cattle because it invariably causes 
shrinkage at the start, due, no doubt, to its laxative 
character. In an average season, the feeding of 
corn fodder may begin about September 15 and be 
continued in the field for a period of three months, 
at the end of which time two-year-old steers on 
good pasture will be sufficiently fat to market. 
The method has several advantages : (1) Corn fod- 
der furnishes a cheap but effective combination of 
grain and roughage, lower in price than either fed 
separately. (2) It can be hauled from the shock 
and scattered on the sod or on ground which is to 
be plowed in the spring at a low cost for labor. (3) 
The manure is scattered in the fields without addi- 
tional expense. (4) The feeding is done at a season 
when the weather is most favorable. 

In feeding corn fodder, it is well to supply a 
quantity which will furnish each steer about three 
pounds of corn the first day. If the fodder is in 
bundles, this can easily be estimated and the mate- 
rial increased gradually until at the end of four 
weeks the cattle are receiving all the corn they 
will consume. When on a full feed of corn, there 
will be a considerable waste of stalks, much of 
which can be avoided by feeding some husked, 
snapped, or shelled corn in addition. A mixture of 
three pounds of bran and one pound of oil-meal or 
cottonseed meal, supplied to each steer per day, will 
increase gains materially, and will thus bring the 
cattle to an earlier finish. 

Winter-feeding range two-year-olds. 

Winter - feeding range two-year-olds or farm- 
grown cattle which have had no grain during sum- 
mer and fall is the method most commonly prac- 
ticed in the West, where corn is left standing in 
the field usually until November. Not many range 
cattle reach the markets until late in October or 
November, and the fattening period frequently ex- 
tends to May. Snapped corn (ear within the husk) 



is most in favor during the early part of the feed- 
ing, and this with alfalfa or clover gives excellent 
results. Recent tests, however, have shown that 
the use of field-cured stalks with alfalfa gives just 
as large gains and at less expense. In fact, the 
most profitable rations of all those tested at the 
Nebraska Experiment Station during a period oj 
four years were combinations of corn, alfalfa, and 
corn-stover (stalks), with the ration containing 
corn attached to the stalk (corn fodder) slightly in 
the lead of other rations containing the same foods. 
After cattle have been fed snapped corn for six or 
eight weeks, it is well to begin gradually with 
shelled corn, the same to replace entirely or in 
large part the snapped corn at the end of another 
month. If snapped corn is suddenly discontinued 
and shelled corn substituted, cattle will immedi- 
ately " scour," and shrink in consequence. A little 
snapped, or, preferably, crushed snapped corn fed 
with shelled corn to the very close of the period 
insures better digestion and lessens the danger of 
founder, because the presence of the cob and husk 
makes the heavy grain ration less compact in the 
stomach. A little corn-and-cob meal will serve the 
same purpose. If, however, all the corn is fed as 
corn-and-cob meal, the extra gains made will not 
be great enough to compensate for the charge 
regularly allowed for grinding corn to the usual 
degree of fineness. Grinding might pay in the 
East, where corn is higher in price and the cost of 
labor on a par, but it will not pay in the West, 
unless hogs for consuming waste corn are not 
available, and frequently not even then. 

Alfalfa, clover, or cowpea hay are more profit- 
able than some other forms of roughage which 
require a supplementary protein food in addition. 
With these leguminous hay plants we are able to 
secure good gains by using nothing but corn as 
grain. But, without the legumes, it has been shown 
conclusively that the use of bran, oil-meal, gluten 
meal, or cottonseed meal as foods supplementary 
to corn, will not only make larger gains, but will 
also make them more profitably unless these pro- 
tein foods are much above average prices. Two 
pounds of one of these concentrated foods per day 
to each animal is quite enough, increasing this 
quantity slightly if low in price or if corn is high, 
and diminishing it if the commercial foods are high 
and corn is low. Two-year-olds on full feed will 
take 20 to 25 pounds of grain per day, but less if 
deprived of the necessary protein food, which no 
doubt partly accounts for smaller gains made when 
thus fed. All the roughage that will be eaten 
should be supplied. This need not be weighed, but 
will amount to 5 to 10 pounds per day to each ani- 
mal when on a full grain feed. 

Range three-year-olds. 

Range three-year-olds, weighing as feeders 1,100 
pounds or thereabouts, are preferred by some 
farmers, because they take on fat faster and can 
thus be marketed that much earlier. While cattle 
of this age require more food for a given gain, that 
item may be offset by the fact that the same 
advance in selling price over cost price on older 




1 # 




Plate IX. Types of dairy cattle. — Holstein above, Ayrshire below 



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321 



cattle will yield an increased profit, due to the 
larger initial weight of the older animals. In other 
words, $1.50 advance on a 1,100-pound feeder 
means $16.50 to start with, compared with $12.00 
on the 800-pound feeder. Range three-year-olds 
seem to require a somewhat smaller proportion of 
the protein foods, but, on the other hand, they con- 
sume a larger proportion of grain to hay. Whether 
it is best to purchase range two-year-olds or three- 
year-olds depends entirely on relative prices and 
conditions existing on the farm of the prospective 
buyer. There seems to be a growing tendency to 
favor the younger cattle. 

Literature. 

Smith, Profitable Stock Feeding, second edition, 
the author, Lincoln, Nebraska (1906) ; Armsby, 
Manual of Cattle Feeding, New York, John Wiley 
& Sons (1880) ; Henry, Feeds and Feeding, sixth 
edition, the author, Madison, Wisconsin (1900) ; 
Jordan, The Feeding of Animals, New York, Mac- 
millan Company (1901) ; Stewart, Feeding Animals, 
third edition, Lake View, New York, (1886); Shaw, 
The Feeding and Management of Live Stock, St. 
Anthony Park, Minnesota (1902); Wolff-Cousins, 
Farm Foods. Much information can be had from 
state experiment station bulletins, those published 
by the United States Department of Agriculture, 
and the files of the Breeders' Gazette. 

Determining the Age of Cattle. 
By H. H. Wing. 

The teeth of the ox serve to help in the determin- 
ation of its age, although not so accurately nor to 
so great an extent as in the horse. Under ordinary 
circumstances, the incisors are the only teeth that 
are used in the determination of age. Of these, the 
ox has eight, or four pairs, and on the lower jaw 
only. There are two sets, the temporary or milk 
teeth, and the permanent teeth, the latter differing 
from the former mainly in their greater size and 
width. 

The calf is born with the two central pairs of 
milk teeth fully up, and the remaining pairs appear 
within the first month after birth. When the ani- 
mal reaches the age of about eighteen months, the 
middle pair of milk teeth are replaced by permanent 
ones that are fuliy twice as broad as the milk teeth. 
The interval between the appearance of the succeed- 
ing pairs is rather variable, depending on the 
precocity or early maturity of the individual and 
also on the breed and the way in which the animal 
has bean kept. Young cattle that have been ill- 
kept, and whose general development has been 
delayed, will have their dentition delayed, and will 
show a young mouth for their age. The interval 
between the appearance of each two pairs of teeth 
is seldom less than nine months, so that the age of 
the animal at the time each pair is up and in full 
wear may be reckoned as follows; 

First, or middle pair 18 months 

Second, or first intermediate pair . . 27 months 
Third, or second intermediate pair . 36 months 
Fourth, or outer pair 45 months 

C 21 



If there is any variation from the above, the 
animal is likely to be older rather than younger 
than the teeth indicate. After the teeth are up and 
in full wear, there is comparatively little change 
in their appearance for several years. The teeth 
are broad, flat and white in color, and their edges 
should almost or quite meet. They are never firmly 
fixed in the jaw 7 , as in the case of the horse, but 
rather loosely imbedded in a thick cartilaginous 
pad or gums. The looseness of the teeth should 
not therefore be taken by the novice as an indica- 
tion of unsoundness or of advancing age. 

After the animal has reached an age of eight or 
nine years, the teeth becomes narrower through 
wear. They shrink away from each other and often 
become more or less discolored and finally drop out 
one by one. A vigorous old cow will often do very 
well, especially if fed liberally on grain and succu- 
lent food, after the last incisor tooth has disap- 
peared. And so long as the teeth are all present 
and reasonably close together, the animal is said 
to have a good mouth. This condition may remain 
up to ten or twelve years of age, and occasionally 
even longer. 

The horns also afford a means for estimating the 
age of cattle, especially of cows. During the first 
two years, the horns grow rapidly and the greater 
part of the total growth is made in this time. After- 
ward, the growth is slow from year to year, and 
each year's growth is marked by a more or less dis- 
tinct ring. The first ring appears when the animal 
is about three years old, and the age may be reck- 
oned by adding two to the number of rings present. 

Common Ailments of Cattle. Figs. 346-359. 
By John R. Mohler' and George H. Hart. 

Most serious ailments of live-stock should receive 
the attention of a skilled veterinarian. Failure to 
observe all conditions and directions carefully 
may result fatally, whereas a skilled veterinarian 
would have saved the animal. Frequently, however, 
it may be impossible to secure the veterinarian 
just when needed, and it is well for the farmer to 
know what to do in the emergency. Then, there 
are many ailments that can be treated by a care- 
ful farmer. It is the purpose of this discussion to 
give brief practical information for such cases. 
[The infectious diseases of animals are discussed at 
length by V. A. Moore, on pages 124-146.] 

Before discussing some of the common ailments 
and diseases that affect cattle, it may be well to 
mention the various methods of administering 
medicines to live-stock and to compare the common 
means of measuring medicines, with their values in 
the apothecary system. 

Methods of administering medicines. 

Medicines are usually given by the mouth, 
although at times other methods, as per rectum, 
intravenously (into a vein), or subcutaneously 
(under the skin), are more certain, and in some 
cases must of necessity be employed. Medicines 
may also be applied externally by massage. They 
are given in the form of fluid, powder, pill, ball, 



322 



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CATTLE 



drench and paste. When given intravenously or sub- 
cutaneously, they must be in fluid form and be 
given with a hypodermic syringe. (Fig. 346.) 
Solids are sometimes, although rarely, given by the 
rectum. 

Pills are small quantities of medicine rolled into 
a solid spherical mass. They have limited use for 
the domestic animals aside from the dog and cat. 

Balls are larger masses of drugs, given prin- 
cipally to the horse. They should be spherical, 
soft in consistency and covered with oil before 




Fig. 346. The use of the hypodermic syringe in vaccinating. 

they are administered. After administering, a 
drink of water should be offered. The giving of a 
ball requires some skill, and is successful only after 
considerable experience. The ball should be held 
in the right hand between the thumb and first 
three fingers. The tongue is drawn out from the 
side of the mouth with the left hand, and the 
mouth kept wide open by pressing against its roof 
with the left thumb. The right hand, holding the 
ball, is passed back between the molar teeth as far 
as possible. Then, with a sudden thrust back into 
the throat, the ball is deposited, the hand with- 
drawn and the tongue immediately released so that 
when the animal draws the tongue back into the 
mouth the base of the organ will push the ball back 
into the throat far enough to prevent its being 
brought back into the mouth and chewed up, as so 
often follows the attempts of beginners. 

Pastes or electuaries are soft, semi-solid masses of 
medicine mixed up with honey or molasses and 
spread over the tongue and teeth, with the idea 
that they will be slowly dissolved and swallowed. 
They are principally used in inflammations of the 
throat (laryngitis and pharyngitis). 

Drenches are large quantities of fluid medicines 
given at one time, as of oil and salts. In admin- 
istering a drench to the horse, the head should be 
raised until the face and nose are horizontal, and 
be held in place by means of a rope passed through 
or tied around the nose piece of the halter and run 
over an overhead beam, with an assistant holding 



the free end. The drench should be in a fairly 
long-necked bottle. When the animal's head is in 
position, the neck of the bottle is passed into the 
mouth at the corner of the lips and the drench 
slowly poured on the upper surface of the tongue 
as far back in the mouth as possible. In case the 
animal coughs or shows signs of discomfort, the 
head should be lowered slightly by loosening the 
rope until relief is obtained, when it may be drawn 
up again. In cattle, drenches may easily be given 
by grasping the nostrils with one hand and holding 
the head up while the other hand manipulates the 
bottle containing the medicine. In the dog, it is 
well to draw out the side of the cheek, leaving the 
teeth closed, and pour the medicine slowly into the 
cavity thus formed. In all drenching, taking plenty 
of time is the keynote of success. 

Common means of measuring medicines, with their 
values in the apothecary system. 

Teaspoon contains about 1 dram (J oz.) 
Dessertspoon contains about 2 drams (J oz.) 
Tablespoon contains about 4 drams (£ oz.) 
Heaping tablespoon of powder contains about 1 ounce. 
Tea-cup holds about 5 ounces. 

Wounds and their treatment. 

A wound is an injury to any part of the body, 
causing disruption of the affected parts with or 
without laceration of the skin, and produced by 
external violence. According to the method of 
production we have incised, punctured, contused, 
lacerated and gun-shot wounds. 

The first object to be sought in all serious 
wounds is the checking of the flow of blood. This 
may be accomplished by several methods, such as 
compresses, bandages, torsion, hot iron and liga- 
tures. The heat from the hot iron, which should be 
used at a red heat, will cause the immediate clot- 
ting of the blood in the vessels, which is further 
supported by the production of a firm scab. The 
hot iron should be used with care and applied only 
to the bleeding points. Cold water and ice-bags 
quickly stop small hemorrhages when the blood 
oozes from the cut surfaces. Some drugs, called 
styptics, possess the power of contracting the 
blood-vessel walls and also of clotting the blood. 
As examples of such drugs may be mentioned 
chlorid of iron, tannic acid, alcohol and oil of 
turpentine. A pure solution of the tincture of the 
chlorid of iron placed directly on a wound or 
applied by saturating cotton will produce a rapid 
and hard clot. It is followed by a great deal of 
sloughing (casting off of tissue) and therefore 
should be sparingly used over large surfaces. To 
check bleeding from large vessels, compression 
must be adopted. When rapid and dangerous and 
from an artery (coming in spurts), the finger may 
be used for pressing on the vessel between the 
wound and the heart ; but if from a vein (flowing 
regularly) the pressure should be exerted on the 
other side of the wound, away from the heart. 
Compression may also be used by passing a strap 
around the part and tightening, after placing 
a raised pad over the point of hemorrhage. Tarn- 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



323 



pons of cotton, tow or oakum may be packed 
tightly into a wound and held in place by bandages 
for twenty-four to forty-eight hours. 

Lfgation, when practicable, is an exceedingly 
successful method of stopping hemorrhage. It con- 
sists in grasping the bleeding vessel with the for- 
ceps and tying a clean cord or string tightly around 
it about one-half inch from the end, using all the 
antiseptic precautions given below. If the vessel 
cannot be picked up alone it may be necessary to 
pass the thread around a mass of tissue, including 
the bleeding vessel, to arrest the blood flow. 

Medicinal treatment of wounds. — Whenever an 
animal in a public place receives a wound, there is 
usually some one present who has a remedy of 
wonderful curative power for just that condi- 
tion. Many of these quack mixtures are harmful. 
Among these injurious agents may be mentioned 
cobwebs, wood ashes, tobacco, horse manure and 
various preparations of alcohol, turpentine, irrita- 
ting oils, and in some cases the direct application of 
pure spirits of salts (hydrochloric acid) or other of 
the mineral acids. 

Every wound, after the hemorrhage has been 
arrested, should have the hair in the immediate 
vicinity of the edges trimmed away and all foreign 
bodies and dirt particles carefully removed with 
clean fingers or forceps. It should then be washed 
with some antiseptic solution, as 5 per cent car- 
bolic acid or lysol, or ttjVcf bichlorid of mercury 
applied with a sponge or syringe. When necessary, 
the edges of the wound should be sewed together, 
following which, in fresh, uncomplicated wounds, 
a drying astringent antiseptic powder, as tannic 
acid, boric acid or iodoform, may be dusted over 
it. However, when it is badly lacerated and is 
befouled with dirt, as a kick wound, or when it is 
old and bacteria have gained entrance, producing 
suppuration and the discharge of pus, it will be 
better to leave the wound open and treat it with 
antiseptic solutions or by continuous irrigation 
until the discharge of pus ceases, when the drying 
astringent powders may be applied. [For Wound 
infections, see page 125.] 

Mammitis (Mastitis), garget or caked-bag. 

Mammitis is an inflammation of the udder ap- 
pearing in two forms, simple and infectious. The 
simple form is really an infection, generally enter- 
ing through the milk canals, but ordinarily it does 
not spread from one animal to another. This form, 
which alone will be discussed in this article, usually 
occurs right after calving and may involve part 
or all of the udder. (Fig. 347.) As causes of simple 
mammitis may be mentioned lying on damp floors, 
great distention of the udder during the latter 
, part of pregnancy, rough milking, nursing of large 
'calves, irregular milking, or congestion of the 
udder from internal causes. [Infectious Mastitis, 
pages 125, 126.] 

The symptoms of the non-infectious form are as 
follows : One quarter, a side or even all four quar- 
ters become enlarged and firm. It may start with 
only a small area, and gradually spread until a 
whole quarter or the entire udder is infected. The 



animals are depressed and there may be a slight 
rise of body temperature. The local temperature 
of the udder is always increased and the gland is 
sensitive to pressure. The flow of milk is lessened, 
and what milk is secreted is watery and may con- 
tain pus cells or be tinged with blood. 

Treatment. — Give sparingly of milk-producing 
foods, as activity of the udder is to be avoided. 
The udder should be well massaged with the hand, 
and camphorated oil or tincture of iodine one part, 
alcohol eight parts, applied and rubbed in well. Then 
very severe warmth should be applied by means of 
sponges wrung out of hot water and held against 
the udder until cool. In case abscess formation is 
threatened, bean or flaxseed poultices may be ap- 
plied until good fluctuation is present, when the 
abscess should be opened and the pus allowed to 
escape. If gangrene develops, strong antiseptics, 
as 5 per cent carbolic acid or two- bichlorid of 
mercury, should be applied externally. Injections 
of antiseptics into the udder through the teat ducts 
is indicated in aggravated cases. Among the best 
solutions for this purpose may be mentioned § per 
cent carbolic acid or lysol, 4 per cent boric acid, or 




Fig. 347. Section of cow's udder. 6. R. M., lymph gland of 
udder ; L. p., lymphatics of hind-quarter ; L. a., lym- 
phatics of fore-quarter ; L. E., lymphatics leaving the 
udder ; A. M.. mammary artery ; V. M., mammary vein ; 
V. Ma., anterior mammary vein : C, transverse inter- 
mammary septum. (After Moussu.) 

.5 per cent permanganate of potash. Before the 
injections are made, however, the external surface 
of the udder should be thoroughly cleaned and the 
syringe used for the injection should be boiled. 

Chapped teats. 

This affection is common among cattle during 
the period of lactation, and may cause great diffi- 
culty in milking. One of the commonest causes is 
the sucking and biting of a several-weeks-old calf ; 
also turning a cow out in a cold wind while the 
teats are still wet from the calf sucking, or from 
milking with a wet hand. Lying down in the 
stable with the teats coming in contact with 
manure or urine may likewise be a cause. The 
animal will not stand quietly to be milked, and 
may kick. 

Treatment. — In fresh cows, the calf should be 
weaned as soon as possible. Care should be taken 



324 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



to see that the teats are dry before turning the 
animal out of the stable in wet weather. Bland 
antiseptic ointment, as a 10 per cent ointment of 
calomel in petrolatum, should be applied after 
milking. Yellow oxid of mercury in a 5 per cent 
ointment is also good. Care must be exercised to 
prevent the milk becoming contaminated with 
these ointments. In very bad cases, the milk should 
be withdrawn for a few milkings with the milking- 
tube, accompanied by massage of the udder. It is 
imperative that the end of the teat be disinfected 
and the milking-tube sterilized before it is inserted. 
Astringent applications, as lead water with lauda- 
num or tannic acid ointment, are good when there 
is considerable discharge from the sores. 

Milk-fever. 

This is a serious disorder affecting well-nourished, 
fat, heavy -milking animals at the most aetive 
period of life, and is characterized by sudden 
onslaught, complete paralysis of the animal with 
the loss of sensation, and by following closely on 
the act of calving and terminating rapidly in 
recovery or death. The principal predisposing 
causes are great activity of the udder, and a ple- 
thoric condition (excess of nutrition in blood-ves- 
sels and organs) of the body resulting from excessive 
feeding and lack of exercise before calving. As 
to the direct cause of the disease, various theories 
have been advanced, the most generally accepted 
of which is, that it is a poisoning of the body due 
to the absorption of toxic substances from the 
udder. This theory was considered to have settled 
the discussion, until within the last two years, 
when good results were secured by the injection of 
ordinary atmospheric air, since which time the 
exact cause of the disease has been in doubt. 

The attack usually comes on within two days 
after calving. The animal is restless, treads with 
the hind feet, switches the tail, stares anxiously 
around the stall or walks about uneasily. These 
symptoms are rarely recognized by the owner, but 
are rapidly followed by beginning paralysis, noticed 
by a staggering gait, especially in the hind-legs, 
and weakening of the knees and fetlocks in front. 
This increases until the animal goes down and is no 
longer able to rise. The paralysis becomes general, 

the calf is un- 
noticed, and the 
cow lies perfect- 
ly quiet and in- 
sensible, not 
even winking 
when the finger 
is placed on the 
eyeball. While 
down, a very 
characteristic 
position is as- 
sumed, which is 
of great aid in diagnosis. The head is turned around 
to the side, usually to the left, and it rests against 
the chest, causing a peculiar arching of the neck. 
(Fig. 34R.) If the head is drawn out straight, it 
immediately flops around to the side again on being 




Fig. 348. Cow with milk- fever, show 
ins characteristic position. 



released. There is paralysis of the muscles of the 
throat, so that swallowing is difficult. 

Treatment. — Because of the paralysis of the 
throat, great care should be taken in the admin- 
istration of medicines by the mouth, as they are 
likely to pass into the wind-pipe, and set up 
traumatic pneumonia, which is invariably fol- 
lowed by death. The patient should be kept in 
the upright position on the breast-bone, and not 
on her side. Bags of chaff or straw may be 
used to keep her propped up. The feeble pulse 
calls for the administration of stimulants, such 
as subcutaneous injections of strychnine sulfate, 
one grain three times daily. 
Although this treatment 
will assist in curing the 
patient, it is merely ac- 
cessory, and can be of very 
little value without the in- 
jection into the udder of 
atmospheric air. The appli- 
cation of this treatment 
requires the use of an ap- 
paratus such as is shown in 
Fig. 349. The metal cylin- 
der is filled with dry cotton, 
which filters the air as it 
passes through. The udder 
should be thoroughly 
cleansed and washed with 
a 5 per cent solution of 
carbolic acid. The entire in- 
strument should be boiled 
before using, the water 
forced out of it, and pro- 
tected from dirt, so as not 
to contaminate the milk 
ducts and cause garget. 
Fresh clean dry cotton 
must be inserted in the metal chamber before each 
using, and it must be kept clean and dry. After the 
udder is cleaned, the milking-tube is inserted into 
the four teats in succession, the rubber bulbs are 
squeezed, and the air, sterilized by filtration through 
the dry cotton in the metal chamber, is forced 
into the udder until the latter is well distended and 
tense. After the milking-tube is withdrawn, the 
teats should be tied with broad tapes to prevent 
the escape of the air. In case the air becomes ab- 
sorbed and no improvement is noticed within five 
hours, a repetition of the injection should be made, 
using the same antiseptic precautions as at first. 
The tapes should not be kept in place too long, as 
they may cause swelling of the teats from shutting 
off the blood supply. Since the adoption of this 
method of treatment, the death rate has been re- 
duced to about 3 per cent as against a mortality of 
40 per cent. (Adapted from Farmers' Bult. No. 205.) 

Retained afterbirth. 

This is a common ailment on all cattle-breeding 
and dairy-farms. It may result from several causes, 
chief of which may be mentioned abortion, in which 
case the normal fatty change which loosens the 
placenta at the end of pregnancy has not occurred. 




Fig. 349. A-pj^-.atus for 
injecting air into the 
udder. A dangerous 
instrument in t lie 
hands of the careless. 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



325 



Debility of the animal may be a cause, all the mus- 
cular strength of the uterus having been expended 
in expelling the fcetus. Too rapid closure of the 
uterine neck may imprison the yet undischarged 
membranes in the womb. 

The symptoms are very obvious. The membranes 
are usually seen protruding from the vulva. Their 
blood supply being cut off, they rapidly undergo 
decomposition, become very foul and scent the 
entire building. The animal usually continues to 
strain, does not eat well, and does not come up to 
her normal flow of milk. The absorption of the 
decomposing substances by the uterine walls causes 
a slight rise of temperature. 

Treatment. — This has for its object the removal 
of the membranes, when the other symptoms will 
subside. A reasonable time should be allowed after 
the birth of the calf for the animal to expel the 
membranes unassisted, during which time one or 
two one-half-ounce doses of fluid extract of ergot 
may be given. In no case, however, should manual 
assistance be withheld longer than twenty-four 
hours. Manual removal may sometimes be accom- 
plished by wrapping the extruded membranes 
around two sticks and producing gradual traction, 
and wrapping the loosened part until finally it all 
comes out. When the membrane has decomposed, 
it is very likely to tear when traction is made. In 
such case, other means is employed. This consists 
in passing the hand and arm up into the uterine 
cavity and pealing out each individual fetal pla- 
centa from the enclosing button (cotyledon). The 
most anterior ones may be out of reach, in which 
case slight traction on the membrane will draw the 
uterine walls within reach of the fingers. In under- 
taking this procedure, the arm should be bared to 
the shoulder and thoroughly washed in soap and 
water, followed by 3 to 5 per cent creolin solution. 
After the placenta and membranes are removed, if 
there is any fluid in the uterine cavity it may be 
removed by washing out the uterus with a 1 per 
cent creolin solution through a rubber tube. 

Mycotic stomatitis (sore tongue). [See page 139.] 

This is an inflammation of the lining membrane 
of the mouth, which quickly develops into ulcers. It 
is caused by eating forage containing irritant fungi 
or molds. Other names that have been applied to 
this disease are sporadic aphthae, and non-infectious 
foot-and-mouth disease. Among the first symptoms 
observed are inability to eat, frequent movements 
of the lips with the formation of froth on their mar- 
gins, and in some cases a dribbling of saliva from 
the mouth. There is a desire to eat, and fre- 
quent attempts to take food are made, but the 
mouth is so sore that eating is very difficult. The 
ulcers are found most frequently on the gums 
around the teeth, inside the lips and on the tip of 
the tongue. The muzzle becomes dry and parched, 
and crusts and scabs form over the parts, which 
peel off. The thin skin in the clefts between the 
claws may become fissured and eroded, causing a 
slight swelling with pain. As a result of these feet 
lesions, the animal may assume a position with its 
back arched and the limbs propped under the body, 




and will manifest considerable lameness in walking. 
(Fig. 350.) A similar tendency toward the forma- 
tion of fissures and scabs on the skin of the neck, 
shoulder, and udder has been observed in some in- 
stances. Owing to the inability to eat, the animal 
loses flesh very 
rapidly and be- 
comes greatly 
emaciated in the 
later stages of 
the disease. 

Treatment. — 
The treatmentof 
mycotic stoma- 
titis should con- 
sist in first re- 
moving the herd 
of cattle from 
the pasture in 
which they have 
been running. 
If it is possible, ms - 35 °- Cow ™ th mycotic st ° matitls - 
the affected animals should be brought to the barn 
or corral and fed on soft, nutritious food, such as 
bran mashes, ground feed and gruels. A bucket of 
clear, cool water should be kept constantly in the 
manger, so that the animal may drink or rinse the 
mouth at its pleasure; and it will be found beneficial 
to dissolve two heaping tablespoonfuls of borax or 
one tablespoonful of potassium chlorate in each of 
the first two buckets of water taken during the day. 
Astringents, such as one-half tablespoonful of alum, 
borax or chlorate of potash should be placed on the 
tongue. The lesions of the feet may be treated with 
a 2 per cent solution of carbolic acid or of creolin, 
while the fissures and other lesions of the skin will 
be benefited by the application of carbolized vase- 
line or zinc ointment. (Bureau of Animal Industry, 
Circular No. 51.) 

Indigestion, or acute gaslro-intestinal catarrh. 

This is an acute catarrhal inflammation of the 
lining membrane of the stomach and intestines. 
Debility from any cause predisposes to this dis- 
order. In all acute febrile diseases there is a mild 
catarrh of the digestive tract. As causes of the 
more severe forms of this disorder may be men- 
tioned irregularities of diet, as eating frozen food 
or decomposing food, over-eating, or changing 
suddenly from dry to green foods. Drinking large 
quantities of ice-cold water, as seen in stabled 
animals in the winter season when they are turned 
out once daily to drink from a running stream or 
trough, is another cause. Sometimes it is seen in 
cows that have eaten their afterbirth, which 
undergoes decomposition in the stomach. 

The symptoms will depend on the part of the 
gastro-intestinal tract which is the seat of the 
disease. When the stomach and small intestine 
are affected, there is usually loss of appetite and 
rumination, coated tongue and emaciation. Consti- 
pation is usual, although diarrhea may be present. 
If the fecal matter is examined, it will usually be 
found to contain particles of imperfectly digested 
food, and more or less mucus, which is intimately 



326 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



mixed with the feces. When the large intestine is 
involved, the appetite may not be affected. Diarrhea 
is marked, and the droppings are covered with a 
coating of mucus. No undigested food will be pres- 
ent, as digestion is mainly completed by the time 
the food reaches the large intestine. The entire 
intestinal tract may be simultaneously affected, 
however, and the animal will rapidly lose flesh and 
become hidebound with a starry coat. The condi- 
tion may become more marked and pass into a 
gastro-enteritis and result fatally. On the other 
hand, it may remain stationary and merge into a 
chronic catarrh, or, as in the majority of cases 
which receive proper care, it may end in recovery. 
Treatment. — For this to be successful, it is nec- 
essary to remove the cause. If constipation is 
present, or there is irritating ingesta in the digest- 
ive tract, a non-irritating purgative, as one quart 
of castor-oil, should be given. The food should be 
given in small quantities, and should be easily 
digestible and nutritious. Green food is preferable 
in such cases when it can be had. If not at hand, 
hot bran mashes are advisable for a few days, with 
very small amounts of good sweet hay. When 
there is diarrhea and fermentation, a mixture of 
bismuth subnitrate one dram, and creosote one-half 
dram, shaken up with milk and given as a drench 
twice daily for two or three days, will prove bene- 
ficial. After the acute attack is over, if the animal 
is run-down and emaciated, a tonic powder consist- 
ing of powdered nux vomica one dram, reduced iron 
one-half dram, powdered gentian root one ounce, 
should be given in the feed two or three times 
daily for a few weeks. 

Hoven, bloating or gaseous distention of the paunch. 

This is a suddenly developing disorder of cattle, 
caused by dietetic irregularities and characterized 
by over-distention of the paunch with gases of fer- 
mentation. The causes are more or less varied. 
The most common is probably the turning of cattle 
into young green pastures, especially clover, in the 
spring after they have become accustomed to solid 
dry stable food. These pastures are more danger- 
ous if they are covered with frost or a heavy dew. 
Frozen foods or foods that have been frozen, and 
decomposed foods, are also likely to produce the 
disorder. Ravenous ingestion of large quantities of 
unusual foods may be a cause, as seen in animals 
that break into feed rooms containing corn meal, 
potatoes, or into fields containing young growing 
corn or other grains. The onset is often explosive 
in character, and the owner's attention is first 
called to the disorder by seeing one or more of the 
animals dropping dead in the field. In such cases, 
death is due to a combination of shock, asphyxia 
and congestion of the brain. In the less severe 
cases the animal is seen to be restless, stops eating 
and ruminating and shows evidence of great dis- 
tress. The abdomen is greatly distended, especially 
on the left side, and the left hollow of the flank is 
obliterated by the distended rumen. Breathing is 
greatly embarrassed. The anus bulges out, but 
constipation is usually present. On tapping the 
left flank lightly with the closed fist a sensation 



similar to that produced by striking a drum 13 
imparted to the hand. The right side may also be 
distended, and when this occurs there is danger of 
the animal dropping at any moment. They usually 
remain standing until the last, drop suddenly and 
die in a few minutes. 

Treatment. — This must be prompt, and in severs 
cases the first procedure is to remove the gas which 
is mechanically causing the symptoms. This is done 
by plunging a trocar into the left flank at a point 
equidistant from the haunch, last rib and transverse 
process of the lumbar vertebrae. The stilet is 
then withdrawn, leaving the hollow canula in place 
through which the gas escapes. In less severe cases, 
or when a trocar is not at hand, dashing cold 
water over the abdomen or brisk massage of the 
left flank may be tried. Placing a rope or piece of 
wood through the mouth and securing it there by 
tieing it around the head, will cause the animal to 
masticate, churn up the saliva and excite swallow- 
ing, which tends to open the esophagus and allow 
the gas to escape in this manner. Passing a probang 
into the stomach is also successful and less danger- 
ous than puncturing the flank in moderately severe 
cases. When the most distressing symptoms are 
relieved, drugs to prevent fermentation are indi- 
cated, as creosote, two or three teaspoonfuls in a 
pint of milk, or hyposulfite of soda in one ounce 
doses in water. 

Choking. 

From their normal habit of swallowing food with 
little mastication, cattle are particularly liable to 
this trouble if they have access to whole apples, 
turnips, potatoes and like foods. Foreign bodies 
picked up and swallowed during eating of food are 
also causes of choking. The mass may lodge in the 
pharynx, or in the cervical or thoracic parts of 
the esophagus. 

If the obstruction is in the pharynx there may 
be considerable obstruction to breathing, while if 
in the cervical part of the esophagus a tumor may 
be seen and palpated on the left side of the neck. 
If within the esophagus in either the cervical or 
thoracic parts, there is likely to be distention of the 
rumen, because gases formed there are unable to 
escape. Other symptoms more or less constant, no 
matter at what point the body lodges, are champing 
of the jaws, dribbling of saliva, ceasing to chew the 
"cud," wretching or choking movements, head ex- 
tended, eyes bulging, and inability to swallow ; if 
the body is in the thoracic part of the tube, a few 
mouthfuls of food may be swallowed, but it is soon 
returned through the mouth and nostrils. 

Treatment. — When the offending substance is in 
the pharynx, a block of wood should be placed in 
the mouth between the back teeth of the animal to 
keep the mouth open, and by passing the hand back 
into the pharynx the foreign body can usually be 
grasped and removed. If in the gullet, however, 
this is impossible. In such cases a small amount 
of olive-oil should be given at frequent intervals, 
which may lubricate the esophagus sufficiently for 
the foreign body to pass into the stomach by the 
animal's own efforts. If this fails, the proband, 



CATTLE 



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327 



which is a long, hollow, flexible tube, or some make- 
shift, as a carriage whip, may be used. It is oiled 
and the mouth is opened by a wooden speculum or 
block containing a small round hole in the center, 
through which the probang is passed into the 
esophagus until it strikes the foreign body. By 
gentle manipulation and pressure the body is then 
gradually forced into the stomach. 

Cough (bronchitis), or acute bronchial catarrh. 

This is an ailment of cattle resulting from 
exposure and debility, characterized by an inflam- 
mation of the mucous membrane lining the bron- 
chial tubes, and accompanied with fever and cough. 
Predisposing causes are confinement in poorly 
ventilated damp or dark stables, poor quality or 
insufficient quantity of food, previous attacks of 
bronchitis, and the presence of other diseases. The 
principal exciting cause is exposure to cold, as 
lying on cold ground, drafts of air, or being out in 
a storm over night. 

The disease is ushered in with chilly sensations 
or a distinct chill. This is followed by a rise of 
temperature to 103° to '105° Pahr., impairment or 
loss of appetite and rumination, dry muzzle, consti- 
pation, increased rapidity of pulse and respiration. 
The cough is a very marked and important symptom. 
It is at first dry, harsh and painful ; later, when 
the catarrhal exudate is poured out on the inflamed 
mucous membrane covering the bronchial tubes, 
the cough becomes moist, and there is usually a 
nasal discharge. Physical signs are present on 
examination of the chest, but require an experi- 
enced ear to be recognized and interpreted. In ordi- 
nary cases recovery occurs in four to nine days. 
In neglected cases the inflammation extends down 
into the air-cells, giving rise to a pneumonia ; or 
the acute bronchitis may gradually merge into the 
chronic form of the disease, and the cough be con- 
tinued for several months or even longer. 

Treatment. — The animal should be placed in a 
large, comfortable, light stall, preferably a box- 
stall. It should have plenty of clear, cold water to 
drink. The bowels should be freely opened with 
one pound of Glauber's salts. The food should con- 
sist of green, succulent materials, when such can 
be had. In the winter season, bran mashes, and 
small quantities of hay, sprinkled with water to 
allay the dust, are valuable. Medicinally, an elec- 
tuary (see page 322), consisting of extract of bella- 
donna leaves five grains, morphine sulfate three 
grains, powdered licorice-root four drams, and suf- 
ficient simple syrup to make an electuary, should 
be given on the tongue four times daily. This will 
lessen the secretion and cough, and hasten the reso- 
lution of the process. If the cough persists after 
the secretion ceases, and remains hard and non- 
productive, a mixture consisting of ammonium 
chlorid one dram, in one-half ounce of brown mix- 
ture, should be given four or five times daily. 

Traumatic pericarditis. 

This name is applied to foreign bodies in the heart 
sac, or injury to the heart by foreign bodies. It is a 
fatal ailment of cattle resulting from the swallowing 



of foreign bodies, which penetrate, the stomach wall 
and pass through the diaphragm, finally puncturing 
the pericardium and even the heart muscle. Cattle 
are the only domestic animals, except possibly the 
goat, which are subject to this disorder. This is due 
to several factors. The mucous membrane lining 
the mouth cavity of the bovine species is very thick 
and not very sensitive. Cattle also take their food 
in large mouthfuls and swallow it with very little 
mastication. They sweep their food into the mouth 
with the prehensile tongue, which favors the pick- 
ing up of foreign bodies. Once the foreign body 
gains entrance to the mouth, the large bolus of 
food, together with the slight mastication and in- 
sensitive mucous membrane, allows it to be swal- 
lowed without being noticed by the animal. The 
foreign bodies that have been found in the stomach 
of the ox comprise a great variety of substances, 
but pins, nails, pieces of wire, hair-pins, and other 
sharp pointed objects are the most serious. 

In the early stages the symptoms are very indef- 
inite. Later, however, the animal moves about 
carefully and will not turn around in a small circle. 
Sudden movement causes pain, as evidenced by a 
grunting sound. The back is arched, respiration 
and pulse are rapid, and rumination ceases. Con- 
stipation is present, and emptying the bowels is 
painful. Later, an edematous (dropsical) swelling 




Fig. 351 . Cow afflicted with fully developed pericarditis. 

may appear under the jaws, between the fore-legs 
and in the dewlap. (Pig. 351.) 

Treatment. — Drugs are useless. A very few cases 
have been cured by surgical treatment. As soon as 
the condition is ascertained the animal should be 
slaughtered before the pathological changes become 
so extensive as to prevent the flesh being used for 
food. In the preventive treatment, care should be 
used to prevent sharp-pointed metallic substances 
from getting into the feed or troughs of bovine 
animals. 

Warts. 

Warts are grayish or grayish-red projections of 
the skin or mucous membrane, resulting from the 



328 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



excessive growth of localized areas of the tissue. 
These growths are also called "angle-berries" and 
may assume a variety of forms. (Fig. 352.) A 




Fig. 352. Cow with an excessive number oi warts. 

favorite location for warts is the udder and teats, 
the sides of the head and neck, and on the legs and 
belly. 

Treatment. — Warts may be removed with the 
scissors or twisted off with the fingers, or ligatured 
by means of a rubber band or horse hair. Their 
roots should then be cauterized with tincture of 
iron, glacial acetic acid or lunar caustic. Acids 
should never be used in removing warts about the 
eyes or in the mouth. In case warts are found in 
large numbers on an animal, arsenic in the form of 
Fowler's solution should be given in one teaspoonf ul 
doses twice a day for a six-months-old calf. 

Mange. 

This is a contagious skin disease that affects all 
domestic animals, and is caused by a small para- 
sitic mite. Three forms, each caused by a specific 
mite, are distinguished, namely, sarcoptic, psorop- 
tic, and symbiotic. Mange is most common in the 
dog and sheep, is fairly common in the horse and 
ox, and is but rarely seen in the cat and pig. 

Mange is never developed except by contagion. 
The period of incubation (the period which elapses 
between the deposit of acari on the skin, and the 
appearance of skin alterations) varies from two to 
four or six weeks. Infection may take place by 




Fig. 353. Mange in an advanced stage. 



direct contact, or by intermediary agents, such as 
blankets, harness, bedding, and the like. Animals 
that have not received proper attention to the skin, 
or that are weak and emaciated, are particularly 



subject to mange. The first symptoms noticed are 
points of redness, pimples, vesicles, and formation 
of scabs. As soon as they appear, these lesions are 
accompanied by an intense itching, which becomes 
unbearable at night in hot stables, or during the 
day, when the animals are exposed to the hot sun. 
The animals scratch, rub, and bite themselves on the 
affected regions, the hair falls out, and the skin is 
bloody. When the disease reaches its height, we 
find the skin moist and bloody, ulcerated, scabby, 
thickened and wrinkled. (Fig. 353.) 

As a rule, the course of the disease is chronic. 
While the symbiotes parasites remain stationed in 
a very limited area of the skin, the psoroptes and 
the scarcoptes often invade the whole surface of 
the body. The symptoms are always more intense 
in the summer. The diagnosis of mange may be 
made from the symptoms already mentioned, by its 
spreading from one animal to another in a stable 
or kennel, and by finding the parasite. This may 
be done by scraping some of the scab from a 
mange suspect and examining it under a magnify- 
ing glass. 

Treatment. — Animals affected with mange never 
recover spontaneously. The only cure is in the use 
of drugs that will kill the parasites, and in their 
constant and regular application. Among such 
agents may be mentioned sulfate of soda, dilute 
ammonia, sulfur, and either 5 per cent solution of 
carbolic acid, or creolin. Various sulfur prepara- 




£AMCPVftT9l l*iO OJklbONt. 



Fig. 354. Dipping-tank for mange. 

tions are possibly the most widely used of all 
remedies for this trouble. A good combination that 
may be applied by hand is as follows : 

Flowers of sulfur 1 ounce 

Vaseline (or lard) 10 ounces 

By far the most rational and satisfactory, as 
well as the cheapest method for curing mange in a 
large herd of affected cattle is by dipping in a vat 
containing the following fluid : 

Flowers of sulfur 24 pounds 

Unslaked lime 12 pounds 

Water 100 gallons 

Animals that have been exposed should be dip- 
ped as well as those that show evidences of the 
disease. After an interval of ten days, or two 
weeks, the animals should be subjected to a second 
dipping, in order that parasites hatched from the 
eggs left on the animals after the first treatment 
may be destroyed. A medium-sized vat with speci- 
fications is shown in Fig. 354, adapted from 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



329 



Farmer's Bulletin No. 152, United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. A large dipping-vat is shown 
in Fig. 355. 

Ring-worm. 

Ring-worm is an affection of the skin due to a 
vegetable parasite. It affects the hair and the skin 




■• f 

Fig. 355. Large dipping-vat in use. 

and is highly contagious, being readily transmitted 
from one animal to another. The disease becomes 
manifest by the formation of circular patches on 
the skin, which soon become denuded of hair. (Fig. 
358.) The outer layer of skin is slightly inflamed 
and vesicles form which exude a gummy liquid. 
This is followed by the formation of scaly, brittle 
crusts. The patches appear silver-gray when 
encrusted. As a rule, these ring-worm patches 
appear mainly on the head 

and neck. The disease is ^ .(, 

most common on young cat- >-^"~" 
tie in the winter and spring. K s. 356. 

Very early in the develop- ^atTafppfn^ " 
ment of the patches the 

hair becomes brittle, splits and breaks off close to 
the skin. This stage is attended with more or less 
itching. Ring-worm may be due to either of two 
vegetable parasites, and both forms may be trans- 
mitted to man. 

Treatment. — Remove all crusts by washing with 

soap and water, then apply acetic acid (vinegar), 

10 per cent sulfur ointment, tincture of iodine, or 

nitrate of mercury ointment once daily. Cleanse 

. , the stable and 



whitewash it to 
destroy the spores 
scattered by the 
crusts. 

Lice. 

While these 
parasites do not 
cause any specific 
disease, they at- 
tack nearly all of 
our domestic ani- 
mals and man. Their presence causes great dis- 
comfort to their host, and in most cases they cause 
some depreciation in the value of the animal on 




rjBiWftEL z=^ 




DRAINING PENS- 



Fig. 357. Draining-pens for cattle 
after dipping. 



which they make their home. They fix their eggs 
(nits) on the hair of the animal affected with them, 
and thus constantly reproduce new generations on 
the same host. (Fig. 359.) The horse, ox, pig, 
goat and dog are each affected with a distinct spe- 
cies, and only in rare instances is the louse pecu- 
liar to one species of animal found on any member 
of another species. In general, lice become easily 
and rapidly developed on poorly fed, weak and 
debilitated animals. Their presence is an indication 
of insufficient care of the skin. They produce itch- 
ing, falling of the hair and desquamation of the 
outer layer of the skin. 

Treatment. — Many lotions have been used against 
lice. Probably the easiest to prepare and the most 
successful is an infusion of tobacco stems, one 
pound of the 
stems to two 
gallons of water. 
Allow the stems 
t o soak over 
night and then 
heat the mix- 
ture to the boil- 
ing point. Allow 
to cool and then 
apply with a 
sponge to the 
regions infested 
with the insects. 
Repeat the treat- 
ment in five or six days to destroy the nits that 
have been hatched and before they lay eggs. 

Imaginary diseases. 

It may be well to point out the error of herds- 
men in the treatment of certain popular, although 
imaginary diseases of animals, which either do not 
really exist or are merely symptoms of some other 
disorder. Among these are hooks-in-the-eyes, hol- 
low-horn, loss of cud and wolf-in-the-tail. 

Hooks-in-the-eyes. — This is a condition in which 
the nictitans membrane protrudes from the inner 




Fig. 358. 



Bull with ring-worm 
lesions. 




Fig. 359. Short-nosed ox louse. A, female; 6, rostrum; c, 
ventral surface of the last segments of male ; d, same of 
female ; e, egg ; f, surface of same greatly enlarged. 
(After Oshorn.) 

corner of the eye and appears as a reddish colored 
membrane partly covering the eyeball. This pro- 
trusion is due to congestion or a slight enlargement 
of the membrane. It is a common practice in some 



330 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



localities to diagnose the condition "hooks-in-the- 
eyes," and immediately to cut or burn out the mem- 
brane, which is both unnecessary and barbarous. 
The condition requires no treatment, as it will 
never interfere with the health of the animal and 
will usually disappear of its own accord. 

Hollow-horn is a term applied to numerous dis- 
orders in cattle of a varied character. A herdsman 
notices that his cow is not in perfect health and 
considers the condition a case of hollow-horn. He 
then proceeds to bore a hole in the horn and con- 
firms his diagnosis by finding the horn hollow, and 
treats the condition by pouring into the horn core 
turpentine or some other irritant substance. It is 
a perfectly normal condition in cattle to find the 
horn hollow, as the examination of a healthy horn 
will prove, and the use of turpentine in these con- 
ditions is cruel and not of the slightest value. 

Loss of cud. — In all severe febrile diseases of 
cattle, one of the most common symptoms is the 
stoppage of chewing the cud. It is therefore merely 
a symptom present in a great many diseases, and 
the administration of ham fat, lard, fish, and the 
like, has not the slightest value in restoring the 
cud. The animal should be carefully examined to 
find the actual abnormal condition or disease that 
causes the suspension of rumination, and then the 
treatment applied for the disease that exists. 

Wolf-in-the-tail. — Almost any disease of cattle in 
different localities may be diagnosed " wolf-in-the- 
tail." An incision is made into the tail and salt is 
packed into the opening, which is supposed to have 
a curative effect. In case recovery occurs, the owner 
thinks the animal's life was saved by the treatment. 
In reality there is no such thing as "wolf-in-the-tail," 
and the disorder will always be found to have its seat 
elsewhere. What has been termed "wolf-in-the-tail" 
of cattle has been called "worm-in-the-tail" of dogs. 

Literature. 

There is considerable published information con- 
cerning the common ailments of cattle, some of 
which is referred to on pages 124-146. Reference 
is here made to the following: Special Report on 
Diseases of Cattle, Revised Edition, United States 
Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal 
Industry (1904) ; Moussu and Dollar, Diseases of Cat- 
tle, Sheep, Goats and Swine (1905); James Law, 
Textbook of Veterinary Medicine, five volumes 
(1903); Leblanc, Diseases of the Mammary Gland 
(1904); Friedberger and Frohner, Veterinary Path- 
ology, Vol. II, translated by Captain Hayes (1905) ; 
Cadiot-Almy, Surgical Therapeutics of Domestic 
Animals, translated by Liautard (1906). 

Aberdeen-Angus Cattle. Figs. 360, 361. 

By John S. Goodwin. 

The Aberdeen-Angus is a breed of cattle main- 
tained primarily for beef-production. It is a horn- 
less or muley type. 

Description. 

Aberdeen-Angus cattle are distinguished by the 
following breed characteristics : black color, polled 



heads, rotund compact type, smoothness of con- 
formation, short legs, evenness of flesh when fat, 
and deep, full hind-quarters. They are uniform in 
type, take on flesh evenly, dress a large percentage 
of high-class beef, and as a rule, reach in the 
hands of experienced feeders a degree of prime- 
ness rarely equaled. The marbling of their flesh, 
i. e., its proportion and blending of lean meat and 
fat, is also a characteristic. In slaughter tests 
they have been uniformly successful in competition 
with other cattle, their fineness of bone and high 
percentage of muscle or lean meat giving them 
dressing scores which average above those of 
competitors. In hardiness and prolificacy they do 
not differ materially from other breeds. The 
females, usually good average milkers, are always 
capable of raising their own offspring. 

The subjoined standard of excellence for bulls 
was adopted by the American Aberdeen-Angus 
Breeders' Association, Nov. 20, 1890. The same 
standard applies to cows with very little alteration. 

Scale of Points for Aberdeen-Angds 

Cattle 1 Perfect 

score 

1. Color. — Black. White is objectionable, except 

on the under-line behind the navel, and there 
only to a moderate extent ; a white scrotum is 
most undesirable 3 

2. Head. — Forehead broad; face slightly prominent, 

and tapering toward the nose ; muzzle fine ; 
nostrils wide and open ; distance from eyes to 
nostrils of moderate length ; eyes mild, full, 
and expressive, indicative of good disposition ; 
ears of good medium size, well set and well 
covered with hair ; poll well defined, and with- 
out any appearance of horns or scurs ; jaws 
clean 10 

3. Throat. — Clean, without any development of 

loose flesh underneath 3 

4. Neck. — Of medium length, muscular, with mod- 

erate crest (which increases with age), spread- 
ing out to meet the shoulders, with full neck 
vein 3 

5. Shoulders. — Moderately oblique, well covered on 

the blades and top ; with vertebra or back- 
bone slightly above the scapula or shoulder- 
blades, which should be moderately broad . . 6 

6. Chest. — Wide and deep ; also round and full just 

back of elbows 10 

7. Brisket. — Deep and moderately projecting from 

between the legs, and proportionately covered 
with flesh and fat 4 

8. Ribs. — Well sprung from the hack-bone, arched 

and deep, neatly joined to the crops and loins . 8 

9. Back. — Broad and straight from crops to hooks ; 

loins strong ; hook-bones moderate in width, not 
prominent, and well covered ; rumps long, full, 
level, and rounded neatly into hind-quarters . 10 

'There is difference of opinion among animal-breeders 
regarding the value of the use of a score-card for judging 
stock. Most cattle-breeders' associations have adopted 
scales of points for judging purposes, whereas the horse- 
breeders' associations have not. The score-cards are 
introduced in this volume for their reference value, and 
as indicating the ideal types as held by those associations 
endorsing the score-cards. They are entered as a matter 
of record. The Editor does not thereby mean to express 
an opinion as to the value of the score-card idea. 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



331 



Scale of Points for Aberdeen-Angus Cattle, 

continued Perfect 

score 

10. Hind-quarters. — Deep and full ; thighs thick and 

muscular, and in proportion to hind-quarters ; 
twist filled out well in its " seam," so as to form 
an even, wide plain between thighs 8 

11. Tail. — Fine, coming neatly out of the body on a 

line with the back and hanging at right angles 
to it 3 

12. Under-line. — Straight as nearly as possible ; 

flank deep and full . . 4 

13. Legs. — Short, straight, and squarely placed, hind- 
i legs slightly inclined forward below the hocks ; 

forearm muscular ; bones fine and clean ... 4 

14. Flesh. — Even and without patchiness 4 

15. Skin. — Of moderate thickness and mellow touch, 

abundantly covered with thick, soft hair. (Much 
of the thriftiness, feeding properties, and value 
of the animal depends on this quality, which is 
of great weight in the grazier's and butcher's 
judgment. A good "touch" will compensate for 
some deficiencies of form. Nothing can com- 
pensate for a skin hard and stiff. In raising 
the skin from the body it should have a sub- 
stantial, soft, flexible feeling, and when beneath 
the outspread hand it should move easily as 
though resting on a soft, cellular substance, 
which, however, becomes firmer as the animal 
ripens. A thin, papeiy skin is objectionable, 
especially in a cold climate.) 10 

16. General appearance. — Elegant, well bred, and 

masculine. The walk square, the step quick, 
and the head up 10 

Perfection 100 

When bulls are exhibited with their progeny in a sepa- 
rate class, add 25 points for progeny. 

In the early days of the breed there was not so 
much attention paid to what are now known as the 
fine points, but all of the care was directed to the 
individual merit. Color was a secondary consider- 
ation, and, while the great majority of the cattle 
were black, yet many good ones were marked with 
a dun-colored stripe down the back, while others 
were brindled, and still others were black and 
white, and not infrequently calves came of a 
peculiar pale red color caused by the absence of the 
black pigment, which is a characteristic of the 
breed. It was Hugh Watson of Keillor who first 
determined on the desirability of a uniform color 
in the breed, and who declared himself for the 
" Black and all black ; the Angus Doddie, and no 
Surrender ! " 

Not so much care was exercised then as now in 
the choice of the sires, and in some cases animals 
were used that had rudimentary horns called scurs. 
These are small horn-like excrescences, that are 
not attached to the skull, and have no horn core. 
This condition is not considered to represent any 
impurity of the blood, but simply is a harking 
back to a time when the progenitors of these cattle 
were horned. Scurs are extremely objectionable 
from the present standpoint, and males so marked 
are debarred from registration. The fashion in 
color also demands that no white should appear 
above the under-line, but a white udder is said to 
be an indication of a good milch cow. The demand 



for solid black color is carried, perhaps, beyond 
the proper point. There have been a number of 
attempts to get together the red-colored females, 
and to establish that color, but with only limited 
success, the offspring born of red parents coming 
true too frequently to the characteristic black 
color. 

History. 

Hornless cattle have existed for many centuries. 
Disregarding the uncertain, although probable, ref- 
erences of four to five thousand years ago, such 
cattle are definitely mentioned by Tacitus, the 
Roman historian. Herds of hornless cattle, at dif- 
ferent times, have come into existence in various 
parts of the world. One of the largest of these is 
found in South America; another has grown up in 
Austria, and, within the last few years, hornless 
cattle have been developed among the well-estab- 
lished horned breeds, such as the Hereford, Jersey 
and Shorthorn, with which the wearing of horns 
seemed to be a fixed trait. Many words have been 
used to express this hornless condition in cattle, 
and they are known variously as humblies (hum- 
lies), muleys, doddies, hornless and polled. The 
latter term has become most generally in use to 
designate the Scotch hornless cattle. All of these 
words simply mean " lacking horns." 

In Scotland, two breeds of such cattle have ex- 
isted so long that history does not record their 
origins. These are the Galloway, whose habitat is 
the southwestern coast of Scotland, and the Aber- 
deen-Angus, which had its origin in the northeast- 
ern part of Scotland. It is somewhat difficult to 
describe these breeds so that representatives of 
each may be readily distinguished ; both are horn- 
less, both black and both come from Scotland. 
Generally speaking, the Galloways are much longer- 
haired, larger -boned, more square - framed and 
somewhat slower -maturing, while the Aberdeen- 
Angus are sleek-haired, small-boned, round in the 
barrel and hind-quarters and early-maturing. 

The earliest attempt to improve the polled cattle 
of the northeast of Scotland began in Angusshire, 
which is now a part of Forfarshire, and was under- 
taken by the late Hugh Watson of Keillor. His 
ancestors had been breeding these cattle on the 
Keillor farm for more than two hundred years 
when Hugh Watson began in 1805. Not many 
years later, cattle-breeders in Aberdeenshire began 
improving the same kind of cattle, and a consider- 
able rivalry sprang up between the different locali- 
ties. According to the location, the cattle were 
known as the Angus Doddie and as Buchan Humb- 
lies, and yet again as Polled Aberdeens. The word 
polled was used to indicate the hornless Aberdeen- 
shire cattle and thus to distinguish them from 
another breed, now almost extinct, which inhabited 
the same shire and had horns. 

At a still later time the breeders of these horn- 
less cattle in the various parts of northeastern 
Scotland came together, and, deciding that the 
cattle were all of one breed, proceeded to choose a 
suitable name. To please the partisans of the two 
districts in which most of these cattle were then 



332 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



to be found, the name adopted was Polled Aber- 
deen-or-Angus cattle. This name became shortened 
by dropping out the word "or" and putting a hy- 
phen in its place. It has been further abbreviated, 
because of the passing of the horned breed, to 
Aberdeen- Angus, the word polled being now deemed 
unnecessary. This idea has been adopted also 
by the Polled Galloway breeders, so that their 
breed is now known as Galloway cattle. Both 
in Scotland and America, even the name of M 
Aberdeen-Angus has been shortened, and in ^j 
Scotland the cattle are generally referred to 
as the Polled cattle, while in America they are 
called the Angus cattle. 

These Aberdeen-Angus cattle have been great 
favorites in Scotland for more than a century, but 
unfortunately on two occasions diseases attacked 
the cattle in that country and decimated the herds. 
Later, when the government had stamped out these 
diseases, the cattle again began multiplying, and 
soon assumed an important place among the 
domestic animals of the kingdom. The World's 
Fair held at Paris, France, in 1878, gave the breed 
an opportunity to demonstrate its great merit, and, 
with only fifteen representatives, it won the cham- 
pion-herd prize against nearly two thousand other 
cattle of various breeds shown in competition, 
every animal of the Aberdeen-Angus breed receiv- 
ing either a prize or an honorable mention. About 
this time the breed was introduced into England, 
and a little later into Ireland. 

In America. — The Paris successes led some of 
the former breeders of these cattle, then in America, 
to bring over a few of their early favorites in 
1878, and from that time this breed of cattle has 
grown rapidly in public favor until it is now recog- 
nized as one of the principal beef breeds of this 
country. In 1872, two bulls were sent to western 
Kansas, but no females accompanied that impor- 
tation. It was the marketing of the steers from 
these two animals that first attracted attention to 
this breed in Kansas City. Other importations were 




Fig. 361. Aberdeen-Angus cow. Jilt 15th. 

made as follows : In 1876, two bulls and a cow, by 
the Ontario Agricultural College ; in 1878, one bull 
and five cows, by Anderson & Findlay, Lake For- 
est, Illinois; in 1879, by F. B. Redfield, Batavia, New 
York ; in 1880, by George Whitfield, Rougemont, 
Province of Quebec. Since that time many importa- 
tions have been made. 

The lack of horns was such an unusual condition 
that it excited much comment and not a little 



opposition. When breeders and feeders began to 
consider this feature, its decided advantage so 
appealed to them that a perfect furor of dehorning 1 
swept over the country. Horns were sawed off 
from aged animals, and horn-cores were gouged 
out or burnt off of calves, until dehorned market 




Fig. 360. Aberdeen-Angus bull. Heather Monk. 

cattle became the rule instead of the exception. 
The Aberdeen - Angus bull has become a prime 
favorite as a dehorner. Crossed with the ordinary 
native cow, about 90 to 95 per cent of the offspring 
are black in color and hornless, although occasion- 
ally scurs appear, which, however, are no detriment 
from the feeder's point of view. 

The Aberdeen-Angus cattle rapidly rose in pub- 
lic favor. Sales were held at various points, and 
the cattle were scattered over a large territory. 
Perhaps there is no other instance in which a new 
and practically unknown breed has sprung at once 
into such prominence and has maintained so high 
a position. 

Distribution. 

Cattle of this breed are found in Scotland, Eng- 
land, Ireland, Germany, France, Denmark, Sand- 
wich Islands, New Zealand, South America, Canada, 
and the United States. In America the breed is 
represented in not less than forty-two states and 
territories. Especially adapted to the rich prairie 
lands of the Middle West, Aberdeen-Angus cattle 
for years have been most numerous in the states of 
Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Indiana, Kansas, Ohio, and 
Nebraska, in the order given. However, they are 
widely distributed, and in recent years have in- 
creased substantially in popular favor in the South- 
west, West and Northwest. Preeminently a feed- 

1 There is not full agreement as to the word dehorn, 
some persons holding it to be etymologically incorrect, 
and preferring dishorn on the assumption that de should 
not be prefixed to a stem beginning with h followed by a 
vowel. There is abundant precedent for dehorn, however, 
in such words as dehort, dehypnotize, dehisce, dehydrate, 
dehusk, and others ; and de is perhaps preferable when 
the idea is to denote the taking away of one or two 
smaller things from larger or more permanent things, 
whereas dis seems to imply the dispersion of things from, 
each other. In this country, the word dehorn seems to be 
so well established as to give assurance of permanence, 
whatever its etymological status. 



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333 



er's beast, the Aberdeen-Angus not only is highly 
prized by beef-producers in the corn-belt, but gra- 
ziers and ranchmen of the plains region of the 
West, Southwest and Northwest find it a profitable 
breed for their conditions. It is in the surplus corn 
states, however, that Aberdeen-Angus cattle appear 
to reach their highest excellence. 

Uses. 

For milk. — The breed has not been developed 
particularly for milk-production, but in some herds 
attention has been given to this quality with the 
result that, more particularly in New Zealand, entire 
dairies are now composed of Aberdeen-Angus cows ; 
and in 1895, an Aberdeen-Angus cow was the 
champion at the Dairy Show held in London. 

For beef. — The cattle and their grades are more 
especially noted for the wealth of flesh carried on 
very short legs, and are easy keepers and early 
maturing. For the past twenty years this breed 
has uniformly topped the Chicago market each year 
with one exception, and in that year the Pittsburg 
market paid a higher price than any other, and the 
Aberdeen-Angus topped that market. Their win- 
nings in the International Live-stock Exposition 
are matters of current history, and they have never 
failed of representation among the prize-winners, 
both as single animals and in carload lots. 

For crossing or grading, the Aberdeen-Angus is 
in the front rank. On common stock, the bulls get 
market cattle of high merit. As dehorners, the 
bulls of this breed are unexcelled. A wider use of 
these bulls in grading would be beneficial. 

Organizations and records. 

The two leading organizations concerned with 
the advancement of the interests of Aberdeen- 
Angus cattle are the Polled Cattle Society of Scot- 
land, organized in 1879, and the American Aber- 
"deen-Angus Breeders' Association, organized in 1883, 
with headquarters in the Live-stock Record Build- 
ing, Chicago. Thirty-one volumes of the Polled 
Cattle Herdbook have been issued since 1862. 
When the Polled Cattle Herdbook was first estab- 
lished in Scotland, Galloway cattle were recorded 
in it as well (in first four volumes), but all animals 
of that breed were designated by an asterisk placed 
in front of their names, and no animals were 
accepted that were a cross between the Aberdeen- 
Angus and the Galloway, but both breeds were kept . 
distinct. Since 1886, the American association has 
published sixteen volumes of its herdbook. Over 
100,000 Aberdeen-Angus cattle have been regis- 
tered in the American herdbook, but of course a 
considerable proportion of these were the founda- 
tion animals whose pedigrees were taken from the 
Scotch herdbook ; about 15 per cent of the annual 
produce of pure-bred herds is not recorded. There 
are now about one thousand members in the Ameri- 
can association. 

There are also several state organizations, as the 
Indiana, Iowa, and Nebraska Aberdeen - Angus 
Breeders' Associations. These have memberships of 
seventy-five to one hundred and fifty persons, hold 
regular annual meetings, appropriate money for 



special prizes at the state fairs, and in other ways 
seek to promote the interests of the breed. 

Literature. 

Aberdeen-Angus, The Breed that Beats the 
Record, Detroit (1886) ; James Macdonald and 
James Sinclair, History of Polled Aberdeen or 
Angus Cattle, Edinburgh (1882); A History of 
the Heatherton Herd, Chicago (1907). [For further 
references, see page 302.] 

Ayrshire Cattle. Figs. 362, 363. 

By Harry Hayward. 

The Ayrshire is one of the principal breeds of 
dairy cattle in America. 

Description. 

The individual Ayrshire is an animal of medium 
size, the standard weight for mature cows being 
one thousand pounds, while bulls should weigh fif- 
teen hundred pounds or more. In general confor- 
mation it is, perhaps, a little smoother than the 
Jersey and Holstein, yet it is not so smooth as to 
conceal the wedge shape of the body when viewed 
from behind. A little peculiarity frequently seen 
in the Ayrshire is that the tips of the ears are 
notched. The horns are white, with black tips, and 
curve outward and upward. They may attain large 
size. The body is large and deep and the ribs well 
sprung ; the rump is broad and long, and is usually 
set high. The hind -quarter is frequently heavy 
The udder in a good dairy type shows high 
development of form and setting. This character 
is rather uniform in the breed. The color is vari- 
able, 'through red, white and brown. The prevail- 
ing color in America is red and white patches, with 
a tendency toward a predominance of white. In 
disposition the Ayrshire is mild and kind, yet alert, 
active and energetic. The evidence she gives of 
being full of reserve force is one of her strongest 
characteristics. 

The following scale of points, adopted by the 
American Ayrshire Breeders' Association and the 
Canadian Ayrshire Breeders' Association, in 1906, 
shows what is desired in the breed. 

Scale of Points foe Ayrshire Cattle 

For COWS PflrfGCt 

1. Head (10) score 

Forehead. — Broad and clearly defined .... 1 

Horns. — Wide set on and inclining upward . . 1 
Face. — Of medium length, slightly dished, clean 

cut, showing veins 2 

Muzzle. — Broad and strong without coarseness ; 

nostrils large 1 

Jaws. — Wide at the base and strong 1 

Eyes. — Full and bright, with placid expression . 3 

Ears. — Of medium size and fine, carried alert . 1 

2. Neck. — Fine throughout ; throat clean ; neatly 

joined to head and shoulders, of good length, 
moderately thin, nearly free from loose skin, 
elegant in bearing 3 

3. Fore-quarters (10) 

Shoulders. — Light, good distance through from 
point to point but sharp at withers, smoothly 
blending into body 2 



334 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



Scale of Points for Ayrshire Cattle, continued 

For COWS Perfect 

score 
Chest. — Low, deep and full between and back 

of fore-legs 6 

Brisket. — Light 1 

Legs and feet. — Legs straight and short, well 
apart ; shanks fine and smooth, joints firm ; 
feet medium size, round solid and deep ... 1 

4. Body (13) 

Back. — Strong and straight, chine lean, sharp 

and open-jointed 4 

Loin. — Broad, strong and level 2 

Ribs. — Long, broad,wide apart and well sprung . 3 
Abdomen. — Capacious, deep, firmly held up with 

strong muscular development 3 

Flank. — Thin and arching 1 

5. Hind-quarters (11) 

Rump. — Wide, level and long from hooks to pin- 
bones, a reasonable pelvic arch allowed . . 3 
Hooks. — Wide apart and not projecting above 

back nor unduly overlaid with fat 2 

Pin-bones. — High and wide apart 1 

Thighs. — Thin, long and wide apart 2 

Tail. — Long, fine, set on a level with the back . 1 
Legs and feet. — Legs strong, short, straight 
when viewed from behind and set well apart ; 
shanks fine and smooth, joints firm ; feet me- 
dium size, round, sold and deep 2 

6. Udder. — Long, wide, deep, but not pendulous nor 

fleshy ; firmly attached to the body, extending 
well up behind and far forward ; quarters even; 
sole nearly level and not indented between 
teats ; udder veins well developed and plainly 
visible 22 

7. Teats. — Evenly placed, distance apart from side 

to side equal to half the breadth of udder, from 
back to front equal to one-third the length ; 
length 2| to 3£ inches, thickness in keeping 
with length, hanging perpendicular and not 
tapering ' 8 

8. Mammary veins. — Large, long, tortuous branch- 

ing and entering large orifices 5 

9. Escutcheon. — Distinctly defined, spreading over 

thighs and extending well upward 2 

10. Color. — Red of any shade, brown, or these with 

white ; mahogany and white, or white ; each 
color distinctly defined. (Brindle markings 
allowed but not desirable.) 2 

11. Covering (6) 

Skin. — Of medium thickness, mellow and elas- 
tic 3 

Hair. — Soft and fine 2 

Secretions — Oily, of rich brown or yellow color . 1 

12. Style. — Alert, vigorous, showing strong charac- 

ter ; temperament inclined to nervousness but 
still docile 4 

13. Weight at maturity not less than one thousand 

pounds 4 

Perfection 100 

For bulls ■ t, . . 
1. Head (16) ^ 
Forehead. — Broad and clearly defined .... 2 
Horns. — Strong at base, set wide apart, inclin- 
ing upward 1 

Face. — Of medium length, clean cut, showing 

facial veins 2 

Muzzle. — Broad and strong without coarseness. 1 

Nostrils. — Large and open 2 

Jaws. — Wide at the base and strong .... 1 

Eyes. — Moderately large, full and bright . . 3 



Scale of Points for Ayrshire Cattle, continued 

For bulls Perfect 
score 
Ears. — Of medium size and fine, carried alert . 1 
Expression. — Full of vigor, resolution and mas- 
culinity 3 

2. Neck. — Of medium length, somewhat arched, 

large and strong in the muscles on top, in- 
clined to flatness on sides, enlarging sym- 
metrically towards the shoulders; throat 
clean and free from loose skin 10 

3. Fore-quarters (15) 

Shoulders. — Strong, smoothly blending into 
body, with good distance through from point 
to point, and fine on top 3 

Chest. — Low, deep and full between back and 
fore-legs 8 

Brisket. — Deep, not too prominent and with 
very little dewlap 2 

Legs and feet. — Legs well apart, straight and 
short ; shanks fine and smooth, joints firm ; 
feet of medium size, round, solid and deep . 2 

4. Body (18) 

Back. — Short and straight, chine strongly de- 
veloped and open-jointed 5 

Loin. — Broad, strong and level 4 

Ribs. — Long, broad, strong, well sprung and 
wide apart 4 

Abdomen. — Large and deep, trimly held up 
with muscular development 4 

Flank. — Thin and arching 1 

5. Hind-quarters (16) 

Rump. — Level, long from hooks to pin-bones . 5 
Hooks. — Medium distance apart, proportion- 
ately narrower than in female, not rising 

above the level of the back 2 

Pin-bones. — High, wide apart 2 

Thighs. — Thin, long and wide apart 4 

Tail. — Fine, long and set on level with back . 1 
Legs and feet. — Legs straight, set well apart, 
shanks fine and smooth ; feet medium size, 
round, solid and deep, not to cross in walking. 2 

6. Scrotum. — Well developed and strongly carried . 3 

Rudimentaries, veins, etc. — Teats of uniform 
size, squarely placed, wide apart and free 
from scrotum ; veins long, large, tortuous, 
with extensions entering large orifices ; 
escutcheon pronounced and covering a large 
surface 4 

7. Color. — Red of any shade, brown, or these with 

white, mahogany and white, or white ; each 
color distinctly defined 3 

8. Covering (6) 

Skin. — Medium thickness, mellow and elastic . 3 

Hair.--Soft and fine 2 

Secretions. — Oily, of rich brown or yellow color. 1 

9. Style. — Active, vigorous, showing strong mascu- 

line character; temperament inclined to 
nervousness but not irritable or vicious . . 5 
10. Weight at maturity not less than 1500 pounds . 4 

Perfection 100 

History. 

The Ayrshire did not have its origin in this 
country, but was brought from Scotland, its native 
home, in the early part of the last century. It 
takes its name from the county Ayr, although in 
its formative period it was known as the Dunlop 
and the Cunningham breed. 

From the descriptions of Ayr and the adjacent 
territory, given by Low, an English writer on agri- 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



3as 



cultural matters, it may be inferred that agricul- 
tural conditions in that country, at the close of the 
Revolutionary War, were at a low ebb. "There 
were no fallows, no sown grasses, no carts nor 
wagons and no straw yards ; no roots were grown, 
very little straw and no hay, save the small 




Fig. 362. Ayrshire buU, Nether Craig Spicy Sam. 

amounts cut from the bogs and wastes. Under 
these conditions the cattle were starved in winter, 
being scarcely able to rise in the spring, and never 
were in condition fit for the market." Such were 
the conditions from which the hardy, useful race 
of Ayrshire cattle has come. Culley, who wrote a 
treatise on live-stock before the year 1790, does 
not mention the Ayrshire as one of the recognized 
breeds of the country. From this we may conclude 
that their history as a breed begins some time 
shortly after the first of the past century ; previ- 
ous to that time, they were one of the coarse 
varieties of cattle which formerly occupied all of 
the southern part of the country. 

The earliest recognition which they received as 
a breed was given by a Mr. Aiton, who published 
a treatise on the Dairy Husbandry of Ayrshire, in 
1825. He describes them, according to Low, as 
being a puny, unshapely race, not superior to the 
cattle of the higher districts, referring, perhaps, 
to the West Highland or Kylo cattle. He further 
states that the Ayrshires, at that time, were mostly 
black in color, marked with white in the face, down 
the back and flank, and that few of the cows gave 
more than a gallon and a half or two gallons of 
milk per day when fresh. They were very small in 
size, so small that the average dressed weight of 
mature animals was but two hundred and eighty 
pounds. 

This description was written after the introduc- 
tion into the Ayrshire district, it is asserted, of 
the cattle descended from the crosses made with 
the Teeswater or Holderness stock from Durham, 
England. The Earl of Marchmont is supposed to 
have brought this foreign blood into Scotland be- 
tween 1724 and 1740. This importation of a bull 
and several cows was taken to the earl's estates in 
Berwickshire on the east coast of Scotland. 

It has been thought that the Alderney (or, pre- 
sumably, Jersey) cross was also introduced into the 
Ayrshire district at this time. An evidence that 
the Alderney was used is the small head and slender 



neck possessed in common by both these breeds. In 
spite of the lack of historical evidence that Jersey 
cattle were crossed on the old Ayrshire stock, Low 
concludes that the "Dairy Breed of Ayrshires owes 
the characteristics which distinguish it from the 
older race to mixture with the blood races of the 
continent and of the Dairy Breeds of Alderney." 

From the above, we may rightly infer that the 
conditions which surrounded the foundation of the 
Ayrshire breed were such that the fittest only 
could survive. This factor of hardiness was appar- 
ently but little disturbed, if any, when the Tees- 
water cross was made. Hardihood has been so 
closely interwoven with every fiber of the Ayr- 
shires that they are today the most hardy of all 
breeds of dairy cattle, with the possible exception 
of the Irish Kerry. It is probable that the Tees- 
water cross eventually increased the milk-produc- 
ing ability of the Ayrshire. 

What is true of many of our improved breeds of 
cattle is true, also, of the Ayrshire : that no one 
breeder stands out prominently from his fellows as 
the great improver of the breed. The dairy-farm- 
ers of Ayr and the adjacent counties worked 
together for the common purpose of developing a 
hardy, active race of cattle adapted to the humid 
climate and sparse hillside pastures, as well as a 
race that would produce the maximum amount of 
milk when fed on chaffed straw and roots during 
the long winters of Scotland. Their success is indi- 
cated by the very large number of exportations 
from Scotland to other countries. 

In America. — Ayrshire cattle were first imported 
into America between 1820 and 1830. Importa- 
tions continued to be made into the eastern states 
with more or less regularity up to about the begin- 
ning of the Civil war. Importations are thought 
to have been made in 1822 by H. W. Hills, of 
Windsor, Connecticut; about 1837 by John P. 




Fig. 363. Ayrshire cow. 

Cushing, of Massachusetts, and in 1848 by E. A. 
Brown, of Ohio. While the imported cattle gave 
their owners entire satisfaction as far as hardiness, 
ease of keeping and milk-production were con- 
cerned, they failed to find much favor where the 
milking is done by men, because of the shortness 
of their teats. In Canada and in Scotland, where 
women milk by stripping with the thumb and fore- 



336 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



finger, this fault was not the serious objection that 
it was in eastern United States. It is possible, too, 
that another reason why Ayrshires did not grow in 
favor more rapidly was that the center of the breed, 
in its early history in the United States, was in New 
England, and in the hands of dairy-farmers. The 
cattle were kept for practical purposes, and but 
little attention was paid to breed characteristics, 
to exhibiting at the fairs, or to advertising the 
merits of the breed in any other way. 

Distribution. 

The Ayrshires are practically the only dairy cat- 
tle in Scotland, and nearly every country in which 
dairying is an important industry has drawn heavily 
on Scotland for foundation stock. The principal 
countries that are using Ayrshires are Canada, the 
United States, Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia. 
They are also found in considerable numbers in 
South Africa, New Zealand, Australia, China and 
Japan. In America, the breed is found in largest 
numbers in Quebec i.nd Ontario, in Canada, but it 
is fast becoming popular in eastern United States, 
notably in the New England States, New York and 
Pennsylvania. There are a few herds in Ohio, Illi- 
nois, Missouri, Oregon and California. 

Types of Ayrshire cattle. 

The event which served to bring the Ayrshires 
from their obscurity in America, and but for which 
they might still have been comparatively unknown, 
was the World's Columbian Exposition, held in 
Chicago in 1893. At this great World's Fair two 
distinct types of Ayrshire cattle appeared in com- 
petition; the American or New England type, which, 
having received no fresh infusion of blood from the 
mother country for many years, had become to all 
intents and purposes another breed, and the Cana- 
dian or, more properly, the Scotch type. This type 
was represented solely by animals that conformed 
to the type generally held by every one but Ameri- 
can breeders to be the correct one, and many indi- 
viduals had been prize-winners at the important 
agricultural shows in Scotland. 

The New England cattle differed from those of 
Scotch type in that they were a little shorter in 
the leg, heavier bodied, and possessed better hand- 
ling qualities. Their udders, while large and capa- 
cious, were hardly level and square, and in many 
cases were rather pendulous. The teats were of 
good size and length, and of a dark or tan color ; 
the horns frequently were crumpled, and the colors 
were dark-brown or cherry-red, flecked with white. 
While these cattle possessed unquestioned dairy 
merits, they did not have the uniformity of type 
that should be characteristic of a recognized breed. 

The Scotch cattle were longer and not relatively 
so deep in the body as their competitors ; a trifle 
longer in the leg ; hardly so rugged, perhaps ; 
straighter from the poll to tail-head ; possessed 
of large, square, level udders, whose front quarters 
were particularly well-developed, closely attached 
to the body, with teats ideally placed, but too often 
not only small in size but very short in length. It 
is stated by some authorities that a closely attached 



udder is very rarely found with long teats. Other 
characteristics of these Scotch Ayrshires were their 
heavy skins, broad upward-turned horns, and their 
color, which was white, with varying shades of red 
spots on the head and neck ; frequently there were 
larger or smaller spots on the body, but, in most 
cases, at least, the white predominated. Further- 
more, all of the cattle exhibited by the Canadians 
showed a uniformity of breed characteristic or 
type that was plainly evident to the most cas- 
ual observer. It was this uniformity, as well 
as their distinctive showy attractiveness, that 
drew to the foreign cattle thj attention of the 
visitors in the stadium, as well as that of the 
American breeders in and outside of the judging 
arena. 

The judge on this occasion had been selected 
from Canada, and, naturally, was partial to the 
Scotch type. As a consequence, most of the prizes 
went to the Canadian exhibitors. While the Ameri- 
can exhibitors were bitterly disappointed, the 
decisions made at Chicago have had a far-reaching 
effect in changing the type of Ayrshire cattle in 
America. Since that time the majority of the most 
progressive breeders either have made direct 
importation from Scotland, or have placed at the 
head of their herds bulls of the Scotch type. This 
is particularly true of those who exhibit at the 
leading fairs. And, when competition comes be- 
tween this and the old New England type, the 
former nearly always wins. 

The question of type had become so confusing 
that early in the year 1906 the officials of the 
American, Canadian, and Scotch Ayrshire breeders' 
associations recognized it as worthy of their atten- 
tion. The result was that they agreed on a uniform 
scale of points (see page 333), which is intended to 
serve as a guide for the breeders of all three asso- 
ciations. 

Breeders of these cattle have never practiced 
inbreeding to any great extent, and there are no 
well-defined families or strains, as in other breeds. 



For milk and butter. — In point of milk-yield 
alone, the Ayrshire does not compare favorably, 
individual for individual, with the Holstein, nor in 
butter -production alone with either the Jersey 
or Guernsey. But in the yield of milk and butter, 
on rough, hilly pastures, or without heavy grain- 
feeding in the winter, the Ayrshire is in a class by 
herself. It is difficult to give figures of production 
that are at all representative, since as much, if not 
more, depends on the system of care and manage- 
ment as on the cow herself. From reports of a 
number of herds which may be considered reliable, 
as indicating the dairy qualities of the Ayrshire 
breed, it may be stated that herds numbering 
twenty animals of all ages, will yield as an aver- 
age, 6,500 pounds of milk, and 300 pounds of but- 
ter. This estimate presupposes that the herd is 
fed for profit, but not forced in any sense of the 
word. A number of herds fed a liberal allowance 
of grain the year round, and managed with the 
view of yielding the maximum amount of milk and 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



337 



butter, have averaged over 8,000 pounds of milk, 
and 350 pounds of butter. Because the Ayrshire 
cow is perhaps not capable of making forced 
weekly, or even yearly milk and butter records 
equal to those of some of the other breeds, and 
furthermore, because she has been so completely 
in the hands of practical dairymen, she has never 
been forced in her production in the generally 
accepted sense of the term. As a consequence, 
the cows of this breed are in a more normal condi- 
tion than those of almost any other. 

Because the butter-fat globules are small, the 
cream does not rise so quickly as in the case of 
some of the other dairy breeds, and as a conse- 
quence Ayrshire milk is well adapted for shipping 
to city markets, and for use as a beverage. 

For cheese. — It was formerly thought that Ayr- 
shire milk was peculiarly adapted to cheese-mak- 
ing. With our present-day information on this 
subject, however, this view is no longer generally 
held, although the milk is used for this purpose. 

For beef. — As far as a dairy cow can be a beef 
animal, the Ayrshire probably excels, for the rea- 
son that she is a little smoother in conformation 
than the other dairy breeds, and the fat of the 
carcass, instead of being yellow, which is objec- 
tionable to the consumer, is white. 

For crossing. — An Ayrshire bull at the head of a 
grade herd will greatly increase milk-production 
in its progeny. When used on grade cows the 
standard of the herd will be materially elevated. 

Organizations and records. 

The welfare and interests of this race of cattle 
are in charge of the American Ayrshire Breeders' 
Association, which was organized on its present 
basis in 1875. The breeder's of Ayrshires, how- 
ever, have done systematic work for the breed 
through the Association of Breeders of Thorough- 
bred Neat Stock, as far back as 1859. The latter 
organization published three volumes of a herd 
register. On the organization of the former asso- 
ciation, the publication of the Ayrshire Record 
came into its hands. Since 1876 it has published 
sixteen volumes (new series). The North American 
Ayrshire Register first appeared in 1875, devoted 
to cattle that could be traced to importation. It 
was discontinued in 1880, after four volumes had 
been published. Aside from guarding the purity of 
the breed, the American Ayrshire Breeders' Asso- 
ciation also conducts a yearly home dairy test and 
an advanced registry. Both of these divisions of 
the Association's work tend to encourage the devel- 
opment of the breed by creating a greater interest 
among the members of the Association, to excel 
either in making official records, or in making 
attractive displays of their cattle at leading agri- 
cultural exhibitions. The present headquarters of 
the Association are at Brandon, Vt. 

There was organized in 1870 the Ayrshire Im- 
porters' and Breeders' Association of Canada, and 
in 1889 the Dominion Ayrshire Breeders' Associa- 
tion. In 1898, the former was absorbed by the 
latter. The Montreal Ayrshire Herdbook first 
appeared in 1886. It was later united with the 

C22 



Dominion Ayrshire Herdbook, which appeared in 
1884, and published as the Canadian Ayrshire 
Record. 

Literature. 

Yearbook, published annually by the Ayrshire 
Breeders' Association ; E. L. Sturtevant, The Dairy 
Cow: A Monograph of the Ayrshire Breed of Cat- 
tle, Boston (1875). [For further references, see 
page 302.] 

Brown Swiss Cattle. Pigs. 364, 365. 

By Charles D. Nixon. 

The Brown Swiss cattle of America are a distinct 
dairy breed. They have been generally known as a 
dual-purpose breed, but the American Brown Swiss 
Cattle Breeders' Association, at its late meeting, 
decided to establish only a distinct dairy breed. 

Description. 

As a breed the Brown Swiss cattle are fairly 
large, the cows averaging 1,200 pounds and the 
bulls 1,800 pounds, with a beautiful symmetrical 
form, covered with a soft mellow skin of unusual 
thickness, giving the animal a sleek, fat appearance. 
The color is a shade from light to dark chestnut 
brown. The peculiar markings are a light tuft of 
hair between the horns, on the inside of the ears 
and a narrow line along the back. The nose is 
black, with mouth surrounded with a meal-colored 
band ; a yellow strip along the middle of the under 
lip crosses over to the upper lip and extends up the 
sides of the nostrils. The horns are of medium size 
and length, well set, with black tips ; face dishing, 
with a large, full eye, denoting energy and vigor. 
The tail is long, with heavy black switch. The 
hoofs and tongue are also black. The hind-legs are 
straight, with thighs well cut out before and be- 
hind. The udder is large, extending well up in 
front and rear. The teats are large and well placed 
at the corners of the udder, with a beautifully 
formed escutcheon. The ribs are well sprung. The 
heart girth is large, pelvic arch high and hips broad. 
The short legs give the appearance of under weight, 
differing from other dairy breeds in that they have 
a stronger and more vigorous appearance. 

The following scale of points, adopted by the 
American Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association, 
shows what is desired in this breed. 

Scale op Points for Brown Swiss 

Cattle Perfect 

score 

1. Head. — Medium size and rather long 2 

2. Face. — Dished, broad between the eyes and nar- 

row between the horns 2 

3. Ears. — Of a deep orange color within 1 

4. Nose. — Black, square, and with the mouth sur- 

rounded by a light, meal-colored band ; tongue 
black 2 

5. Eyes. — Full and placid 1 

6. Horns. — Rather short, flattish and regularly set 

with black tips 5 

7. Neck. — Straight, rather long and not too heavy 

at shoulders 4 

8. Chest. — Broad and deep 4 



338 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



Scale of Points for Brown Swiss Cattle, 

continued Perfect 

score 

9. Back. — Level to the setting-on of the tail and 

broad across the loin 6 

10. Barrel. — Hooped, broad and deep at the flank . . 8 

11. Hips. — Wide apart, rump long and broad ... 4 

12. Thighs. — Wide, with heavy quarters 4 

13. Legs. — Short and straight, with good hoofs . . . 4 

14. Tail. — Slender, pliable, not too long, with good 

switch 4 

15. Hide. — Thin and movable 3 

16. Color. — Shades from dark brown to light brown, 

and at some seasons of the year gray ; slight 
splashes of white near udder, not objectionable; 
light stripe along the back 6 

17. Hair. — Between horns light, not reddish ; hair on 

inside of ears light. (No points.) 

18. Fore-udder. — Full in form and carried up, reach- 

ing far forward on the abdomen 10 

19. Hind-udder. — Not too deeply hung, full in form 

and well up behind 10 

20. Teats. — Rather large, set well apart and hanging 

straight down 5 

21. Milk veins. — Prominent 4 

22. Escutcheon. — High and broad, and full in 

thighs 7 

23. Disposition. — Quiet and good natured .... 4 

Perfection 100 

In judging bulls and heifers, omit Nos. 14, 15 and 16 ; 
and for color they should be dark brown. 

History. 

This breed is descended from the Brown Switzer 
or Schwyzer cattle, established from a time beyond 
historic record in the mountainous country of Switz- 
erland, especially in the Cantons of Zurich, Zug and 
Schwitz or Schwyz. 

In America. — The first importation of Brown 
Swiss cattle, consisting of seven cows and one bull, 
was made by Henry M. Clark, of Belmont, Mass., in 
1869. They were subsequently sold to D. Hall, of 
Providence, R. I., and D. G. Aldrich, of Worcester, 
Mass. From them and subsequent importations by 
W. Koch and J. B. Eldredge, of New York ; Scott 




Fig. 364. Imported Brown Swiss buU. Luob, No. 2107. 



& Harris, of Connecticut ; E. M. Barton, of Illinois, 
and McCormick Brothers, have sprung the 2,500 
bulls and 3,700 cows since registered as pure-bred 
cattle by the Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders' Asso- 
ciation. In 1904, McLaury Brothers, of New York 
State, made a large importation. 

Distribution. 

Brown Swiss cattle are in high favor in Europe, 
especially in Russia, Germany and Italy. In Switz- 
erland they are the most popular milk-producing 
cattle. They are rather generally scattered over 
the United States. Some of the larger herds are 
now in Missouri, Illinois and Wisconsin, and are 
used almost exclusively for dairy purposes. They 
are also found in Mexico. Very few of them are 
offered for sale and they are seldom sold except at 
a high price, owing to their pleasant, kindly dis- 
position and their rare excellence for milk and 
butter. Their ruggedness and ability to thrive on 
rough, sparse pastures, adapts them to a wide range 
of conditions. 

Feeding and care. 

As has been said, the Brown Swiss cattle origi- 
nated in the mountainous country of Switzerland, 
where the feed is grass and hay alone and where 
grains are scarce and expensive. They grazed on 
the mountain side in the summer and were fed hay 
in the valley in the winter. However, they respond 
very quickly to good care and feed in every part 
of the United States. Alfalfa hay is especially 
recommended as one of the best feeds to develop 
the Brown Swiss. 

Uses. 

For milk and butter. — They are persistent milkers 
and usually produce large averages for the year, 
occasionally as high as 10,000 pounds of milk and 
500 pounds of butter-fat. The milk is adapted for 
condensing, and for butter and cheese production. 
They will produce more milk and butter-fat on 
rough feed than any of the other dairy breeds. The 
average per cent of butter- 
fat is 4.3. In 1891, the cow 
Brienz No. 168, at the age 
of twelve years, in a care- 
fully supervised test at 
Chicago, made the very 
notable record of an aver- 
age yield of 81.7 pounds 
of milk per day for three 
days, containing 9.32 
pounds of butter-fat. 

For beef. — Brown Swiss 
cattle have not been pop- 
ular as beef-producers in 
America, although they 
are highly prized for this 
purpose in Switzerland. 
They fatten rapidly and 
attain good size. They 
dress out about 60 per 
cent. The calves make ex- 
cellent veal at six weeks, 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



339 



weighing 250 to 300 pounds. They produce a white, 
highly flavored meat. 

For crossing. — The use of Brown Swiss bulls on 
grade cows to produce veal calves is highly recom- 
mended. Many farmers fatten them on skimmed 
milk and sell them alongside other calves fattened 
on whole milk. They are also valuable for 
crossing on debilitated common stock for in- 
fusing new vigor. 

Organizations and records. 

The American Brown Swiss Cattle Breed- 
ers' Association, organized in 1880, cares for 
the interests of the breed in this country. It 
is made up of less than 100 Brown Swiss 
breeders, many of them millionaire farmers 
who take great pride in this stock. To date it has 
published three small herdbooks. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 302. 

Devon Cattle. Figs. 366, 367. 

By L. P. Sisson. 

The Devon is a dual-purpose breed of cattle, 
containing both beef and dairy types. Because of 
the bright red color the animals are sometimes 
called " Rubies." 

Description. 

In general, the Devons are a docile but hardy 
breed of cattle, well adapted to thrive on short 
and hilly pasture, while at the same time respond- 
ing to good care. The following scale of points, 
adopted by the American Devon Cattle Club, Novem- 
ber 11, 1886, shows what is desired in the breed. 
Purity of blood must be evidenced by registry in 
the American Devon Record. 

Scale of Points for Devon Cattle 

For cows Pe s rf or°e 

1. Head. — Moderately long, with a broad indented 

forehead, tapering considerably towards the 
nostrils ; the nose of a flesh-color, nostrils high 
and open ; the jaws clean ; the eye bright, 
lively and prominent, and surrounded by a 
flesh-colored ring ; throat clean ; ears thin ; 
the expression gentle and intelligent ; horns 
matching, spreading and gracefully turned up, 
of a waxy color, tipped with a darker shade . 8 

2. Neck. — Upper line short, fine at head, widening 

and deep at withers and strongly set to the 
shoulders 4 

3. Shoulders. — Fine, flat and sloping, with strong 

arms and firm joints 4 

4. Chest. — Deep, broad, and somewhat circular in 

character 8 

5. Ribs. — Well sprung from the back-bone, nicely 

arched, deep, with flanks fully developed ... 8 

6. Back. — Straight and level from the withers to 

the setting-on of the tail ; loin broad and full ; 
hips and rump of medium width, and on a level 
with the back 16 

7. Hind-quarters.— Deep, thick and square ... 8 

8. Udder. — Not fleshy, coming well forward in line 

with the belly and well up behind ; teats mod- 
erately large, and squarely placed 20 



Scale of Points foe Devon Cattle, continued 

For COWS Perfect 

score 
9. Tail. — Well set on at a right angle with the back, 
tapering, with a switch of white or roan hair 

and reaching the hocks 2 

10. Legs. — Straight, squarely placed when viewed 




Fig. 365. A notable Brown Swiss cow. Florine of River" 
Meadow, No. 1407. 

from behind, not to cross or sweep in walking ; 
hoof well formed 4 

11. Skin. — Moderately thick and mellow, covered 

with an abundant coat of rich hair of a red 
color ; no white spot admissible, except the 
udder 8 

12. Size. — Minimum weight at 3 years old, 1,000 

pounds 2 

13. General appearance. — As indicated by stylish 

and quick movement, form, constitution and 
vigor, and the under-line as nearly as possible 
parallel with the line of the back 8 

Perfection 100 

For bulls Perfect 

score 

1. Head. — Masculine, full and broad, tapering 

toward the nose, which should be flesh-colored ; 
nostrils high and open ; muzzle broad ; eyes 
full and placid and surrounded with flesh-col- 
ored ring ; ears of medium size and thickness ; 
horns medium size, growing at right angles 
from the head, or slightly elevated, waxy at 
the base, tipped with a darker shade 10 

2. Cheek. — Full and broad at root of tongue; 

throat clean 2 

3. Keck. — Of medium length and muscular, widen- 

ing from the head to the shoulders, and 
strongly set on 4 

4. Shoulders. — Fine, flat, sloping and well fleshed ; 

arms strong with firm joints 6 

5. Chest. — Deep, broad and somewhat circular . . 10 

6. Ribs. — Well sprung from the back-bone, nicely 

arched, deep with flanks fully developed ... 10 

7. Back. — Straight and level from the withers to the 

setting-on of the tail ; loin broad and full ; hips 
and rump of medium width and on a level with 
the back 20 

8. Hind-quarters. — Deep, thick and square ... 12 



340 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



Scale of Points for Devon Cattle, continued 

For bulls Perfect 
score 
9. Tail. — Well set on at a right angle with the 
back, tapering, with a switch of white or roan 
hair and reaching the hocks 2 

10. Legs — Short, straight and squarely placed when 

viewed from behind, not to cross or sweep in 
walking ; hoof well formed 4 

11. Skin. — Moderately thick and mellow, covered 

with an abundant coat of rich hair of a red 
color ; no white spot admissible unless around 

the purse 8 

\/\2. Size. — Minimum weight at 3 years old, 1,400 

pounds 4 

13. General appearance. — As indicated by stylish 
and quick movement, form, constitution and 
vigor, and the under-line as nearly as possible 
parallel with the line of the back 8 

Perfection 100 

History. 

From time immemorial there has been known in 
the south and west of England and on the borders 
of Wales, especially in the county of Devon, a 




Fig. 366. Devon bull. Allround 6498. 

breed of cattle of uniform red color, rather long 
and graceful horns, well-rounded and symmetrical 
bodies and straight broad backs, rather lighter in 
bone than some other breeds and shorter in the 
legs, thus possessing many of the characters of the 
present-day Devon. They were gentle and hardy, 
active, and accustomed to gaining their living 
while roaming over the bleak moors or rocky 
hills of their rough native country. Here they 
were known as the "red " cows. They were the 
main reliance of their owners for dairy prod- 
ucts. These mountain-bred cattle were sought 
after as "feeders" in Devon, Cornwall and Som- 
erset, as well as in Hereford. 

Among the early breeders of importance 
should be mentioned the Quartly and Davy 
families, through whose efforts the Devons 
were greatly improved. For several generations the 
Quartly family devoted themselves to improving the 
Devons, and Francis Quartly, who began his work 
in 1793, stands preeminent among Devon breeders. 
The best blood in the breed has descended from 
his herd. John Tanner Davy began the improve- 
ment of a Devon herd left to him by his father in 
1790. On his death in 1852, his son, Colonel Davy, 
continued his work, and became foremost among 
Devon breeders of the time. The latter did a great 



deal to popularize the breed by his writings and by 
his personal efforts. 

In America. — The exact date of the first importa- 
tions of Devons is uncertain, but it is thought that 
a few head were brought to America in 1623 by 
the colonists. Beginning with an importation in 
1800 to Massachusetts, several importations were 
made, the most notable being in 1817, when six 
pure-bred heifers and a bull were received by .Mr. 
Robert Patterson of Baltimore. The Pattersons 
made later importations, and were in no small way 
responsible for the development of the breed in 
this country. Other breeders imported Devon stock 
into United States and Canada, but the breed has 
not become very popular despite the fact "that it is 
worthy. 

Distribution. 

The Devon cattle are widely distributed, being 
found scattered through the south of England, in 
Ireland, South Africa, parts of Australia, Tas- 
mania, New Zealand, the West Indies and in Can- 
ada, United States and Mexico. The breed is now 
represented in every state in the Union with few 
exceptions, but is most numerous in New England, 
New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin 
and Texas. Virginia, Maryland, the Carolinas, 
Georgia and Alabama each have many herds. It is 
well adapted to warm climates. 

Types. 

Two types of Devon cattle have been developed. 
The North Devon, a hardy, compact type, is prob- 
ably the original form. The animals are smaller, 
and have been developed for beef-production pri- 
marily. The South Devon, a larger and coarser 
type, has been developed for both meat and milk, 
and is now almost a distinct breed. 

Uses. 

For milk and butter. — While the Devons are not 
primarily dairy cattle, still some splendid milk- 
producers have been developed. Although the 
quantity of the milk-yield is not large, the quality 
is good, which gives them definite value for 







Fig. 367. Devon cow. Duchess X, No. 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



341' 



butter-making. As a rule they possess well-shaped 
udders. 

For beef. — A chief recommendation of the Devon 
for beef is that it dresses with little waste, and 
the meat is of very superior quality. The animals 
make good gains under stall-feeding but cannot be 
forced to so great an extent as some of the other 
beef breeds, and generally are lighter when 
marketed. The breed is small, which has some- 
times militated against it for meat purposes. 

For oxen. — The superior intelligence, quick and 
active movements and great strength of the Devons, 
render the oxen among the best known and hand- 
somest in the world. Their rapid gait and firm step, 
together with the ease with which they are trained, 
have gained for them this superiority. 

For grazing. — As grazers, the Devons stand in 
the first rank, as they are active and hardy, and 
have been accustomed to rustle on light, hilly 
pastures. 

For crossing. — Prepotency is a characteristic of 
Devon cattle due to their pure breeding for so long 
a period. When crossed on grade cows the results 
are very satisfactory for both meat- and milk-pro- 
duction. 

Organizations and records. 

In 1851, Colonel Davy issued the first volume of 
the English Devon Herdbook, other volumes being 
put out from time to time until 1881, when seven 
volumes had been published. The Devon Cattle 
Breeders' Society, organized in 1880, bought the 
Herdbook in 1884, and has since increased it to 
nearly thirty volumes. The South Devon Herdbook 
Society was organized in 1890. It also published a 
herdbook. The first volume of the American Devon 
Herdbook appeared in 1863, and in 1879 the fifth 
and last volume was issued. In 1881, volume one 
of the American Devon Record was published, six 
other volumes having appeared since. Yearbooks 
for 1905, 1906 and 1907 have also been issued. The 
official organization for the promotion of the inter- 
ests of the breed in this country is known as the 
American Devon Cattle Club, with the secretary's 
office at Newark, Ohio. 

Literature. 

James Sinclair, History of the Devon Breed of 
Cattle, London (1893). [For further references, 
see page 302.] 

Dutch Belted Cattle. Figs. 368, 369. 

By Frank R. Sanders. 

Dutch Belted cattle are a dairy breed. Their 
native home is in Holland, where they are known 
as Lakenfelds, Lakenvelders or Veldlarkers, which 
means literally a field of white, but conveys the 
idea of a white body with black ends. 

Description. 

In size, these cattle rank about with the Ayr- 
shires, and are also much the same in general con- 
formation, being, if anything, a little larger, and 
having a little more length of leg. Cows range 



from 900 to 1,300 pounds in weight. Bulls often 
weigh 2,000 pounds. The best types of the breed 
represent a highly developed dairy form, having 
thin necks, small heads, straight backs, deep chests, 
hips and rumps high and broad, udders and milk- 
veins well developed, mellow skin and soft hair, 
and withal, a high nervous temperament. They 
are very quiet in disposition. The most distinctive 
feature of this breed is the very wonderful, pure 
white belt. This belt when ideal, should be a little 
back of the shoulder, and a little in front of the 
hips, and should extend entirely around the body 
in a line-like appearance. The body is coal black, 
and these combinations of color, so beautifully 
blended, are the wonder of all who see them. 

The following scale of points has been adopted 
by the Dutch Belted Cattle Association of America. 

Scale op Points for Dutch Belted Cattle 

For COWS Perfect 

score 

1. Body. — Color black, with a clearly defined con- 

tinuous white belt, the belt to be of medium 
width, beginning behind the shoulders and 
extending nearly to the hips 8 

2. Head. — Comparatively long and somewhat dish- 

ing ; broad between the eyes ; poll, prominent ; 
muzzle, fine ; tongue, dark 6 

3. Eyes. — Black, full and mild. Horns. — Long com- 

pared with their diameter 4 

4. Neck. — Fine, and moderately thin, and should 

harmonize in symmetry with the head and 
shoulders 6 

5. Shoulders. — Fine at the top, becoming deep and 

broad as they extend backward and downward, 
with a low chest 4 

6. Barrel. — Large and deep with well-developed 

abdomen ; ribs well rounded and free from 
fat 10 

7. Hips. — Broad ; chine level, with full loin .... 10 

8. Rump. — High, long and broad 6 

9. Hind-quarters. — Long and deep.rear line incurv- 

ing. Tail. — Long, slim, tapering to a full 
switch 8 

10. Legs. — Short, clean, standing well apart . ... 3 

11. Udder. — Large, well-developed front and rear; 

teats of convenient size and wide apart ; mam- 
mary veins large, long and crooked, entering 
large orifices 20 

12. Escutcheon 2 

13. Hair. — Fine and soft; skin of moderate thick- 

ness, of a rich dark or yellow color 3 

14. Quiet disposition and free from excessive fat . . 4 

15. General condition and apparent constitution . . 6 

Perfection 100 

For bulls 

The scale of points for males shall be the same as 
that given for females, except that No. 11 shall be 
omitted and the bull shall be credited 10 points for size 
and wide -spread placing of rudimentary teats, and 10 
additional points for perfection of belt. 

History. 

The early history of this breed is not fully under- 
stood, but from the records obtainable, and from 
conversation with several of the oldest breeders in 
Holland, it seems that these cattle began to flourish 
about 1750, and no doubt the system of selection 



342 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



by which this marvelous color breeding was 
attained, dates back into the sixteenth century. 
One breeder says his father informed him that there 
were gentlemen of wealth and leisure near what is 
now called Haarlem, North Holland, who conceived 




Fig. 368. 



Dutch Belted bull, Auten, 495. Once champion 
bull of the breed in America. 



the idea of breeding animals of all kinds to a cer- 
tain color, chiefly with a broad band of white in 
the center of the body, with black ends. These 
noblemen had large estates, and it is said that for 
more than 100 years they and their descendants 
worked on the perfection of these peculiar color- 
markings, until they produced belted cattle, pigs, 
and poultry. That these breeders were wonderfully 
successful, no one questions, as we have the results 
of their labors in the Dutch Belted cattle, Laken- 
velder poultry of England and America, the Lan- 
cheswine of Holland and Germany and the Hamp- 
shire swine of America, which were supposed to 
originate in Hampshire, England, but undoubtedly 
are the descendants of the Haarlem herds of long 
ago. All of these breeds possess a belt, and carry 
out the idea of their originators in a marvelous 
degree. 

The process by which these unparalleled results 
were attained seems to be hidden in the obscurity 
of the past ; however, it is not difficult to under- 
stand that many years of careful selection might 
culminate in the desired end. There seems to be 
some doubt, even in Holland, as to the method 
employed to produce such distinct color-markings, 
and nothing 'i the animal world shows more skill 
in breeding than the results of the Hollanders in 
the reduction of the different breeds, so strongly 
bred to distinct color lines. 

In America. — Dutch Belted cattle were first 
imported to America in 1838. D. H. Haight was 
the largest importer. He made his first importa- 
tion in 1838, and a later one in 1848. His herd 
became scattered over Orange county, N. Y., until 
one will find a great many belted cows in every 
township in that county today. Hon. Robert W. 
Coleman also imported a large herd to place on his 
estate at Cornwall, Pa. The Dutch Belted cattle in 
America today are entirely descended from these 
herds. In 1840, P. T. Barnum imported a number 
of Dutch Belted cattle for show purposes, but 
shortly placed them on his farm in Orange county, 



New York. One heifer was imported in 1906 by 
Dr. H. W. Lance, of New York City, for his farm in 
New Jersey, but previous to that time none were 
brought over for more than fifty years. This was 
due chiefly to the very great difficulty in securing 
them and to the restriction against importing them. 
A number have been exported from this country 
to Canada and Mexico, and a few to Cuba. In 1893, 
H. B. Richards, secretary of the Dutch Belted Cat- 
tle Association, sold his World's Fair herd, number- 
bering sixteen, and nine others to a son-in-law of 
President Diaz and shipped them to Mexico. Later. 
Mr. Richards sold twenty to Sir William Van Home, 
of Canada. Other exportations have been made. 
There are about fifteen hundred head in America 
at the present time. 

Distribution. 

Dutch Belted cattle are not widely distributed, 
but are found in comparatively small numbers in 
Holland, Canada, United States and Mexico. In 
America the largest herds are found in the New 
England States and New York. The cattle are also 
found in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Ohio, Missis- 
sippi and other parts of the South, and several fine 
herds are being built up on the Pacific coast. 

As many of these cattle have been kept success- 
fully in northern New England for years, they 
have gradually assumed a hardy constitution, well 
adapted to withstand New England climates. There 
also seems to be a place for them in hilly sections, 
as they are active and well able to rustle. 

Feeding. 

These cattle do best on a comparatively light 
grain ration, usually not over eight pounds in a 
properly balanced ration. When fed heavy they 




Fig. 369. Dutch Belted cow, Echo, n, 701. 

return a less per cent of profits. This is a reason, 
also, why Dutch Belted cattle do well in sections of 
country where feed is not abundant. 



For milk and butter. — Dutch Belted cows, as a 
rule, are large, persistent milkers, giving milk 
constantly, almost without going dry. The fact 
that we have many breeders of fifteen, twenty and 
twenty-five years experience who are as enthusi- 
astic as ever, speaks strongly of the merits of the 
breed. In order to convey an, idea of the ability of 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



343 



this breed in the production of milk and butter, 
we cite the records of the cows of some of the 
breeders for long periods. Mr. J. A. Holbert, of 
New York, at one time had a fine herd of Dutch 
Belted cattle and he kept a careful record for over 
eight years. Twenty-five of his cows and heifers 
averaged about 9,000 pounds yearly, fed eight 
pounds of grain and hay ad libitum in winter and 
pasture alone in summer. Mrs. S. A. F. Servin, one 
of the largest breeders, who has maintained a farm 
solely for profit, kept a daily record for eleven 
years, and twenty-five cows averaged between nine 
and ten thousand pounds of milk yearly. Mr. D. B. 
Wilson of Connecticut, who has made butter from 
his herd for about twelve years, says that it takes 
about ten quarts of milk to make a pound of 
butter. Cows in the Mountain Lawn Herd of New 
Hampshire, owned by the writer, have averaged as 
follows : Eleven cows made an average of 8,579 
pounds of milk for eight years. One cow produced 
12,672 pounds of milk in one year and in six years 
60,297 pounds. The average production of butter 
by this cow was 596 pounds yearly. 

For beef. — Because of their scarcity, Dutch Belted 
cattle are seldom offered for beef. Owing to their 
size and easy keeping qualities, they make good 
beef, and rank well with the other dairy breeds. 

For ornament. — This breed of cattle has a use for 
ornamental purposes. Because of their unique ap- 
pearance and beauty, they are constantly sought by 
persons of wealth who desire something novel as 
well as useful. 

Diseases. 

It has been shown by the experience of a number 
of breeders that Dutch Belted cattle are exception- 
ally free from disease, and need no special care. 

Organizations and records. 

The Dutch Belted Cattle Association of America 
was organized February 4, 1886, in New York 
City, and is the only organization promoting the 
breed in America. The Netherland General Stam- 
boek, published at the Hague, Holland, is the 
foreign representative. Eight herdbooks of the 
Dutch Belted Cattle Association of America have 
been published to date. The address of the secre- 
tary is Easton, Pa. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 302. 

French-Canadian Cattle. Figs. 370, 371. 

By G. E. Day. 

French-Canadian cattle, or " Quebec Jerseys " as 
they are sometimes called, belong to the strictly 
dairy class. They are an American breed, devel- 
oped in Canada. 

Description. 

French - Canadian cattle are somewhat small, 
mature cows weighing 700 to 900 pounds and bulls 
about 1,000 pounds. The rules for registration 
contain the following statements regarding color : 



"The color for cows may be black or brown, or 
dark brown, with or without a yellow stripe along 
the back and around the muzzle, or a gray stripe 
around the muzzle. The color may also be fawn or 
brindle. The color for bulls may be black or brown, 
or dark brown with or without a yellow stripe 
along the back and around the muzzle, or a gray 
stripe around the muzzle. Registration should not 
be refused if females have a little white under the 
belly, on the forehead, or in the switch, nor to 
bulls having a little white under the belly or in 
the switch. The horns must be white with black 
tips or black with white tips." In general appear- 
ance they resemble the Jersey, but have less of the 
deer-like appearance possessed by the Jersey, and 
are somewhat more rugged in appearance. The 
type is lean and muscular, and the cows tend to 
be wedge-shaped. 

The scale of points which follows was prepared 
by The French-Canadian Cattle Breeders' Associa- 
tion of Canada. 

Scale op Points for French-Canadian Cattle 
For cows 

1. Dairy temperament (25) Pe s r c f ore 

Head. — Lean, long, feminine and refined in 

appearance 3 

Neck. — Thin, rather long, ewe-necked .... 3 

Shoulders. — Light and spare, withers sharp . . 3 

Crops. — High, straight and sharp 3 

Spine and ribs. — Spine prominent, vertebrae and 

ribs open spaced 3 

Thighs. — Thin and incurving, flank high .... 5 

Hip joints and pin-bones. — Sharp, angular ... 2 

Pelvic arch. — Prominent, strong and sharp . . 2 

Tail. — Long and tapering 1 

2. Feeding powers (25) 

Barrel. — Depth from line of back to navel ... 10 

Length of body from shoulder to hook-points . 7 

Breadth of body through middle 6 

(Period of gestation to be considered). 

Muzzle. — Broad, jaw strong 2 

3. Mammary organs (25) 

Udder. — Long, broad and deep, extending well 
forward and well up behind; well let down, 
but not pendulous ; all quarters fully and sym- 
metrically developed ; fine and elastic ; not 
fleshy ; teats well placed and wide apart . . 15 

Teats. — Rather large, equal in size, not cone- 
shaped 2 

Milk-wells. — Numerous, large and far forward . 4 

Milk veins and veins on udder. — Prominent and 
branching. (Age to be considered.) .... 3 

Escutcheon. — High and wide, with thigh ovals . 1 

4. Disposition (5) 

Eyes. — Large, prominent, bright, intelligent and 

placid 3 

Face. — Broad between eyes 1 

Movement of ears and body. — Rather slow, not 
restless 1 

5. Quality (5) 

Skin. — Loose, thin, mellow, with fine soft hair . 3 
Skin. — Deep yellow in ears and on and around 
escutcheon 2 

6. Constitution (5) 

Chest. — Deep ; wide through heart, full behind 

and a little above elbows; large girth of chest 3 

Nostrils. — Large, open 1 

Loin — Broad 1 



344 



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Scale op Points foe French-Canadian Cattle, 
continued 



Perfect 
score 



For cows 

7. Symmetry (4) 

Horns. — Not large nor coarse, curved, black or 

black with white tips, or vice versa 1 

Legs. — Rather short, straight and well placed . 1 
Color. — Black or dark brown, preferably with 
brown, fawn or cream-colored muzzle, and 
brown, fawn or yellow stripe on back .... 2 

8. General appearance, including style and move- 

ment 6 

Perfection 100 

For bulls the score is the same except in the following 
points : The head should be masculine in appearance, 
and of fine contour ; neck muscular and somewhat arched, 
proud and vigorous in bearing ; for crops, allow 2 points ; 
spine less prominent than in cow ; for thighs, allow 3 
points ; no score for hip joints and pin-bones ; omit sec- 
tion 3 ; under section 5 (quality), allow 6 points for first 
caption (quality of skin), and 4 points for second caption 
(color of skin); under section 6 (constitution), allow 6 
points for chest, 2 points for nostrils and 2 points for 
loins ; under section 7 (symmetry), allow 2 points for legs 
and 10 points for color; for caption 8 (general appearance), 
allow 12 points. Add a section on " Dairy Indications " (5), 
as follows : Embryo teats, — not less than four well-devel- 
oped embryo teats, well forward and wide apart, with 
amplitude of skin on rear part of under-line — 3 points ; 
escutcheon, — high and wide — 2 points. 

History. 

French-Canadian cattle are undoubtedly descend- 
ed from cattle brought to Canada from Brittany 
and Normandy by the early French settlers, between 
the years 1620 and 1650. They are thought, there- 
fore, to be of the same origin as the Jersey and 
Guernsey, and their appearance testifies to the 
truth of this opinion. Although the climate of the 
province of Quebec, where these cattle were brought 
by the settlers, is much more severe than that of 
their native land, these little cattle showed wonder- 




Fig. 370. French-Canadian bull. Denis Albert No. 1477. 

ful adaptability to changed circumstances, and 
appear to have thriven under a rigorous climate, 
cold stables, coarse fare, and very indifferent care 
and management. The result is a breed that is 
second to none in hardiness ; and it is said that it 



is a very rare thing for an animal of this breed to 
be affected with tuberculosis. 

Distribution. 

As might be expected, the headquarters for this 
breed is the province of Quebec, where they are 
popular with the French-Canadian farmer, or "habi- 
tant." It is only within comparatively recent years 
that the breed has become known to the out- 
side world. The entering of five cows in the Pan- 
American dairy test, where they gave a remarkably 
good account of themselves, served to advertise 
the breed more than any other circumstance, and 
they are now to be found in several states of the 
Union, as well as in the provinces of Ontario, New 




Fig. 371. 



French-Canadian cow. 
No. 6347. 



Denise Cbampionne. 



Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. 
They have also established themselves on the island 
of Anticosti. These cattle should prove of value 
on the hills of northeastern United States, especi- 
ally in New England, New York and Pennsylvania. 
As yet, however, the number of herds outside of 
Quebec is comparatively small, and it is difficult to 
say just how far these hardy little cattle may 
extend their domain. 

Management. 

One of the most remarkable things about French- 
Canadian cattle is the degree of excellence as dairy 
cattle which they have retained under generations 
of unskilled selection, bare pastures in summer, 
and, as a rule, a winter ration of nothing but straw. 
But they respond readily to more liberal treatment. 
The application of well-known principles of breed- 
ing, and the following of a judicious system of 
feeding, should render the French-Canadian a really 
prominent dairy breed. 

Uses. 

For milk and butter.— The French-Canadian is 
a strictly dairy breed. As yet, milk and butter 
records for the breed are not very numerous. 
Generally speaking, in quantity and quality of milk 
they resemble the Jersey. At the Central Experi- 
mental Farm, Ottawa, Ontario, in 1903, a French- 
Canadian cow made more butter and gave a larger 
profit than any other pure-bred cow in the herd, 
including Ayrshires, Guernseys and Shorthorns. 
In 1904, in the same herd, three French-Canadian 




Plate X. Galloway cow and Guernsey bull 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



345 



cattle made more butter and gave a larger profit 
than the three best cows of any other breed, includ- 
ing Ayrshires, Guernseys and Shorthorns. The 
yearly product per cow of these three cows was 
8,340 pounds of milk, testing 4.52 per cent, or 
442.64 pounds of butter. The total yearly profit 
per cow above cost of feed was $56.24. In the 
Pan-American test, the five French-Canadian cows 
stood sixth in total profits from butter and gain 
in weight, but in percentage of profit on value of 
food, they led all breeds. Recently, a record of 
performance has been established in connection 
with the breed, and the first cow to qualify under 
the rules produced in eleven months, 7,488 pounds 
of milk, and 332.8 pounds of butter-fat. It will 
be seen, therefore, that the French-Canadian cow 
possesses dairy qualities of no mean character. 

For beef. — This breed has little claim to beefing 
qualities, and has comparatively little value from 
the point of view of the beef advocate. 

For crossing. — The use of the French-Canadian 
bulls on native cows should be especially appropri- 
ate in the Northeast, where dairying is a specialty, 
and no doubt the offspring would show increased 
vigor over the dams, and in many cases the cows 
would yield milk richer in butter-fat. 

Organizations and records. 

The first organization in the interests of French- 
Canadian cattle was formed in 1886, and a record 
was established to record foundation stock. The 
record was placed in the hands of a commission 
appointed by the Quebec government. In 1895, 
this record was handed over to the French-Canadian 
Cattle Breeders' Association, organized by Dr. J. 
A. Couture, Quebec, who is still secretary of the 
Association. In 1896, the Foundation Herdbook 
was closed, and since that time only the progeny 
of recorded animals have been accepted for regis- 
tration. In the Foundation Herdbook there were 
recorded 5,307 females, and 922 males. In 1905, 
the old "French-Canadian Cattle Book" was taken 
over by the Canadian National Live-Stock Records. 
No herdbook has yet been issued. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 302. 

Galloway Cattle. Figs. 372, 373. 
By Charles Gray. 

The Galloway is a breed of beef cattle which 
derives its name from the province of Galloway, ' 
which is now confined to the two southwest coun- 
ties of Scotland, but formerly comprised the six 
counties lying south of the Firth of Forth. The 
name Galloway now embraces only the Stewartry 
of Kirkcudbright and the shire of Wigton. 



The typical modern Galloway is a low, blocky 
animal, with a long, soft, shaggy coat of black 
hair, hornless, well sprung in the ribs, the whole 
make-up resembling a barrel in shape, which is 
evenly covered with juicy, lean flesh. The Gallo- 
ways have been hornless from time immemorial. 



Some writers mention a tradition to the effect that 
in remote ages they were provided with horns ; 
however, notices of the breed centuries ago invari- 
ably state that Galloways were hornless. If any 
so-called Galloway presents the slightest appear- 
ance of horns he should be rejected as impure. 

The following scale of points, adopted by the 
American Galloway Breeders' Association, Decem- 
ber 22, 1905, shows the characters to be desired 
in the best type. The numerical values attached to 
the development of each part are not given. 

Scale of Points for Galloway Cattle 

1. Color. — Black, or black with a brownish tinge; white 

markings on feet, ankles or legs, or on any part 
of the body above the under-line are very objec- 
tionable. 

2. Head. — Short and wide ; forehead broad ; crown wide 

and oval, not rising to a point ; any trace of scurs 
or horns debars an animal from registration. Face 
clean, muzzle broad, and nostrils large. 

3. Eye. — Large and prominent. 

4. Ear. — Moderate in length and broad, pointing for- 

ward and upward, with fringe of long hair. 

5. Neck. — Short, clean, and filling into the shoulder in 

such a way as to make the neck and shoulder of 
fleshy animals appear molded as one piece ; the 
top of the neck in line with the back in a female, 
and in a male rising with age. 

6. Body. — Deep, wide, well rounded, moderate in length 

and symmetrical. 

7. Shoulders. — Broad, but well laid into body, joining 

smoothly ; compact and deeply fleshed on top. 

8. Ribs. — Deep and well sprung ; crops deeply fleshed, 

making width of shoulders and body at ribs uni- 
form. 

9. Hook-bones. — Not prominent ; in fleshy animals not 

visible. 

10. Loin. — Moderate in length, wide and deeply fleshed. 

11. Hind-quarters. — Long, wide and well filled. 

12. Rump. — Straight, wide, carrying width of body out 

uniformly; weli filled with flesh. 

13. Thighs. — Broad as viewed from side, thick as viewed 

from behind; straight and well let down at hock ; 
rounded buttocks very objectionable. 

14. Legs. — Short and clean, with fine bone. 

15. Tail. — Set on straight and smoothly laid in with flesh 

at sides ; high tail-head very objectionable. 

16. Skin. — Mellow and moderate in thickness. 

17. Hair. — Soft and wavy, with mossy undercoat ; harsh 

or wiry hair is very objectionable ; curly hair, if 
soft, is not objectionable. 

History. 

The origin of the Galloway cattle is lost in the 
mists of antiquity. When the Romans first visited 
Britain the country was covered with dense forests. 
In these forests the Romans found many wild 
cattle roaming at their leisure, and it is now con- 
ceded that they were the progenitors of our 
modern breed of Galloways. Cattle-breeding has 
been the principal business among Galloway farm- 
ers since time immemorial. A history of Scotland 
alluding to the time prior to and including the 
reign of Alexander III (1249) says : "Black cattle 
were reared in great numbers during the Scoto- 
Saxon period." George Buchanan, tutor to James 
I, of England, writing about 1566, says of Gal- 
loway: "It is more fruitful in cattle than in corn." 



346 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



The breed was of great importance during the 
Scoto-Saxon period. In the early ages the dairy 
was an object of considerable attention. Large 
quantities of cheese were made and the people con- 
sumed much animal flesh. There was also an exten- 
sive export trade in hides. At a later period, 
immediately after the union of England and Scot- 
land, the farmers of England became extensive 
purchasers of Galloway cattle. During this activ- 
ity the Galloways found much favor among the 
graziers of the south of England and the butchers 
of Smithfield market, and they invariably sold at 
an average price of £2 per head above that of any 
other breed of the same weight. The breed was 
much improved during this period and later when 
turnip husbandry was introduced into the province 
of Galloway. A circumstance worthy of attention 
is that the breed has never been affected by cross- 
ing with any other breed. The improvement has 
been brought about entirely by the diligent atten- 
tion and careful management of the breeders of 
Galloway and of the corn-belt of America. 

Although the Galloway is the oldest of the pure 
breeds of Britain, there has been very little 
written about the breed, and the records that were 
collected during the early part of the last century 
were destroyed by fire in the Highland and Agri- 
cultural Society's Museum and Records in Edin- 
burgh in 1851. Some time later, about the year 
1862, a book of pedigrees was compiled, which 
contained pedigrees of both Aberdeen-Angus and 
Galloways. Still a little later, about the year 1878, 
the Galloway Cattle Society of Great Britain, with 
the able assistance of the secretary, Rev. John 
Gillispie, of Dumfriesshire, Scotland, published the 
first book of Galloway pedigrees which we have 
and which is recognized by Galloway associations 
at present. 

In America. — The breed was formally introduced 
into America by an importation made by Graham 
Brothers, Ontario, Canada, in 1853, although it has 
been said that one or two individuals were seen in 



^^^^^^S^k. 



its way into the United States slowly at first. A 
few head were brought into Michigan in 1870, and 
from there spread into other central and western 
states. 

Distribution. 

Galloways are found mainly in Scotland, Canada 
and the United States, but have been exported to 




Fig. 373. Galloway COW. Myrtle of Avondale 24942. 

several countries. They can now be found in Rus- 
sia, South Africa, Mexico and Alaska. In United 
States they are more numerous in the corn-belt and 
western range states than in the southern states. 
In the past year several have been shipped to Vir- 
ginia, Florida, California and Alaska from the corn- 
belt herds, and an enterprising Spaniard has recently 
taken a large number from Midland, Texas, to his 
ranch in Mexico. 




Fig. 372. Galloway bull. Pat Ryan of Red Cloud 20038. 

this country before that time. The cattle of the 
first importation adapted themselves so readily to 
Canadian conditions that many large shipments 
quickly followed, until now the hornless, shaggy 
blacks are found in all the provinces of Canada and 
nearly every state in the Union. The breed made 



For milk. — The Galloways, as a breed, can not lay 
claim to any superiority as milkers. Although many 
herds have keen kept for centuries in the 
south of Scotland for dairy purposes, yet, 
as a whole, the breed has been improved 
chiefly along the lines of beef-production. 
Some breeders in Scotland have developed 
the milking faculty of their herds to a very 
high degree by systematically disposing of 
cows that proved shy milkers. It is not an 
uncommon thing in the corn-belt of this 
country to find cows that produce large 
quantities of milk. Some of the most noted 
show-cows exhibited in recent years gave 
large quantities of very rich milk during 
their milking season. Many persons think 
that Galloways are useless as dairy animals, 
but this is erroneous. The United States 
Government recently purchased a number 
of animals of the milking strains and sent them 
to Alaska for dairy purposes. Many favorable re- 
ports have been received from Alaska since these 
hardy blacks arrived at their new home. They 
seem to be as well adapted to the rigors of the 
northern climate as they are to the inclement 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



347 



weather found among the rugged hills and fertile 
glens of their native land in southwestern Scotland. 

For beef. — It is chiefly as a beef-producing breed 
that the Galloways are famous. The quality of their 
beef attracted much attention in the British mar- 
kets centuries ago, and had the distinction of being 
classed as " prime scots " at Smithfield long before 
these animals were known to the feeders of the 
corn-belt or the cow-men of the western plains. 
The superiority of the Galloway beef arises from 
the fact that it is always well marbled and pos- 
sesses a large proportion of lean meat intermixed 
with fat. The packers and butchers have been 
striving to educate breeders, stockmen and farmers 
to breed animals with a greater proportion of 
natural flesh and less wasteful fat. The Galloway 
has long been bred with this essential feature in 
view, and thus he leads his rivals in this respect, 
and brings higher returns per hundred pounds live 
weight. 

The breed has been vastly improved since its 
introduction into the corn-belt. Greater weights 
have been secured in shorter time than was custo- 
mary twenty-five years ago, and the early-maturing 
feature has been much in evidence. In the past, the 
statement has been advanced by some persons that 
one could not mature the Galloways so soon as indi- 
viduals of other beef breeds. One need only visit some 
of the leading Galloway herds throughout the coun- 
try, or review the various ages and classes of indi- 
viduals presented every year at the national shows, 
to be convinced of the error of this statement. 
Experienced authorities who have handled two or 
more of the leading beef breeds under similar con- 
ditions maintain that the Galloways mature at any 
age just as readily as individuals of any other beef 
breed. Today, the Galloways have many claims to 
favoritism. Experiments at various agricultural 
experiment stations show that while they do not 
attain so great size as some of the other beef 
breeds, yet they are more economical feeders, 
especially where a large proportion of roughage 
has to be consumed. When the numbers of each 
breed is considered, the Galloways top the market 
at the great live-stock centers as often as any other 
breed. The killing qualities are in their favor 
because, as a rule, the Galloways have very little 
waste offal or fat that sloughs off, and consequently, 
they dress a very high percentage of marketable 
beef. 

For hides. — In midsummer the hide of the Gallo- 
way has no greater comparative value than that of 
any other breed. Prom November to March, how- 
ever, when the coat of hair is long and at its best, 
the Galloway hide is worth five to eight cents per 
pound more than the hide of an animal of any other 
breed. There was a time when the Western plains 
were covered with buffalo, which produced millions 
of robes, but these animals are now almost extinct, 
and the Galloway is the only domestic animal of 
the bovine race that can roam on the plains and 
produce a superior quality of beef and robes that 
can take the place of the buffalo of days gone by. 

For grazing. — As grazers, the Galloways are sel- 
dom equaled and never excelled. It has already 



been mentioned that the habitat of the GaKoway 
was for centuries in the southwest of Scotland. 
They were often kept on the hills where the pasture 
was scant, and they invariably gave a good account 
of themselves. They respond readily to the luxuri- 
ant pasture of the valleys, but thrive and seem 
contented on the bleak, scant forage of the moor- 
land. For a time they had a struggle for existence 
in this country, due to the keenness of their worthy 
rivals of the other beef breeds. Their persistent 
struggles and many victories in the show-yard in 
recent years, however, have established a place for 
them in the corn-belt and the ranges of the West 
and Southwest, which will undoubtedly continue as 
long as our cattle industry remains. The constitu- 
tion which was built up from years of exposure to 
inclement weather in Scotland furnishes the breed 
with the required merits, and readily recommends 
them for the vast grazing ranges of the Northwest, 
West and Southwest. In summer on the range, the 
Galloway will make as good gains on luxuriant 
pasture as any breed, and will hold his own and 
often thrive on scant pastures or on drouth-stricken 
regions where cattle of other breeds can not exist. 
While the hardy constitution is put forward as a 
special merit, however, one should not forget that 
Galloways prefer luxuriant feed just as much as 
the softer breeds, and will give increased returns 
from good feed and care. 

On the range where different breeds have been 
wintered it has been found that during severe 
storms the mortality among Galloways is much 
less, and the loss in weight due to disagreeable 
weather much smaller, than is usually in evidence 
among individuals of the softer breeds. 

The Galloway calves are very active and hardy 
when dropped on the open range, and are soon able 
to rustle for themselves. In summer they can 
endure the broiling sun and in winter withstand 
the severest storms. 

For crossing. — For prepotency, this breed stands 
in the first rank. It is conceded that the Gallo- 
way possesses the ability to perpetuate himself as 
uniformly in size, quality and color as any other 
breed. The stockman must have a uniform bunch 
of hornless steers in order to command top prices. 
By the use of a good Galloway bull on average 
cows the best results are invariably secured. The 
Galloway as a dehorner stands high among the 
polled breeds. In this day when practically all feed- 
ing cattle are dehorned, the naturally polled cattle 
have a decided advantage over their horned rivals, 
as the dehorning process is many times dangerous 
and occasionally fatal, and in every instance it 
causes a temporary shrinkage in weight and tardi- 
ness in growth of animals. 

For crossing with other breeds, especially with 
the Shorthorns, they are very valuable. The out- 
come of the cross of Shorthorn bulls on Galloway 
cows is usually known as "blue-grays." This system 
of crossing has been practiced for many years in 
Great Britain and to some extent in this country, 
and the results have been very satisfactory. The 
Shorthorn furnishes plenty of size, while the Gal- 
loway forms the low type and large proportion 



348 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



of natural flesh, qualities which up-to-date feeders 
and butchers are constantly demanding. When a 
pure-bred animal is crossed on any grade beef or 
dairy cow, the results are surprising and the off- 
spring is invariably hornless, black in color and 
uniform in make-up. Galloway bulls are used very 
freely in the dairy districts of Great Britain, and 
the black calves sell at much better prices than 
those from bulls of the dairy breeds. 

Organizations and records. 

The Council of the Galloway Cattle Society of 
Great Britain, Mouswald Manse, Ruthwell, R. S. 0., 
Dumfriesshire, Scotland ; the Dominion Galloway 
Register of Canada, Ottawa; and the American 
Galloway Breeders' Association, 17 Exchange 
Avenue, Chicago, Illinois, are the present repre- 
sentatives of this breed. About 1872, there was 
established the Ontario Galloway Stock Register 
of Pure Bred Galloways. The North American 
Galloway Herdbook, the official record of the 
American Association, was first published in 1883. 
Fifteen volumes had been published up to 1905. 
[See further notes on page 346.] 

Literature. 

For references, see page 302. 

Guernsey Cattle. Figs. 374, 375. 

By William H. Caldwell. 

The Guernsey is one of the leading breeds of 
dairy cattle. 

Description. 

The following scale of points, adopted by The 
American Guernsey Cattle Club, December 13, 1899, 
together with the explanatory notes by the com- 
mittee, describes what is desired in the Guernsey : 

Scale of Points fob Guernsey Cattle 

For COWS Perfect 

score 

1. Dairy temperament. Constitution (38) 

Clean-cut, lean face ; strong, sinewy jaw ; wide 
muzzle, with wide open nostrils ; full, bright 
eye, with quiet and gentle expression ; fore- 
head long and broad 5 

Long, thin neck, with strong juncture to head ; 
clean throat. Back-bone rising well between 
shoulder-blades ; large, rugged, spinal pro- 
cesses, indicating good development of the 
spinal cord 5 

Pelvis arching and wide ; rump long ; wide, 
strong structure of spine at setting-on of tail. 
Long, thin tail with good switch. Thin, incurv- 
ing thighs 5 

Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide apart, 
giving an open, relaxed conformation ; thin, 
arching flanks 5 

Abdomen large and deep, with strong muscular 
and navel development, indicative of capacity 
and vitality 15 

Hide firm, yet loose, with an oily feeling and 
texture, but not thick 3 

2. Milking marks denoting quantity of flow (10) 

Escutcheon wide on thighs ; high and broad, 
with thigh ovals 2 



Scale of Points for Guernsey Cattle, continued 

For COWS Perfect 
score 
Milk veins long, crooked, branching and promi- 
nent, with large or deep wells 8 

3. Udder formation (26) 

Udder full in front 8 

Udder full and well up behind 8 

Udder of large size and capacity 4 

Teats well apart, squarely placed, and of good 

and even size 6 

4. Indicating color of milk.— Skin deep yellow in 

ear, on end of bone of tail, at base of horns, on 
udder, teats and body generally. Hoof amber- 
colored 15 

5. Milking marks denoting quality of flow. — Ud- 

der showing plenty of substance, but not too 
meaty 6 

6. Symmetry and size (5) 

Color of hair a shade of fawn, with white mark- 
ings. Cream-colored nose. Horns amber-col- 
ored, small, curved and not coarse 3 

Size for the breed : — Mature cows, four years 
old or over, about 1,050 pounds 2 

Perfection 100 

For bulls Perfect 

score 

1. Dairy temperament. Constitution (38) 

Clean-cut, lean face ; strong, sinewy jaw ; wide 
muzzle, with wide open nostrils ; full, bright 
eye, with quiet and gentle expression ; fore- 
head long and broad 5 

Long, masculine neck, with strong juncture to 
head ; clean throat. Back-bone rising well be- 
tween shoulder-blades ; large, rugged, spinal 
processes, indicating good development of the 
spinal cord 5 

Pelvis arching and wide ; rump long ; wide, 
strong structure of spine at setting-on of tail. 
Long, thin tail with good switch. Thin, incurv- 
ing thighs 5 

Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide apart, 
giving an open, relaxed conformation ; thin, 
arching flank 5 

Abdomen large and deep, with strong muscular 
and navel development, indicative of capacity 
and vitality 15 

Hide firm, yet loose, with an oily feeling and 
texture, but not thick 3 

2. Dairy prepotency. — As shown by having a great 

deal of vigor, style, alertness, and resolute 
appearance 15 

3. Rudimentaries and milk veins. — Rudimentaries 

of good size, squarely and broadly placed in 
front of and free from scrotum. Milk veins prom- 
inent 10 

4. Indicating color of milk in offspring. — Skin deep 

yellow in ear, on end of bone of tail, at base 
of horns and body generally ; hoofs amber- 
colored 15 

5. Symmetry and size (22) 

Color of hair a shade of fawn, with white mark- 
ings. Cream-colored nose. Horns amber-col- 
ored, curving and not coarse 8 

Size for the breed : — Mature bulls, four years 
old or over, about 1,500 pounds 4 

General appearance as indicative of the power 
to beget animals of strong dairy qualities . . 10 

Perfection 100 



CATTLE 



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349 



Explanatory Notes by Committee 

"We recognize that the Guernsey should be — 

(1) A dairy animal with a distinctive dairy tempera- 
ment and conformation, having a strong, nervy structure 
with a corresponding flow of nervous energy, and every 
indication of capacity and vitality. 

(2) In color of hair, a shade of fawn, with white on 
limbs and under part of body, are considered the prevail- 
ing markings, and some degree of uniformity is desirable. 

(3) One of the important distinguishing features of 
the breed is the presence of a yellow color in the pigment 
of the skin, which is indicative of rich golden color in the 
milk. This is very pronounced in the Guernsey and held 
by her to the greatest extent under all conditions of stab- 
ling and feed. The intensity of this trait is more marked 
in some animals and families than in others, but it should 
be kept at the highest standard. It is fast being recog- 
nized that this color is accompanied by a superior flavor 
in the milk and thus in the butter. 

Dairy temperament 

"By 'dairy temperament ' is meant a strong, overruling 
pre-disposition or tendency to turn the consumption of 
food towards the production of milk with a high content 
of solids, especially butter-fat, as against the constitu- 
tional tendency, so often seen, to turn food into flesh. 
Even in the strongest dairy breeds there are more or less 
frequent out-crops in male and female of the flesh-making 
temperament. To breed from such animals, while we are 
striving to establish a prepotent dairy temperament or 
tendency, is not wise. All cattle bred specifically for 
dairy purposes should possess a clear and decided dairy 
temperament, for it is that quality of character we most 
desire to establish, enlarge and perpetuate in the Guern- 
sey cow. 

"This is especially indicated by the shape of the head, 
showing brain capacity, wide muzzle, open nostril, full, 
bright eyes, feminine neck, and a construction of the back- 
bone indicating a strong flow of nerve-power and support 
from the brain to all of the maternal organs. 

Constitution 

" In breeding our domestic animals, especially for long 
service like the dairy cow, it is very important that they 
should have abundant vital power, which we call ' consti- 
tution.' But constitution must be judged and measured 
by the peculiar function the animal is bred to fulfil. With 
the race-horse the function is speed ; with the steer, the 
laying on of flesh ; with the dairy cow, the production of 
milk solids. In all these various functions, the animal 
that is to represent any one of them must show not only 
large capacity in the line of that function, but also the 
ability to endure long and well the strain of such func- 
tion, and keep in good health. Constitution is best indi- 
cated by a full development at the navel, and strong 
abdominal walls, showing that the animal, when in a pre- 
natal state, was abundantly nourished by the mother 
through a well-developed umbilical cord. 

Prepotency 

" In the scale for bulls, for the first time, we believe, in 
the history of dairy breeds, this point is introduced. The 
reason we have included it is that 'prepotency' is the 
chief consideration in the selection of a male breeding 
animal. The pedigree and conformation is often all that 
can be desired, but because the bull is lacking in prepo- 
tent breeding power he is an expensive failure. This 
quality is, in a sense, difficult to perceive or describe, but 
we know certain animals have it in high degree and others 
fail of it completely. It is fairly well indicated by vigor 



of appearance, strong resolute bearing and abundant 
nervous energy. We would distinguish this from an ugly 
disposition. A bull is ugly by the way he is handled 
rather than by his breeding. What we want is strong 
impressive blood. A dull sluggish spirit and action, we 
consider indicative of a lack of true dairy prepotency, but 
we would prefer to breed to a rather sluggish-appearing 
bull with first-class rudimentaries than to a stylish one 
with badly placed rudimentaries. 

Rudimentary teats 

" We consider that awell-balanced and well-shaped udder 
in the cow is largely due to the way the rudimentary teats 
are placed on the sire. If they are crowded close together 
the result is likely to be narrow, pointed udders. If they 
are placed well apart, of good size and well forward of 
the scrotum, the effect, we think, will be to influence 
largely the production of well-shaped udders in the result- 
ing heifers, and counteract the tendency to ill - shaped 
udders inheritable from dams deficient in this respect. 
We believe the future excellence of the Guernsey cow 
will be greatly aided by close attention on the part of hei 
breeders to this point." 

The temperament of both the bulls and cows of 
this breed is very quiet and uniform. The bulls are 
very tractable and the cows have been developed 
and handled on the Island in a way that would 
indicate gentleness and quietude. 

History. 

The Guernsey breed of cattle originated and 
was developed on the island of Guernsey, which 
is one of the Channel islands. The foundation of 
the breed lay in the admixture of the large, red 
Normandy, and the little black Brittainy breeds, 
which were brought from the neighboring coast of 
France to the Island. It has been generally accepted 
that the large red Normandy males predominated 
in crossing on the little black Brittainy cows on 
Guernsey, and that the Guernsey takes many of its 
characteristics from the Normandy breed. The 
fact that for nearly one hundred years no live 
cattle have been permitted to come on the Island, 
is enough to say that the breed has remained pure, 
and been bred by itself without admixture of for- 
eign blood. The Royal Guernsey Agricultural and 
Horticultural Society is largely responsible for the 
improvement of the breed. 

Little more can be said of the history of the 
breed on the Island. The shrewd, careful, sturdy 
islander, while zealously guarding the purity of 
the breed, paid little attention to the breeding and 
development of his cattle. In fact, on the Island, 
the glasshouse and bmb industry supplanted that 
of the cows in the islander's mind. The cattle were 
never bred to the dictate of fashion, but developed 
by themselves into a hardy, sturdy breed, commonly 
spoken of as "the old-time yellow and white cow — 
the farmer's cow." 

In America. — In 1818, a pair of cattle were 
secured from the island of Alderney, by Reuben 
Haines, of Germantown, Pennsylvania. These may 
have been Guernseys. The first definite record 
of importation of Guernseys into this country 
was about 1833, when a sea captain, stopping 
at the island, brought to this country a pair of 



■350 



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CATTLE 



young animals that were sent to his brother on 
what is known as Cow island, in Lake Winnepe- 
saukee, New Hampshire. Traces of this importation 
are still to be found in some Guernseys in that state. 
Guernseys were introduced into private dairies 
around Philadelphia as early as 1840, and are still 
to be found in the dairies of some of those families 
who first introduced them there. About 
1865, a few Guernseys were brought over 
by the Fowlers, who were importing Jer- 
seys, and in some herds animals can be 
traced to the importations of that period. 
In June, 1871, Mr. James M. Codman, now 
President of the American Guernsey Cattle 
Club, selected eight cows and a bull on the island 
of Guernsey, and imported them. These few cows 
made a high reputation for themselves, and a 
number of owners of gentlemen's estates near 
Boston were attracted by their merits. This led 
the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agricul- 
ture to send, in 1874, one of their members to 
import a herd, which was maintained by the Society 
for a short time, and then sold at auction to its 
members. This was followed by a number of Con- 
necticut farmers joining together, and sending a 
representative to the Island to bring over a ship- 
ment. These importations laid the foundation of 
the Guernsey in this country, and led to the estab- 
lishment of the herd register. 

The first real public introduction of the breed 
was in connection with the dairy test conducted 
by the New York and New Jersey Agricultural 
Experiment Stations, when the various breeds 
were tried, and the Guernsey made a most credit- 
able record, the figures showing them to be the 
most economical producers of cream and butter, 
ranking the lowest in cost of food to produce a 
pound of butter-fat, and in the cost of food for 
maintenance for a year. The Guernseys and the 




which failed to credit the breed fully on some 
of its special characteristics, yet the Guernseys 
ranked ahead on flavor and had the advantage on 
color of butter, and, as in the Experiment Station 
trials, stood with the Jerseys in the front rank as 
butter-producers. The last public appearance of 
the breed was at the Pan-American Exposition at 












Fig. 375. 



Guernsey cow. Sultana of Paxtang 8732. 
Advanced Registry No. 28. 



sister Channel island breed (the Jersey), stood first 
in the annual production of butter, and the profit 
resulting from sale of cream. Their next appear- 
ance was at the World's Columbian Exposition at 
Chicago, in 1893, where amidst rules and conditions 



Fig. 374. Guernsey buU. Benjamin 1931. Advanced 
Registry No. 2. 

Buffalo, where after a careful six months' test, the 
Guernseys were awarded the first prize for the 
greatest net profit in the production of butter-fat, 
and also in the production of churned butter. The 
Guernsey cows in this trial made butter at the 
lowest cost per pound, and returned the greatest 
profit in butter-production for the investment of 
feed. They also ranked in the production of total 
solids next to the heavier milking breeds. Group- 
ing the cows in this test as a whole, the Guernsey 
cow, Mary Marshall, made the greatest net profit 
of any cow in production of butter, and viewed 
from the same standpoint, we find three of the five 
Guernseys among the best five cows in the en- 
tire fifty. 

Distribution. 

The even temperament of Guernsey cattle 
has been very conducive to the adaptability of 
the breed to the various climates and conditions 
of the world at large. They are found mainly on 
Guernsey island, in England, Canada and the 
United States. The only hindrance to their wide- 
spread introduction has been the fact that for the 
last few years there have not been enough animals 
to supply the demand. At the present time they 
are largely on private estates and where high- 
class dairy products are demanded. There are few 
persons, if any, at the present time breeding 
Guernseys from the speculative standpoint. They 
will be found largely in New England, through 
New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and in 
Ohio, through Wisconsin and eastern Minnesota, al- 
though there are a number scattered throughout 
California, Virginia and the Carolinas. 

Uses. 

For milk, cream and hitter. — The chief charac- 
teristic of the Guernsey is her economical production 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



351 



of the highest natural colored milk, cream and but- 
ter. In this she has excelled and proved herself in 
all impartial trials. In England, and to a growing 
extent in this country, there is an impression that 
with this natural high color of her products there 
is a special and very desirable flavor. While the 
Guernsey is preeminently a cream and butter breed, 
it has been found within the last few years that 
the color and flavor of her milk, combined with a 
good amount which she is able to produce, has 
placed her a favorite in catering to the choicest 
trade in the sale of milk and cream. Today, in 
nearly all our largest towns and cities, this trade 
will be found supplied with the products of full- 
blood and grade Guernseys. 

This characteristic has appealed to two classes of 
dairymen — the progressive ones who are producing 
strictly high-class dairy products for a critical 
trade, from which the highest returns are secured, 
and those who desire the best flavored and colored 
milk, cream and butter for use on their private 
estate. To the former, the fact that in impartial 
trials the Guernsey has shown greater returns for 
a dollar invested in food when cream or butter, and 
even high-grade milk, is produced, is sufficient to 
win for her a good trial. Wherever her golden- 
colored products are shown they are sure to win 
recognition. Numerous instances can be cited in 
which the products of herds of Guernseys are sup- 
plying such markets. A good grade Guernsey cow 
is eagerly sought in the higher-class dairies. 

The American Guernsey Cattle Club was the first 
to establish an advanced register on a yearly basis. 
During the few years that this has been established, 
the records of 579 cows and young heifers have 
been followed. The average of these is a good 
index of the capability of the breed. These records 
show an average year's yield of 8,000 pounds of 
milk, 408 pounds of butter-fat, and 5.08 per cent 
of butter-fat. During this time the highest records 
made have been 17,297 pounds of milk, and 857 
pounds of butter-fat. The latter is equivalent to 
1,000 pounds of butter. There can.be no better 
indication of what a breed is capable of doing, 
than what it will do year in and year out. A cow 
that will average five years in succession 12,000 
pounds of 5 per cent milk, and this determined by 
public supervision, is most creditable. This has 
been done by a Guernsey. 

For cheese. — The composition of Guernsey milk 
adapts it for the preparation of high-grade cheese, 
but because of the demand for the milk, cream and 
butter, it is not used largely for cheese-making. 

For beef. — While a distinctively dairy breed, 
the size of the Guernsey allows her easily to be con- 
verted as a young animal, or when past her useful- 
ness as a milker, into beef. There are few prettier 
sights than those seen in the meat division of the 
great market of St. Petersport on the island of 
Guernsey, and this testifies what can be done with 
the breed in this respect. 

For crossing. — The prepotency of the Guernsey 
bull, or his ability to stamp the desirable character- 
istics of tne breed on his offspring, makes him most 
valuable for improving the common dairy stock of 



any section. If he is employed intelligently, he 
will get grade cows yielding rich milk, and pos- 
sessing good constitution and productivity. 

Organizations and records. 

The Royal Guernsey Agricultural and Horticul- 
tural Society directs the interests of the breed on 
Guernsey island. It maintains a herdbook for general 
registration. In 1885, the English Guernsey Cattle 
Society was organized. It issues a herdbook. The 
American Guernsey Cattle Club was organized in 
1877. It has published sixteen volumes of the herd 
register, and there were recorded in October, 
1907, 12,496 males and 23,330 females. Nearly 
three-fourths of the animals have been placed in 
the herd register since the World's Columbian 
Exposition in 1893. Since 1895, the register has 
been issued in quarterly parts, and is known as the 
American Guernsey Herd Register and Breeders' 
Journal. A department of the herd register is 
maintained as an advanced register. It now con- 
tains the names of over 600 animals. At the present 
time there are about 240 active members of the 
American Guernsey Cattle Club, and some 1,100 
breeders of Guernseys. The headquarters of the 
club are at Peterboro, New Hampshire. 

Literature. 

Hazard, The Jersey, Alderney and Guernsey Cow, 
Philadelphia (1872) ; herd register of the American 
Guernsey Cattle Club. [For further references, see 
page 302.] 

Hereford Cattle. Figs. 132, 376, 377. 

By Charles Gudgell. 

The Hereford is a breed of cattle raised for the 
production of beef. 

Description. 

The most distinctive feature of the Hereford to 
the ordinary observer is his color markings, or the 
distribution over the body of the red and white 
colors. The head, including jaws and throat, is 
white, with white under the neck, down the breast, 
under the belly and more or less on legs. The bush 
of the tail is also white, and there is a white strip 
on the top of the neck from about the middle thereof 
to the top of the shoulders. The body, sides of 
the neck, and usually some parts of the legs, are 
red. The red in different animals varies from very 
light or yellow-red, as it is termed, to very dark 
red. An animal is classed in point of color as a 
light red, a medium red, or a dark red. The forego- 
ing is the popular distribution of the colors of the 
Hereford, yet there is sometimes a considerable 
variation therefrom in different animals. While as 
a breed of cattle they are very uniform in confor- 
mation and color markings, yet they do not have 
by any means the same degree of uniformity as the 
self-colored undomesticated animals. 

The head of the Hereford is short, with broad 
forehead ; the eyes are full and not sunken ; the 
horns are usually rather strong and of a whitish yel- 
low color, free from black tips, in the best types, 



352 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



and come forward with a more or less drooping 
tendency ; the neck is short and thick, merging 
smoothly into the shoulders, free from surplus skin 
in the under parts ; the hide is heavy, loose and 
very pliable, and covered with a dense, soft coat of 
hair. The body of a well-fattened Hereford should 
be free from any paunchiness. The breast should 
!>.■ broad and full, but free from loose dewlap, the 
shoulders smoothly laid and broad on top, but not 
too open between the blades. The crops should be 
wide, the ribs well sprung and extending well back- 
ward, the loin broad and of good length, the hook- 
bones by no means prominent, but down within the 
lines of the ribs, the tail-head on a line with the 
level of the back, and the rump-bones wide apart 
and well up, so as not to present a drooping appear- 
ance. The legs should be short, straight, strong in 
bone and set well apart. The line of the back 
should be practically straight and level from top 
of shoulders to the tail-head. The quarters should 
be full and well rounded, and the outlines of the 
animal, when viewed from the side, should present 
a somewhat box-like appearance, and from the end 
more that of a barrel. 

The Hereford has great length and thickness of 
loin, and all the bones of his frame are so well cov- 
ered that they can scarcely be felt through the 
thick covering of flesh. Along his back from shoul- 
der to rump his spine is so deeply buried in flesh 
that the vertebra? are not perceptible to the touch 
except at the small indentations, commonly called 
ties, near the middle of the back. These ties, usu- 
ally one to three in number, are the attachments of 
the skin to a few of the forward lumbar vertebra?, 
and are common to all cattle. The indentations are 
caused by the up-lifting of the skin surrounding 
the tie by a great deposit of flesh along the spinal 
column. When of a pronounced character, these 
ties are not looked on with much favor by the 
breeders of fancy Herefords, as they detract some- 
what from the smooth, rounded appearance of the 
body, although they are a very reliable indication 
of the great depth of flesh that covers the frame of 
the animal. Breeders sometimes loosen these ties 
in animals they are fitting for exhibition by a 
slight surgical operation, that is not of very diffi- 
cult execution, whereby the depression in the skin 
disappears and leaves the back perfectly smooth 
and even. 

The coat of hair of the Hereford is regarded by 
the breeders as a feature of much importance. The 
preference is that it should be long, soft and curly, 
as indicative of a certain degree of quality in the 
animal. Such coats are regarded as furnishing 
some protection against cold in winter and, in 
some animals, a protection against flies in summer. 
At the great fairs and other shows, much care is 
taken by the Hereford exhibitors to have the coats 
of their animals properly cleaned and manipulated, 
so as to present a curly appearance and set off the 
form of the animal to the best advantage. 

The most valuable characteristic of the Hereford 
is his disposition to accumulate flesh at all ages. 
The Hereford is almost universally credited with 
being a superior rustler under range conditions. 



His ability to withstand rigorous conditions is due 
mostly to his capacity and diligence in laying up 
stores of flesh during the season of plenty on which 
he may draw in a season of want. The superior 
fleshing disposition of the Hereford has been demon- 
strated many times in the feed-lots of the corn- 
belt, where large numbers of the grades of all 
breeds are collected and fed for market under like 
conditions, and the Herefords are the first to be 
shipped to the market. 

The American Hereford Cattle Breeders' Associa- 
tion has never adopted a scale of points for judging 
purposes. 

History. 

The Hereford breed of cattle originated in the 
southwestern part of England, in a district the 
center of which is the county of Hereford. It 
doubtless had its foundation in the native cattle of 
that district in the same way that the other Eng- 
lish breeds of domestic cattle had their origin. 
The name Hereford was at first used to designate 
the cattle generally of that district. These cattle 
were historically mentioned at a very early date 
(1627), as possessed of remarkably easy-keeping 
and fattening qualities. Later the term Hereford 
came to be used to designate the improved and 
pedigreed cattle that had been developed into a 
race with well-established breed characteristics 
that were reliably transmitted. Many of the early 
breeders had different objects or ideals in breed- 
ing, with the result that the Hereford cattle of 
that day had a great diversity of color as well as 
of physical features. 

The colors that predominated among Hereford 
cattle at the time of the preparation of the first 
volume of the herdbook of Hereford cattle (about 
1845) were varying shades of red on the body with 
white face, and the same with mottled or spotted 
face, and also varying degrees of roan or gray, as 
it was called, on the sides of the animal, with all 
the other parts white. In the establishment of the 
improved and pedigreed Herefords, different breed- 
ers manifested a preference for animals of one or 
the other of these markings, and each zealously 
maintained the same during his breeding opera- 
tions. The result of this was that, about 1845, there 
were several different strains of Hereford cattle 
that were distinguished mainly by their color 
markings, and were designated by the name of 
some prominent breeder, who had originated or 
was closely connected with the development of this 
particular strain. Subsequent breeders very wisely 
interbred these different strains or families, with 
the result that in a few years the breed became of 
a uniform color and markings, as of the present 
day. 

The Hereford is among the oldest, if not the old- 
est established of the English breeds of domestic 
cattle. Some of its early improvers were con- 
temporary, and some antecedent to the operations 
of Bakewell, who began his great work as a scien- 
tific breeder about 1755. As an evidence of the 
importance and advancement of the Hereford in 
production of beef at an early date, it may be cited 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



353 



that the prize for the champion steer over all 
breeds at the first show of the Smithfield Club held 
at London in 1799 was won by a Hereford steer, 
and the same for several subsequent years. At a 
dispersion sale by auction of the breeding herd of 
one of the early improvers of the Hereford, held in 




Fig. 376. Hereford bull. Dandy Rex 



1819, the average of the sale was about $750 per 
head. 

In America. — Importations of a few head of 
Herefords were made to America in 1817, 1824, 
and 1840. The first two of these importations were 
unfortunate in that in one case the bull died, and 
in the other the cow died. The difficulties and risks 
attending the making of importations of cattle at 
that time w T ere so great that no attempt was made 
to keep up the race, and the result was that they 
became merged into other stocks and disappeared. 
The importation of 1840 was somewhat larger and 
more successful in that the cattle were maintained 
in their purity and pedigree records were kept. 
The descendants of this importation have continued 
to the present day and are registered in the Ameri- 
can Hereford Record. 

It was not until the Centennial Exposition at 
Philadelphia, in 1876 that the cattle-growers of 
the western part of the United States were at- 
tracted to the visible merits of this breed of 
cattle. A very attractive herd of the descendants 
of later importations was on exhibition on this 
occasion. To nearly all of the cattle-men of the 
West the Hereford was an unheard-of breed, and 
their uniformity, color and markings, together 
with their beef -carrying qualities, were revela- 
tions to them. As the cattle-growing interests 
were at that time assuming enormous proportions 
in the country west of the Missouri river, these 
visiting cattle-men were the more easily prevailed 
on to give the Herefords a trial under their system 
of production. 

In the few succeeding years all the bulls obtain- 
able of this breed were bought and shipped to 
different parts of the range country from Wyom- 
ing to Texas. It was then developed that the 
Hereford bull, when bred to range - bred cows, 
transmitted to his progeny his breed characteris- 
tics to a great degree, and ranchmen proceeded at 
once to make arrangements to introduce Hereford 
bulls into their herds. The popularity of the 

C 23 



breed steadily grew and spread throughout the 
cattle-growing sections, and it soon became evident 
that they were impressing their characters on the 
improved range stock. This wave of popularity 
has not been confined to the cattle-growers of the 
United States, but has overflowed the borders into 
Mexico and Canada and now bids fair to 
leave a similar impress on the beef-produ- 
cing herds of those countries. 

For some years the appreciation of the 
Herefords was based mainly on their ability 
to withstand hardships and produce beef on 
grass and under the rigorous conditions of 
the range. Later, when the conditions on 
the ranges had changed somewhat, the 
range-raised grade Hereford steers found 
their way into the feed-lots of the corn- 
growing states, where they gave an even 
better account of themselves in the matter 
of quick-feeding, economy of production, and 
quality of product when finished, than they 
did on the ranges, At first only steers two 
years old and over were admitted to the feed- 
lots, but later high-grade steer calves of this breed 
were taken directly from the range into the feed- 
lots. This opened up a new field in the production 
of high-class beef. The experiments in full-feeding 
high-grade calves were so satisfactory that a great 
demand for this class of feeding cattle has resulted. 
The calves are taken from their mothers on the 
range at weaning age in the fall and are shipped 
directly to the feed-lots, where they are full-fed 
and grazed for about twelve months. Then, as 
yearlings, they go to market weighing 1,000 to 
1,200 pounds, where they are known as "baby 
beef," a product that is not produced so success- 
fully and profitably from the grades of any other 
breed of cattle than the Hereford. 




Fig. 377. Hereford cow. Lady Matchless 2d. 

At the time that Hereford bulls were introduced 
on the ranches, herds of pure-bred Herefords in 
America were few in number and small in size, so 
that they were unable more than partially to sup- 
ply this demand, with the result that Hereford 
bulls were high in price. This awakened a lively 
interest in the breed, such as had not been experi- 
enced, and a number of new herds were established. 
To supply the demand for bulls, importations of 
breeding herds were made from England in such 
numbers and in such rapid succession in the years 



354 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



1880 to 1886, thai it looked as though the regis- 
tered stock in the place of their origin, which 
were never very large, would become exhausted. 
During this period several thousand head were 
imported and many new herds were established, 
mainly in the cattle -feeding states. Herefords 
were exhibited at all the leading fairs. A fat-stock 
show was inaugurated at Chicago in 1879, and a 
few years later another at Kansas City, Mo. Steers 
were secured from the supply available and exhib- 
ited with remarkable success. While the Herefords 
were able to secure a goodly share of the prizes in 
the older classes and in the champion rings at these 
fat-stock shows, yet it was soon observed that they 
were nearly always successful in the younger 
classes. 

Owing to the shortness of the legs, and general 
roundness of body of the Herefords, they are fre- 
quently misjudged as to their weight, and are gener- 
ally thought to be smaller in size than some of the 
other beef breeds of cattle. A comparison of the 
official weights of the prize-winners in the classes 
for Herefords and Shorthorns at the now American 
Royal Live-Stock Show at Kansas City, Missouri, 
showed practically no difference in the average 
weights of the prize-winners in the classes for bulls 
and cows two years old and over. But in the 
classes for calves and yearlings, the average 
weights were always decidedly in favor of the 
Herefords. 

Although in the importations of breeding Here- 
fords that were made in the year 1880 to 1886, all 
the animals imported were not high-class speci- 
mens, there were among them many of the very 
best cattle both individually and in breeding to be 
had in England. From individuals of these impor- 
tations have been developed families or strains 
that have become very popular. On the foun- 
dation of these importations the American breeder 
has made a very great improvement in the confor- 
mation of the Hereford. 

Distribution. 

The Hereford has been introduced and used 
extensively in most parts of the world where 
attempts have been made to improve the cattle 
grown mainly for beef purposes. They were in use 
in considerable numbers in Australia and New Zea- 
land some years before they were brought to 
America to any extent. Large herds of registered 
Herefords are now established in these countries, 
and a herdbook society has been organized that 
publishes a registry for the breed in that section. 
Some years ago an importation of Herefords was 
made from Australia to California for the founda- 
tion of a herd in that state. The Herefords have 
been taken to several of the South American 
countries, mainly to Argentina and Uruguay. 

In recent years some Herefords have been taken 
to Cuba and Porto Rico, to some of the Central 
American states and to the Sandwich islands, 
where they are reported as doing extremely well. 
The breed is preeminently adapted to the range, 
with its vicissitudes of cold and scant vegetation. 
For this reason, in the United States they are 



found mainly west of the Mississippi, although herds 
are maintained in New England. It has already been 
said that the breed has made its way into Canada 
and Mexico. 

Feeding. 

The strong point with the Hereford in the pro- 
duction of beef is his ability to grow and develop 
on grass alone. He was developed in a great graz- 
ing district, and his first reputation was based on 
his capacity for converting grass into beef. While 
he surpasses other breeds as a grazier, he is equally 
prominent in the feed-lot. All cattle feeds are 
acceptable to him, and he responds as promptly as 
any to a ration of grain. In the production of 
high-class Herefords for breeding purposes, it is 
essential that they should have the best of feed 
and care, for such cattle cannot be produced 
otherwise. 

Uses. 

For milk. — This breed makes no claim to milk- 
production, and no efforts have been made in 
America to develop this faculty. 

For beef. — Hereford cattle are primarily beef 
animals, and in this capacity they stand in the first 
rank. They are especially valuable for the produc- 
tion of " baby beef." In the matter of early matur- 
ity, they are unexcelled. 

Organizations and records. 

The first organization of the breeders of Here- 
ford cattle in America was the Breeders' Live-Stock 
Association, organized in 1878, at Beecher, 111. It 
undertook the publication of a monthly periodical 
called the Breeders' Journal, which was devoted 
mainly to presenting the merits of Hereford cattle. 
At the same time it inaugurated a herdbook — the 
American Hereford Record, Volume I of which 
appeared in 1880, and Volume II in 1882. In 1883, 
it disbanded, having sold its interest in this Record 
to the American Hereford Cattle Breeders' Associa- 
tion, which was organized at Chicago, 111., in June 
1881, and was incorporated under the laws of Illi- 
nois in 1883. At the second meeting of this Asso- 
ciation, in November, 1881, the total enrollment of 
breeders as members numbered thirty-four. In 
1883, it purchased the copyright and unsold copies 
of Volumes I and II of the American Hereford 
Record. It continued the publication of the herd- 
books, and thirty volumes have been published to 
date. There are now over 3,200 members in the 
Association. 

The entry numbers in the American Hereford 
Record at the time of its purchase by its present 
owners were a little over 6,000. These numbers 
were assigned to both male and female entries, and 
were very largely of ancestors of cattle owned in 
America. At the present time the number of 
entries is nearly 275,000. The rules do not require 
an entry to be made until the animal is nearly two 
years old, although the application for entrance 
must be filed with the office before the animal is 
six months old. The number of entries annually 
made at the present time is almost 30,000, which 



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355 



fairly represents the annual increase that reach a 
breeding age. The office of the American Hereford 
Cattle Breeders' Association is in Kansas City, Mo. 
The Hereford Herdbook of England appeared in 
18-16, of which thirty -eight volumes have been 
issued. The Hereford Herdbook Society of Eng- 
land was organized in 1878, since which time it 
has been responsible for the publication of the 
herdbook. A herdbook society has been organized 
and a registry published for the Hereford breeders 
of Australia and New Zealand. Herdbooks have 
also been established for the breed in Argentina 
and Uruguay. 

Double-Standard Polled Herefords 

Since the introduction into the United States of 
the polled breeds of cattle from Scotland, the horn- 
less feature in cattle has found favor with some 
of the breeders and admirers of the Hereford. The 
fact that Hereford feeding steers that have been 
artificially made polled or dehorned are so much 
preferred in the feed-lots to those that are horned 
has led a few breeders to undertake to establish a 
strain of registered Herefords that are naturally 
polled or hornless. This has been accomplished in 
the case of the Shorthorn breed of cattle, and is in 
a fair way to be realized in the Hereford. How- 
ever desirable the hornless feature may or may 
not be (there is a great difference of opinion among 
breeders on this subject), the elimination of the 
horns from the Hereford by a natural process has 
been no easy undertaking. Of the more than 240,- 
000 registered Herefords that have been bred in 
this country in the past quarter of a century, 
a very few, possibly less than twenty head from 
horned sire and dam, have been naturally polled. 

The great rarity of sports of this kind among the 
Herefords has made the establishment of a strain 
of registered polled Herefords a slow and difficult 
undertaking. However, several breeders are now 
devoting themselves to this work with considerable 
enthusiasm and some degree of success. At the 
present time there are about one hundred head 
of all ages of naturally polled Herefords that 
are registered in the American Hereford Record. 
These polled Herefords are denominated by their 
breeders Double-Standard Polled Herefords, to dis- 
tinguish them from a class of polled cattle that 
are registered in the herdbook for polled Herefords 
exclusively, but are not eligible to record in the 
American Hereford Record. 

The difficulties that the breeders of polled Here- 
fords have encountered are two-fold. In the first 
place, the scarcity of materials to work on has 
necessitated very close breeding, in order to pre- 
serve the hornless feature. In the second place, 
those hornless sports were unfortunately not high- 
class either individually or in breeding, so that in 
strengthening the desired hornless feature by close 
breeding, the breeders at the same time were fix- 
ing in their cattle some undesirable features in 
other respects. By careful breeding and feeding, 
these difficulties will be overcome in time, but it 
will take a much longer time under Che conditions 



that prevail to establish a strain of Herefords that 
will be popular because of their meritorious quali- 
ties other than the polled condition. 

Two associations of the breeders of polled Here- 
fords have been organized, one of which is called 
the American Polled Hereford Cattle Club, with the 
office of its secretary at Des Moines, Iowa. The 
other organization is called the National Polled 
Hereford Breeders' Association, and has its office 
in Chicago, Illinois. Both of these small organi- 
zations have begun the preparation of herdbooks 
for polled Herefords. Neither of them has as yet 
progressed to the point of publication of the first 
volume, and it is likely that it will be several years 
before that stage of development has been reached. 
Both of these herdbooks accept for registration 
the double standard variety of polled Herefords, 
and also other naturally polled Herefords that are 
not eligible to registry in the American Hereford 
Record. 

Literature. 

In England there is a History of Hereford Cat- 
tle, by Macdonald and Sinclair (1886), that is very 
valuable, as treating of this breed in its native 
home. A history of Hereford Cattle is in prepara- 
tion by Alvin H. Sanders, of Chicago. [For further 
references, see page 802.] 

Holstein-Friesian Cattle. Figs. 131, 378, 379. 

By Solomon Hoxie. 

The Holstein-Friesian breed of cattle is the 
American representative of the great lowland 
race of cattle found on the rich alluvial land in 
Europe, bordering the eastern shores of the North 
sea. It is a dairy breed, possessing valuable beef- 
ing qualities. 

Description. 

In color, the Holstein-Friesian is invariably 
black and white piebald. It is specially character- 
ized by great constitutional vigor, flexibility, thrift 
and enormous production of milk of comparatively 
low percentage of butter-fat. 

The ideal type of this breed, which has become 
constant in North Holland and Friesland, is desig- 
nated as "milk and beef form." This form involves 
great breadth and length of rump ; superior width 
of hips, with loin slightly rounded; well -sprung 
ribs ; rounded body, with the abdomen well held 
up ; a straight chine ; shoulders slightly lower 
than hips and rounded at tops, from whence the 
neck starts out level, or nearly so, and is carried 
symmetrically to a finely formed throat and rather 
long head, bearing a broad muzzle. It also involves 
comparative fineness of limbs, and quarters broad 
at sides and rear without puffiness ; a capacious 
udder of considerable depth, carried well forward 
in front and well up in rear, and a large develop- 
ment of mammary veins. An animal of this form 
will appear wedge-shaped, viewed both from front 
and side. 

This ideal type, however, varies with respect to 
locality and breeding purpose. It " is identified," 



356 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



says Professor Hengerveld, " with their use, lodg- 
ing, feeding and management." The tendency of 
breeding, in the United States, is now strongly in 
the direction of milk form. A chief merit of the 
breed is its adaptability to widely different envi- 
ronments and purposes. The type may be changed 
to meet the exigencies of the special situation with 
little sacrifice of constitutional vigor, thrift and 
productiveness. 

The heifers mature rapidly, and, if well fed, are 
ready to breed at twelve to fifteen months of age. 
As a rule, they deliver their calves without diffi- 
culty and may be relied on to enter the dairy herd, 
productively, when two years old. 

The following scale of points, revised and 
adopted by the Holstein - Friesian Association of 
America, June T, 1904, shows the importance 
attached to the development of the parts of the 
animal. 

Scale op Points for Holstein - Friesian Cattle 

For COWS Perfect 

score 

1. Head. — Decidedly feminine in appearance ; fine 

in contour 2 

2. Forehead. — Broad between the eyes ; dishing . . 2 

3. Face. — Of medium length ; clean and trim, espec- 

ially under the eyes, showing facial veins ; the 
bridge of the nose straight 2 

4. Muzzle. — Broad, with strong lips 1 

5. Ears. — Of medium size ; of fine texture ; the hair 

plentiful and soft ; the secretions oily and 
abundant 1 

6. Eyes.— Large, full, mild, bright 2 

7. Horns. — Small, tapering finely towards the tips ; 

set moderately narrow at base ; oval ; inclin- 
ing forward, well bent inward; of fine texture ; 
in appearance waxy 1 

8. Neck. — Long ; fine and clean at juncture with 

the head ; free from dewlap ; evenly and 
smoothly joined to shoulders 4 

9. Shoulders. — Slightly lower than hips ; fine and 

even over tops ; moderately broad and full at 
sides 3 

10. Chest. — Of moderate depth and lowness ; smooth 

and moderately full in the brisket, full in the 
foreflanks (or through at the heart) 6 

11. Crops.— Moderately full 2 

12. Chine. — Straight ; strong ; broadly developed, 

with open vertebra? 6 

13. Barrel. — Long ; of wedge shape ; well rounded, 

with a large abdomen, trimly held up ; (in judg- 
ing the last item age must be considered) . . 7 

14. Loin and hips. — Broad ; level or nearly level 

between the hook-bones ; level and strong lat- 
erally ; spreading from chine broadly and 
nearly level ; hook-bones fairly prominent . . 6 

15. Rump. — Long, high, broad with roomy pelvis, 

nearly level laterally; comparatively full above 
the thurl ; carried out straight to dropping of 
tail 6 

16. Thurl.— High, broad 3 

17. Quarters. — Deep, straight behind ; twist filled 

with development of udder ; wide and moder- 
ately full at the sides 4 

18. Flanks. — Deep, comparatively full 2 

19. Legs. — Comparatively short, clean and nearly 

straight ; wide apart ; firmly and squarely set 
under the body ; feet of medium size, round, 
solid and deep 4 



Scale of Points for Holstein-Friesian Cattle, 
continued. 

For cows Perfect 

score 

20. Tail. — Large at base, the setting well back ; 

tapering finely to switch ; the end of the bone 
reaching to hocks or below ; the switch full . 2 

21. Hair and handling. — Hair healthful in appear- 

ance, fine, soft and furry ; the skin of medium 
thickness and loose ; mellow under the hand ; 
the secretions oily, abundant and of a rich 
brown or yellow color 8 

22. Mammary veins. — Very large ; very crooked 

(age must be taken into consideration iu judg- 
ing of size and crookedness) ; entering very 
large or numerous orifices ; double extension, 
with special developments such as branches, 
connections, etc 10 

23. Udder. — Very capacious ; very flexible ; quarters 

even ; nearly filling the space in the rear below 
the twist, extending well forward in front ; 
broad and well held up 12 

24. Teats. — Well formed, wide apart, plumb and of 

convenient size 2 

25. Escutcheon. — Largest, finest 2 

Perfection 100 

For bulls ™£l 

1. Head. — Showing full vigor ; elegant in contour . 2 

2. Forehead. — Broad between the eyes ; dishing . . 2 

3. Face. — Of medium length ; clean and trim, espe- 

cially under the eyes ; the bridge of the nose 
straight 2 

4. Muzzle. — Broad, with strong lips 1 

5. Ears. — Of medium size ; of fine texture ; the hair 

plentiful and soft ; the secretions oily and 
abundant 1 

6. Eyes.— Large, full, mild, bright 2 

7. Horns. — Short, of medium size at base, gradually 

diminishing towards tips ; oval ; inclining for- 
ward, moderately curved inward ; of fine tex- 
ture ; in appearance waxy 1 

8. Neck. — Long; finely crested (if the animal is 

mature), fine and clean at juncture with the 
head ; nearly free from dewlap ; strongly and 
smoothly joined to shoulders 5 

9. Shoulders. — Of medium height, of medium thick- 

ness, and smoothly rounded at tops ; broad 
and full at sides ; smooth over front .... 4 

10. Chest. — Deep and low ; well filled and smooth in 

the brisket ; broad between the fore-arms, full 
in the foreflanks (or through at the heart) . . 7 

11. Crops. — Comparatively full, nearly level with the 

shoulders 4 

12. Chine. — Strong, straight, broadly developed, with 

open vertebrae 6 

13. Barrel. — Long, well rounded, with large abdo- 

men ; strongly and trimly held up 7 

14. Loin and hips. — Broad ; level or nearly level 

between hook-bones ; level and strong later- 
ally; spreading from the chine broadly and 
nearly level ; the hook-bones fairly prominent . 7 

15. Rump. — Long, broad, high, nearly level later- 

ally ; comparatively full above the thurl ; car- 
ried out straight to dropping of tail 7 

16. Thurl.— High, broad 4 

17. Quarters. — Deep, broad, straight behind, wide 

and full at sides ; open in the twist 5 

18. Flanks.— Deep, full 2 

19. Legs. — Comparatively short, clean and nearly 

straight ; wide apart ; firmly and squarely set 



CATTLE 



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357 



Scale of Points for Holstein-Friesian Cattle, 
continued. 

For bulls Perfect 
score 
under the body; arms wide, strong and taper- 
ing ; feet of medium size, round, solid and 
deep 5 

20. Tail. — Large at base, the setting well back ; 

tapering finely to switch ; the end of bone 
reaching to hocks or below ; the switch full . . 2 

21. Hair and handling. — Hair healthful in appear- 

ance ; fine, soft and furry ; skin of medium 
thickness and loose ; mellow under the hand ; 
the secretions oily, abundant and of a rich 
brown or yellow color 10 

22. Mammary veins. — Large, full, entering large 

orifices ; double extension, with special devel- 
opment, such as forks, branches, connections, 
etc 10 

23. Rudimentary teats. — Large, well placed ... 2 

24. Escutcheon. — Largest, finest 2 

Perfection 100 

This Holstein-Friesian type differs markedly from 
Miat of other pure-bred cattle known in the United 
States. From the Jersey .it is distinguished by 
much greater size, much leveler top lines, fuller 
muscles, a more uniform color, and much greater 
production of milk of lighter color, and less per- 
centage of fat ; from the Guernsey, by differences 
of structure, as indicated for the Jersey, but to a 
less extent, of color and milk-production, but by less 
difference in size ; from the Ayrshire, by differences 
of color and size, but by less difference in quality 
and quantity of milk, and by a greater difference 
in style and length of horns ; from the Brown 
Swiss, by difference in color, weight of limbs, and 
by a nearer approach to the ideal milk form ; 
from the Dutch Belted, by scattered markings and 
smaller horns. Compared with beef breeds, the 
Holstein-Friesian type shows less depth of chest, 
height and weight of shoulders, and less depth of 
brisket. In general outlines also, there is a marked 
difference, the beef type forming a parallelogram 
from the side view rather than a wedge form, as in 
the dairy type. 

History. 

The Holstein-Friesian cattle originated with the 
ancient Friesland people, a tribe which, at the time 
of our earliest historical knowledge of it, occupied 
the shores of the North sea, between the river Ems 
and the Rhine. The Friesians were the oldest 
inhabitants of Holland, and were known as herds- 
men, hunters and fishermen. Their history dates 
as far back as three hundred years before Christ. 
The Batavians came two hundred years later. They 
were likewise herdsmen, but occupied themselves 
more particularly with hunting and fishing. Taci- 
tus says of the Friesians and Batavians : " They 
owned cattle, not excelling in beauty, but in num- 
ber." The present farmers of North Holland and 
Friesland, are lineal descendants of these ancient 
people, and the multitude of black and white cattle 
which they own are lineal descendants of the cattle 
owned by their ancestors. In North Holland at the 



present time there are some 80,000 head of pure- 
bred cattle of this breed, and in Friesland at least 
125,000. They are found in other provinces of 
Netherlands to a limited extent. 

The lowland race of which this breed is the lead- 
ing representative has been the prolific mother of 
other breeds in Europe. From it have sprung the 
East Friesian and Oldenberg breeds of Germany, 
the Jutland breed of Denmark, the Kolmogorian 
breed of Russia, and the Flamande or Flemish 
breed of Belgium and northern France. These 
approach each other in color, but differ in other 
important characteristics. They have been pro- 
duced largely by the effect of different environ- 
ments, and are maintained in their purity, in the 
different localities, by well-established herdbooks. 
According to the naturalist, Low, also, before the 
development of English dairy breeds Friesian cat- 
tle were imported into that country, and established 
especially in the district of Holderness on the north 
side of the Humber, whence they extended north- 
ward through the plains of Yorkshire. It is asserted 
that from the mixture of this Friesian breed with 
the native cattle finally sprang the improved Short- 
horn. Friesian cattle were also made the basis 
of the composite Rosentein breed, which was so 
greatly admired by Klippart, and described by him 
in his report to the Board of Agriculture of Ohio 
in 1865. 

In America. — It is probable that cattle of this 
breed were brought to America by the early Dutch 
settlers and that a few were imported late in the 
eighteenth and early in the nineteenth centuries. 
The Holland Land Company is reported as having 
sent a few animals to Cazenovia, New "York, in 1795. 
William Jarvis imported a bull and two cows in 1810, 
for his farm at Weathersfield, Vermont. Another 
importation into New York State was made in 
1825. The first importer, however, to establish and 
maintain a pure-bred herd, was Winthrop W. Chen- 
ery, of Belmont, Massachusetts. He made impor- 
tations in the years 1852-7-9, and 1861. Until 
1871, these cattle were almost universally known 
in this country as Dutch, although as early as 1864 
the United States Department of Agriculture had 
recognized them as Holstein cattle. In that year 
(1871), the Association of Breeders of Thorough- 
bred Holstein Cattle was organized with Mr. Chenery 
at its head. This gross error in the renaming of a 
well-known breed was regarded by the Dutch breed- 
ers as a great injustice to them. They protested vig- 
orously, and finally, unable to secure justice directly, 
in 1873, assisted Thomas E. Whiting, of Massachu- 
setts, to select and purchase a herd of their cattle, 
pledging him to establish in America a herdbook 
which should maintain the correct name of the 
breed. This herd finally came into the hands of the 
Unadilla Valley Breeders' Association, who, with 
other owners, organized in 1879, the Dutch-Friesian 
Cattle Breeders' Association of America. A sharp 
controversy ensued, which was finally brought to 
a close in 1885, through the union of the contend- 
ing bodies in the present Holstein-Friesian Associ- 
ation of America. 

The significant history of this breed in America 



358 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



centers almost entirely about the establishment 
and maintenance of a system of advanced registra- 
tion. The advanced registry system was originated 
by Solomon Hoxie, while secretary of the Dutch- 
Friesian Association. The necessity for it was sug- 
gested to him by the fact that many cattle of 
doubtful merit and unknown breeding were being 
entered in the Holstein herdbook. There was need 
of recognized intrinsic standards of merit to serve 
as guides in breeding and selection. Accordingly, 
he induced the Dutch-Friesian Association to main- 
tain an advanced register, in which cattle should 
be entered only in case of special merit, determined 
for bulls by means of an official scale of points, and 
in the case of cows by an additional scale of pro- 
ductiveness. While there was much early opposition 
to the advanced register, it has abundantly demon- 



Introduced into the United States less than fifty 
years ago, it has spread to every important dairy 
section of this country and Co Canada, and more 
recently to Mexico. It is specially adapted to rich, 
level grass-lands and to densely populated, highly 
civilized countries in which milk and its every 
product, and veal and beef of superior quality are 
in demand. 

Feeding and care. 

The extraordinary vigor of cattle of this breed 
permits very wide latitude in caring for and feed- 
ing them. In some sections of Holland "they are 
found on lands covered with water plants and 
grass of small nutritive value." In northern Rus- 
sia they are successfully kept in the frigid climate 
near the Arctic circle. The only hard-and-fast rule 




Wmm&$ 



Fig. 378. Young Holstein-Friesian buU. 



Fig. 379. Holstein-Friesian cow. Belle Sarcastic No. 1108 Adv. Reg 



strated its value. Since about 1894, it has been 
recognized as the chief means for the advancement 
of the interests of the Association and of its mem- 
bers, and its essential principles have been adopted 
by other breeders' organizations both in America 
and Europe. It is to be regretted that descrip- 
tions and measurements in the practical operation 
of the system have been abandoned. It is also 
unfortunate that the Association, while admitting 
cows to the advanced registry only on the basis of 
the yield of butter-fat, tacitly sanctions the use of 
too low a factor for the conversion of butter-fat 
into butter records. The factor 80 per cent, gen- 
erally used, cannot be too severely condemned, since 
repeated demonstrations show that good market- 
able butter requires the presence in the milk of at 
least 85.7 per cent of its weight of butter-fat. 

Distribution. 

This race of cattle is widely distributed on the 
continent of Europe, prevailing especially in north- 
ern France and along the shores of the English 
channel and the North sea, as far as Denmark. It 
is the leading dairy breed in Russia, occupying the 
shores of the River Dwina and the White sea 
nearly to the Arctic circle. It is firmly established 
in nearly every province of Germany, in Italy, 
Sweden and Denmark. It is also bred in South 
Africa, and is rapidly being introduced into Japan. 



for feeding is: "Feed abundantly well-balanced 
rations." The breeders in Holland and Friesland 
confine their cattle in their stables constantly 
from the middle of November through the winter 
till the middle of May, apparently without injury 
to them, at much less expense of food and with 
greater production of milk than results from the 
practice of daily exposure to the outside atmos- 
phere, as in America. Their method requires, how- 
ever, much greater air space per animal, and hence 
that they be confined in much larger buildings. 

Uses. 

For milk. — At two to three years old, the young 
cows produce about half the quantity of milk of 
mature animals of the breed, if well supplied with 
suitable food, or 5,000 to 8,000 pounds of milk in 
ten months, — the usual annual period of milking 
dairy cows. They will also continue their growth 
and increase in productiveness until four and a half 
or five years old, at which age they will reach, if 
in good milking condition, an average weight of 
1,200 pounds. From this time forward, average 
cows of the breed will produce, when in full flow, 
40 to 70 pounds of milk daily, or 8,000 to 12,000 
pounds annually, until twelve to fourteen years of 
age, the milk ranging in quality from 11 per cent 
to 13.5 per cent total solids, of which 2.5 per cent 
to 4.5 per cent will be butter-fat. The average 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



359 



yield will probably contain 12 per cent total solids 
and 3.3 per cent butter-fat. 

Great numbers of the cows of this breed have 
far exceeded this range of productiveness. For 
example, of 350 cows that were entered in the first 
volume of the Holstein-Priesian Advanced Register, 
published in 1886, 67 produced over 12,000 pounds 
of milk each in a single lactation period of ten 
months, and 16 exceeded 15,000 pounds each. In the 
first four volumes of this register, 40 records are 
reported which averaged 18,026to pounds in a lac- 
tation period of one year. Some individual records 
have enormously exceeded this average : Clothilde, 
No. 155, produced in one year, within a single lac- 
tation period, 26.921J pounds ; Princess of Wayne, 
No. 2, calving in her eleventh year, produced 29,- 
008 ri pounds in a similar period ; Pietertje 2d., No. 
497, produced, under like circumstances, 30,318^ 
pounds, and Belle Sarcastic, No. 1108 (Fig. 379), 
designated as the model cow of the breed by a com- 
mittee appointed by the Holstein-Friesian Associa- 
tion to draft a scale of points, produced, in the 
hands of the Michigan Agricultural Experiment 
Station, 21,975 T 8 ij pounds in one year, and in her 
full lactation period of fifteen months and one 
week, 27,289 T V pounds. The highest milk produc- 
tion of Pietertje 2d. for a single day was 112 T 7 (r 
pounds, and the highest of Princess of Wayne 
while making her great record was 113| pounds. 
DeKol Creamelle recently produced in official test 
119 pounds in one day, 26,280.2 pounds in one 
year. Colantha 4th's Johanna (Fig. 332) produced 
651.7 pounds of milk, 28.176 pounds of butter-fat 
in seven days; 2,872.6 pounds of milk, 110.833 
pounds of butter-fat in thirty days ; 5,326.7 pounds 
of milk, 208.398 pounds of butter-fat in sixty 
days ; 27,432.5 pounds of milk, 998.256 pounds of 
butter-fat in one year. Thus, Colantha 4th's 
Johanna holds the world's official record for the 
production of butter-fat for seven days, thirty 
days, sixty days and 365 days. These records illus- 
trate the highest attainments of the breed thus far 
in the matter of milk- and butter-fat-production. 
For such production, the cow, of course, must 
receive special care and food, and must be milked 
three or four times a day. 

The milk of this breed has several peculiar and 
notable characteristics. It is not highly colored. 
"The absence of granules, as a predominant fea- 
ture, makes the skimmed milk especially appear 
blue." The fat globules are comparatively small 
and uniform in size. The cream, therefore, rises 
slowly, but it is dense in consequence of the com- 
pactness of the globules. The milk is richer than 
the color or thickness of the cream would indicate. 
After the cream rises to the surface it is easily 
re-incorporated in the milk by stirring or shaking. 
This renders the milk more than ordinarily valuable 
for direct consumption purposes, especially for city 
supply, since it insures to all consumers a compara- 
tively uniform quality. Moreover, both the milk 
and the cream approach the structure of the corre- 
sponding human products more closely than those 
of any other breed which has been tested in this 
respect. This leads to the inference that the milk 



of this breed is superior to that of any other for 
the feeding of young children. Recent experiments 
made at the Storrs' Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion in Connecticut tend to substantiate this infer- 
ence. Furthermore, the milk of these cattle is said 
to possess a quality which has recently been called 
" vitality," a quality very strongly associated with 
the vitality of the animal producing it. Thus, the 
high constitutional vigor of Holstein-Friesian cat- 
tle is another strong point in their favor as milk- 
producers. 

For butter. — Butter-fat records of the breed have 
been no less remarkable. (See above.) In 1894, 
state agricultural experiment stations began the 
official supervision of the testing of Holstein- 
Friesian cows at the homes of the owners. Thou- 
sands of such tests for a period of seven con- 
secutive days have now been made. These tests 
are annually classified according to the age of the 
cows at date of calving. A summary of such records 
for a single year will serve to show the butter- 
making possibilities of the elite of the breed. In 
the official year 1901-2, 191 records, of cows five 
years old and over, averaged 431 T \ pounds of milk, 
containing an average of 3.42 per cent of butter- 
fat, making a total of 14.684 pounds of butter-fat 
per cow ; 48 records, of cows four and one-half 
years old and under five, averaged 401 T % pounds 
milk, 3.52 per cent butter-fat, total fat 14.121 
pounds ; 47 records, of cows four years and under 
four and one-half, averaged 392 T 4 5 pounds milk, 
3.28 per cent butter-fat, total fat 12.858 pounds ; 
57 records, of cows three and one-half years and 
under four, averaged 373 T 8 ,j pounds milk, 3.44 per 
cent butter- fat, total fat 12.833 pounds; 60 records, 
of cows three years old and under three and one- 
half, averaged 360 T V pounds milk, 3.42 per cent 
butter-fat, total fat 12.305 pounds ; 65 records, 
of cows two and one-half years old and under three, 
averaged 333^ pounds milk, 3.32 per cent butter- 
fat, total butter-fat 11.001 pounds; 165 records, 
of cows under two and one-half years old at date 
of calving, averaged 279 T 7 (T pounds milk, 3.55 per 
cent butter-fat, total butter-fat 9.369 pounds. 
One hundred and thirty cows of the breed have 
official records greater than 20 pounds of butter- 
fat in seven days, and sixty cows of the breed have 
official records greater than 80 pounds of butter-fat 
in thirty days. Such records are usually made at 
ten to fifty days after parturition. A lapse of at 
least five days is required. There can be no doubt 
as to the correctness of these records. In many 
cases, especially when the yield was exceptionally 
large, the cows were re-tested for periods ranging 
from twenty-four to forty-eight hours by repre- 
sentatives of the experiment stations, who kept 
constant watch in order that no milk or cream 
should be introduced into the udders surreptitiously. 

It is not maintained, of course, that the average 
pure-bred Holstein-Friesian cow or heifer could 
produce equal records. Probably the best one-third 
of all those owned in this country could do so if 
sufficiently well fed, skilfully cared for and milked 
three times a day. It is probable that in butter- as 
well as in milk-production, the average cow of this 



360 



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CATTLE 



breed, would excel the average cow of any other 
known breed. 

Butter made from the milk of these cows is com- 
paratively mild in flavor and, if not artificially 
colored, is of a pale straw-color in summer, when 
the cows are fed on grass, and of a creamy white 
in winter when they are fed on hay. In keeping 
quality it ranks very high. In 1875, Mr. E. Lewis 
Sturtevant published an account of a compara- 
tive test of butters of different breeds, which 
indicated the superiority of the Holstein-Friesian 
product in this connection. He took seven samples 
of Jersey butters, four of Ayrshire, one of Guern- 
sey and one of Dutch or Holstein-Friesian, and 
placed them in a cupboard adjoining a steam heater. 
The Guernsey sample was probably not so well made 
as the others. "It moulded in spots in about a 
month. ... In seven weeks the Jersey butters 
were all rancid. . . . The Ayrshire butters were 
not rancid, but had lost flavor and were poor. . . . 
The Dutch butter was well preserved, being neither 
rancid or flavorless." The butter of Friesland has 
long been recognized as a standard product in the 
markets of Europe, and the butter of cows of this 
breed is steadily gaining favor in our own markets. 

For cheese. — The milk of Holstein-Friesian cattle 
makes a very high grade of cheese, and it has been 
much used for this purpose both in Holland and in 
America. The milk is rich in solids other than fat. 

For beef. — This breed combines with its great 
milk- and butter-producing capacity, good beefing 
qualities. For this reason it has been called a dual- 
purpose breed. Its calves are very large and vig- 
orous at birth, grow rapidly and are exceptionally 
free from disease, — especially from that which is 
known as white scours. When vealed at the end of 
four or five weeks they dress 90 to 120 pounds. 
The veal is of superior color, sweetness and tender- 
ness. The cows quickly take on flesh when dried 
off and add 125 to 200 pounds to their milking 
weight. They dress 52 per cent to 55 per cent of 
their live weight. While fattening, the cattle of 
this breed, like those of beef breeds, deposit fat 
largely in the interstices of the muscles, and spar- 
ingly on the intestines and around the kidneys. 
The meat is light-colored and marbled in appear- 
ance. It is preferred by some to the fattened prod- 
uct of the beef breeds. 

For breeding. — In breeding, bulls should be 
selected that are of superior constitutional vigor 
and size. When fully developed they should have 
the outlines of a beef animal with the exception of 
the brisket. In all cases, the male in breeding should 
be the offspring of larger-sized stock than the 
female if possible, although the difference should 
not be extreme. For crossing on grade cows to 
increase milk-production the pure-bred bulls of this 
breed give very satisfactory results. 

Organizations and records. 

Organizations for the promotion of the interests 
of this breed were closely associated with the his- 
tory of the breed in America (which see, page 357). 
It is a singular fact that while the thoughts and 
energies of so many generations were devoted to 



breeding and improving these cattle, the first pub- 
lic herdbook of the breed was published in 1872 by 
an American, Winthrop W. Chenery, of Belmont, 
Massachusetts, by authority of the Association of 
Breeders of Thoroughbred Holstein Cattle. It was 
known as the Holstein Herdbook. Three years later 
a herdbook was issued in the Netherlands, by the 
Netherland Herdbook Association. It was a protest 
against naming Holland cattle from a German 
province that had no valid claim to the origin of 
the breed. In 1879, the Dutch-Friesian Cattle 
Breeders' Association was formed in America. In 
the same year the Friesian Herdbook Association 
was organized in the province of Friesland. A few 
years later the North Holland Herdbook Associa- 
tion was organized and a branch was established 
in America. The present Holstein-Friesian Asso- 
ciation of America was formed in 1885 by the union 
of the Holstein and the Dutch-Friesian Associa- 
tions. It limited importations to a great extent, 
and in consequence of this the Netherland and 
North Holland Associations became nearly mori- 
bund. Recently, the former has adopted a system 
similar to the American system of advanced regis- 
tration, and probably may become an institution 
of great value to breeders in all the provinces of 
Holland, with the exception of Friesland, where the 
early association was of a similar character. The 
Western Holstein-Friesian Association was organ- 
ized in 1892, and published its first and only herd- 
book in 1895, containing pedigrees of 2,100 cattle. 
It was united with the Holstein-Friesian Associa- 
tion of America in 1898, and its pedigree records 
became a part of the herdbook of the older 
association. The Holstein-Friesian Association of 
Canada was founded in 1891. 

The Holstein-Friesian Association of America 
was incorporated for the purpose of importing, 
breeding, improving and otherwise handling pure- 
bred Holstein-Friesian cattle, and for gathering 
and publishing information in regard to them. It 
maintains a herdbook and advanced register of 
cattle. The entries to its herdbook had reached, at 
the late annual meeting (1907), 46,626 males, and 
94,829 females. The policy of this association has 
been to maintain the purity of the breed in America, 
to improve the type by selection of the most supe- 
rior animals for separate or advanced registration, 
and to demonstrate the merits of the breed through 
the making of great milk and butter records. It 
has maintained a consistent advocacy of tests at 
the homes of owners under the strictest supervision 
of agricultural experiment stations. In this respect 
it took the initiative, and has compelled other 
breeders' associations to follow. 

Literature. 

Holstein Herdbook, 9 volumes, 1872-1885; 
Dutch-Friesian Herdbook, 4 volumes, 1880-1885 ; 
Holstein-Friesian Herdbook, 24 volumes 1885-1906; 
Holstein-Friesian Advanced Register, 9 volumes, 
1887-1891 and 1902-1906 ; Breeds of Dairy Cattle, 
15th Report, Bureau of Animal Industry, United 
States Department of Agriculture ; Friesian Cattle, 
Twentieth Report, Ohio State Board of Agriculture; 




* 



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CATTLE 



361 



Reports of New York State Dairymen's Association 
for 1878-1880 ; Holstein-Friesian Cattle, S. Hoxie, 
Holstein-Friesian Association, third edition, 1904 ; 
Advanced Registration, S. Hoxie, in Proceedings of 
the American Association of Live-stock Herdbook 
Secretaries, 1904, C. F. Mills, Editor ; The North 
Holland or Friesian Breed, Utica, Curtis and Childs 
(1884), S. Hoxie, Editor ; Records of Dairy Cows 
in the United States, C. B. Lane, Government 
Printing Office, Washington, D. C. (1905) ; History 
of the Holstein-Friesian Breed, Brattleboro, Ver- 
mont (1897), F. L. Houghton ; Cattle and Dairy 
Farming, United States Consular Reports, 1887 ; 
Holstein Cattle, Dudley Miller ; Die Rindviehzucht 
im In und Auslande, J. Hansen and A. Hermes, 
Leipzig, Carl Schmidt & Co., 2 volumes (1905) ; 
Friesch Rundvee Stamboek, 32 volumes, 1880- 
1906 ; The Holstein-Friesian Yearbook, 1901-1907, 
7 volumes, F. L. Houghton ; Western Holstein- 
Friesian Herdbook, 1 volume, 1895, Western Hol- 
stein-Friesian Association ; The Holstein-Friesian 
Register, Brattleboro, Vermont, F. L. Houghton ; 
The Holstein-Friesian World, C. G. Brown, Ithaca, 
New York. [See also page 302.] 

Jersey Cattle. Figs. 36, 37, 334, 380, 381. 
By M. A. Scovell. 

The Jersey is one of the leading dairy breeds of 
cattle. The island of Jersey, eleven miles long and 
less than six miles wide, lying in the English Chan- 
nel some thirty miles from the southern extremity 
of England and about thirteen miles from the coast 
of France, is its native home. 

In American and English writings there has been 
some confusion in the use of the term Alderney, as 
applied to cattle from the Channel islands. In 1844, 
Colonel Le Couteur wrote an article on the "Jersey 
misnamed Alderney cow." This article was pub- 
lished in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural 
Society of England, Vol. 5, page 43, and was after- 
wards copied into the Transactions of the New 
York State Agricultural Society in 1850, and into 
Volume I of the Herd Register of the American 
Jersey Cattle Club. It forms the basis of our knowl- 
edge of the early history of Channel island cattle. 
When Channel island cattle were first exported to 
Great Britain, they were collectively called Alder- 
neys, because vessels plying between the Channel 
islands and Great Britain cleared from the port of 
Alderney. The cattle were actually very largely 
from the island of Jersey, since that is the largest 
island and contains the most cattle. The local gov- 
ernment of the Channel islands is administered 
through two municipalities, the one, the states of 
Jersey, comprising the island of Jersey alone ; the 
other, the states of Guernsey, comprising Guernsey 
and the other inhabited islands, of which Alderney 
is one. For more than a century there has been no 
intercommunication of cattle from outside the 
islands or between the two municipalities them- 
selves. This has been 'one of the agencies in the 
establishment of the two breeds, Jersey and Guern- 
sey, which are now and have been for many years 
sufficiently distinct so as to be readily recognized. 



Alderney is in no sense an agricultural island, and 
the few cattle on the island are kept merely as 
family cows by the inhabitants. They come, of 
course, from Guernsey, and are of that breed. 
There has never been a distinct breed known as 
Alderneys, and the name "Alderney " has been more 
commonly applied to Jersey than to Guernsey cattle. 

Description. 

The ideal Jersey of today has a small head, short, 
broad, lean and dish-faced. The muzzle, including 
the under lip, is black or dark in color, surrounded 
by a light or mealy strip of light skin and hair. 
The eyes are prominent, large, bright and wide 
apart. The horns are crumpled or incurving, small, 
waxy and often black-tipped. The ears are small, 
delicate and yellow-colored within. The neck is fine, 
clean and small. The legs are short, fine boned and 
small. The body is well hooped or rounded, large 
and deep. The tail is fine boned, long, with a full 
brush. The skin is mellow, loose, yellow, with short, 
fine, silky hair. The udder is large in size, extend- 
ing well up behind and well forward, not pendant. 
The teats are medium sized, placed far apart on the 
udder, without having the udder cut up between 
them. The milk veins are generally highly devel- 
oped, tortuous, knotty, and often spreading in sev- 
eral branches. The back should be straight from 
shoulder to the setting-on of the tail. So far as 
beauty is concerned, the sloping rump is very 
objectionable. The general appearance should be 
attractive and sprightly. The head should be erect 
when walking and the movements should be light, 
quick and graceful. When in full flow of milk, the 
Jersey should carry little flesh, but have muscular 
development enough for healthy activity and full 
digestive forces. The following scale of points, 
adopted by the American Jersey Cattle Club, shows 
the relative values attributed to the various parts. 

Scale of Points for Jersey Cattle 

Perfect 
For COWS score 

1. Head (7) 

Medium size, lean ; face dished ; broad between 
eyes and narrow between horns 4 

Eyes full and placid ; horns small to medium, 
incurving : muzzle broad, with muscular lips ; 
strong under-jaw 3 

2. Neck. — Thin, rather long, with clean throat ; thin 

at withers 5 

3. Body (33) 

Lung capacity, as indicated by depth and breadth 
through body, just back of fore-legs .... 5 

Wedge shape, with deep, large paunch, legs pro- 
portionate to size and of fine quality . . . . 10 

Back straight to hip-bones 2 

Rump long to tail-setting and level from hip- 
bones to rump-bones 8 

Hip-bones high and wide apart; loins broad, 
strong 5 

Thighs flat and well cut out 3 

4. Tail. — Thin, long, with good switch, not coarse at 

. setting-on 2 

5. Udder (28) 

Large size and not fleshy 6 

Broad, level or spherical, not deeply cut between 
teats 4 



362 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



Scale of Points for Jersey Cattle, continued 

For cows Perfect 

score 
Fore-udder full and well rounded, running well 

forward of front teats 10 

Rear-udder well rounded, and well out and up 
behind 8 

6. Teats. — Of good and uniform length and size, reg- 

ularly and squarely placed 8 

7. Milk veins. — Large, tortuous and elastic . ... 4 

8. Size.— Mature cows, 800 to 1,000 pounds .... 3 

9. General appearance. — A symmetrical balancing 

of all the parts, and a proportion of parts to 
each other, depending on size of animal, with 
the general appearance of a high-class animal, 
with capacity for food and productiveness at 
pail 10 

Perfection 100 

For bulls Perfect 

1. Head (10) score 

Broad, medium length ; face dished ; narrow 
between horns ; horns medium in size and 
incurving 5 

Muzzle broad, nostrils open, eyes full and bold; 
entire expression one of vigor, resolution and 
masculinity 5 

2. Neck. — Medium length, with full crest at ma- 

turity ; clean at throat 10 

3. Body (54) 

Lung capacity, as indicated by depth and breadth 
through body, just back of fore shoulders ; 
shoulders full and strong 15 

Barrel long, of good depth and breadth, with 
strong, well-sprung ribs 15 

Back straight to hip-bones 2 

Rump of good length and proportion to size of 
body, and level from hip-bone to rump-bone . 7 

Loins broad and strong ; hips rounded, and of 
medium width compared with female .... 7 

Thighs rather flat, well cut up behind, high 
arched flank 3 

Legs proportionate to size and of fine quality, 
well apart, and not to weave or cross in walk- 
ing 5 

4. Rudimentary teats. — Well placed 2 

5. Tail. — Thin, long, with good switch, not coarse at 

setting-on 4 

. 6. Size.— Mature bulls, 1,200 to 1,500 pounds ... 5 
7. General appearance. — Thoroughly masculine in 
character, with a harmonious blending of the 
parts to each other ; thoroughly robust, and 
such an animal as in a herd of wild cattle 
would likely become master of the herd by 
the law of natural selection and survival of 
the fittest 15 

Perfection 100 

History. 

The origin of the Jersey breed is conjectural, 
but it is probably the same as the original breed 
of Normandy. The earliest writers on the cattle of 
this Island assert that they were superior to those 
of Normandy and Brittany. Rev. Philip Falle wrote, 
in 1734, "The cattle on this Island are superior to 
the French." Thomas Quayle, in 1812, asserted an 
advantage over any other breed in the quantity and 
quality of cream produced from the consumption of 
a given quantity of fodder. Garrard, in the first 



part of the last century, gave the milk yield as 
three to four gallons per day, and the butter yield 
as 220 to 230 pounds per cow per year. According 
to Inglis, the general average produced at that time 
was ten quarts of milk per day and seven pounds of 
butter per week. 

No distinct characteristics as to form and color 
were given by the earliest writers, except that Colo- 
nel Le Couteur mentions the fact that the Jersey 
farmer was content to possess an ugly, ill-formed 
animal with flat sides, cat-hammed, narrow and 
high hips, with a hollow back, yet ever possessing a 
lively eye, round barrel, deep chest, short, tine, deer- 
like limbs and a fine tail. (Fig. 36.) Nor do any of 
the writers give the reason why the Jersey was 
superior to other breeds, until the article by 
Colonel Le Couteur appeared in the " Journal of the 
Royal Agricultural' Society of England," in 1845. 
In this article Colonel Le Couteur says : " The Jer- 
sey cow was excellent as she has ever been, which 
has been attributed to the circumstance of a few 
farmers having constantly attended to raising stock 
from cows of the best milking qualities, which at- 
tention, prosecuted for a long number of years in a 
small country like ours, where such superior quali- 
ties would soon be known, led to the excellence of 
milk- and butter-yielding qualities in the race. 
This never could have been secured so generally in 
Normandy, from whence our breed probably origi- 
nated, or in any other extended country." We may 
assume, then, that the breed owes its peculiar qual- 
ities to an evolution of persistent breeding to per- 
petuate and accentuate distinctive qualities, and to 
the exclusion of all other cattle from the Island. 
The method of tethering, which has always pre- 
vailed on the Island, may have had its influence. 

An organized attempt was made to give a fixed 
beauty of form to the Jersey about 1835, when, 
says Colonel Le Couteur, "A few gentlemen selected 
two beautiful cows with the best qualities as models. 
One was held to be perfect in her barrel and fore- 
quarters, the other equally so in her hind-quarters. 
From these two, a scale of points was laid down to 
be the rule for governing the judges at the cattle 
shows of the Jersey Agricultural Society." 

At an early period, steps were taken to keep the 
breed pure by preventing outside cattle coming 
into the Island, and in 1763 an act was passed 
which has since been rigidly enforced, and supple- 
mented by the further acts of 1789, 1826, 1864 and 
1878, prohibiting the landing of cattle on the Island 
except for the purpose of slaughter. Even before 
the enactment of laws, the purity of the cattle was 
maintained by the persistence with which the Jer- 
seyman clung to his own breed. Every etfort to 
introduce other cattle, even from England, has been 
invariably rendered futile by the inhabitants. 

The Royal Jersey Agricultural and Horticultural 
Society, organized in 1833, has been one of the 
chief means of improving the general character of 
the breed on the Island, and of developing its 
valuable dairy qualities. 'In 1836, the Society 
recommended that one superior bull be kept in each 
parish, and that encouragement be given to keep 
first-rate heifers in the Island, as the high prices 



CATTLE 



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363 



offered were strong temptations to export them. 
In 1S3S, it enacted at least two new rules. One 
was to the effect that any person withholding the 
services of a prize bull from the public should for- 
feit the premium ; the other was that all heifers 
having premiums adjudged to them should be kept 




Fig. '380. Imported Jersey bull. Guenon's Lad 54422. 

on the Island until they shall have dropped their 
first calf. If previously sold for exportation, they 
shall forfeit the premium. 

In 1853, the Society began to recognize the 
fact that it was unwise to ship out of the Island 
the best cattle, and urged the breeders against 
selling their best stock to be taken from the Island, 
In 1862, the Society reports, "To a very consider- 
able extent, the business of the society is limited 
to the improvement of our insular race of cattle, 
which in itself is of the highest importance. We, 
therefore, wish to impress an observation on those 
who study the improvement of their stock — beauty 
of symmetry alone can not ever be the acme of 
perfection. The latter can be obtained only when 
goodness and beauty are equally combined." "It is 
an established fact that the renown which the Jer- 
sey cow enjoys is attributable to the peculiar rich- 
ness of its milk, as well as to its docility of temper 
and neatness of form. Now, as 
this richness is not so marked 
in some specimens as it is in 
others, it becomes advisable to 
make such selections in breeding 
as will ensure further ameliora- 
tion in this most essential and 
highly important point." 

Up to 1865, there appears to 
have been little attention paid 
to the quantity of milk which 
the Jersey gave. The quality of 
milk and the quantity of butter 
and beauty of form seem to 
have been the only points which 
the breeders had considered, 
up to that time. But, in that 
year, a committee of the Agri- 
cultural Society of Jersey urged 
that the Jersey breeder should 
pay greater attention to the 
milk-producing qualities of the 



cow, and that every cow with the least tendency 
to deficiency in quantity of milk should be weeded 
out, and suggested that the judges especially con- 
sider this in awarding prizes. It will be seen, there- 
fore, that the Jersey has been bred for quantity of 
milk for only about forty years. It was in the 
seventies that it became the fashion, both 
in England and America, to select solid- 
colored Jerseys with black points, and for 
some time this color craze had a detrimen- 
tal influence on the breed. But it appears 
that the Agricultural Society of Jersey, 
ever watchful of the future interests of 
the breed, condemned this color craze, and, 
in 1873, it reports, "Let henceforth such 
fanciful ideas as black tails and black 
tongues be estimated at their proper value, 
but let the large and rich yield of milk be 
ever the breeder's ambition to procure." 

The Jersey herdbook was started in 
1866, and it has undoubtedly had a marked 
influence on the improvement of the cattle 
in the Island. In America or in England, 
an animal may be registered as soon as 
born, if its sire and dam are registered, or are ca- 
pable of being registered. On the Island, however, 
inspection is made a conditional precedent to regis- 
tering. The following are necessary conditions to 
registration : 

(1) Every animal must be inspected by compe- 
tent judges, and, if it is considered fit, it obtains a 
qualification, namely, commended or highly com- 
mended. 

(2) Every bull submitted for qualification must 
be accompanied by his dam, in order that the 
merits of the latter may be taken into considera- 
tion in awarding a commendation to the former. 

(3) No heifer, although she may be descended 
from registered parents, can be entered in the 
herdbook until she has had a calf, and if at the 
time of her examination she is a poor milker, she 
receives no commendation. 

It will readily be seen, therefore, that by the 




Fig. 381. Jersey cow. Brown Bessie, champion cow of all breeds at World's 
Columbian Exposition, 1893. 



364 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



method of registration on the island of Jersey, not 
only the pedigree can be traced but it can be ascer- 
tained whether the dams and sires for generations 
back have been commended or highly commended 
by the commissioned judges. These commendations 
are shown in pedigree by the letter C. if commended, 
and by the letters H. C. if highly commended. 

Jersey cattle were imported into England as 
early as 1835, and in large numbers in the forties. 
Professor L. W. Low, in 1845, says, "The cows are 
imported into England in considerable numbers, 
and are esteemed beyond those of any other race 
for the richness of their milk and the deep yellow 
color of their butter." 

In America. — Importation into America began in 
1850. In that year twelve animals were imported 
under the auspices of a club of farmers organized 
for the purpose. Only prize winners were pur- 
chased. The bull "Splendens" was in this importa- 
tion, and he proved to be a very valuable animal. 
Other importations followed in the fifties, mostly 
to Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey and 
New York, and from 1860 to 1890, importations 
were numerous and to nearly every part of the 
United States. More than two thousand head a 
year were imported year after year. Again, from 
about 1900 to the present time, many importations 
have been . made. In fact, so numerously have 
Jersey cattle been imported and so rapidly have 
they increased in America, that they outnumber 
the Jerseys on the Island or any other breed of 
dairy cattle in this country, and they have been so 
largely used for grading, that the Jersey character- 
istics are seen everywhere dairy cows are kept. 

Distribution. 

The Jersey is very widely distributed, due to its 
wide adaptation to conditions. As has been said, it 
is scattered through the United States and Canada. 
England, France, New Zealand, Australia and many 
other countries can boast of large herds. 

Feeding and care. 

Jerseys have a capacity of assimilating large 
quantities of food and may be forced to advantage 
when in full flow of milk, as all extra food, in such 
case, is converted into milk. When the milk-flow 
begins to slacken, the food should be reduced, 
especially the concentrates. The Jerseys are large 
eaters of roughage and succulent feeds, as roots. 

A good average daily ration for a Jersey that is 
giving forty pounds of milk a day is as follows : 

Roughage Concentrates 

Alfalfa, or clover hay ... 20 lbs. 

Corn silage 12 " 

Wheat bran 3 lbs. 

Corn meal 5 " 

Ground oats 1 " 

Oil meal 2 " 

Gluten feed 5 " 

Cottonseed meal J " 

Total 32 lbs. 16J lbs. 

On the Island the method of caring for the cows 
has been the same for nearly two hundred years. 



In the summer they are tethered in meadows and 
pastures, and in the winter are warmly housed at 
night. The same care should be taken in the man- 
agement of Jerseys in this country. They should 
have plenty of pasture to run on in the summer, 
and they should not be confined in the winter in 
day-time except in very cold and inclement 
weather. They should be treated kindly, as they 
have ever been on the Island. Nervous cows should 
be excluded from the herd, as well as those giving 
small quantities of milk, and those not persistent 
in their milk. 

At one time the Jersey was supposed to be deli- 
cate, but the American breed of cows at this time 
seems to be constitutionally as strong as any other 
dairy breed, and not more subject to disease than 
other cattle, with possibly the exception of milk 
fever. But since the oxygen treatment for this 
disease has been used, this heretofore dreaded 
affliction need no longer be considered a dangerous 
disease. 

Uses. 

For milk and butter. — For many years the 
Jersey was bred almost exclusively for its butter- 
producing qualities. Many private and official but- 
ter tests have been published, giving phenomenal 
yields of butter. As the result of these tests, so- 
called families of Jerseys have sprung up, as the 
St. Lambert, the Signal, the Combination, the Vic- 
tor, the Tormentor. But a careful review of 
authenticated tests, and especially the results of 
the official tests at the World's Columbian and at 
the Louisiana Purchase Expositions, show that the 
excellence is inherent in the breed generally, and 
is not confined to any particular line or lines of 
breeding. Of late years, much attention has been 
paid in the breeding of Jerseys for milk-production 
as well as for butter, and for beauty of form, with 
excellent results. Jerseys giving four to five gal- 
lons of milk per day are not rare in most herds, and 
such cows are noted for persistence in milking. 
Records are given of individual cows giving 10,000, 
12,000, and even more pounds of milk in a year. 

Very interesting are the results from the dairy 
test at the World's Columbian Exposition at 
Chicago in 1893, and the cow-demonstration tests 
at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis, 
in 1904. In both instances the cows were selected 
and cared for by the American Jersey Cattle Club, 
and it may be assumed, therefore, that the best 
cows in the breed available at that time were 
selected in each case. The test was conducted in 
each instance by a committee of the Association 
of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment 
Stations. The results show that the Jersey cows 
can assimilate a large quantity of food, give 
four to five gallons of rich milk per day, and that 
they are persistent milkers ; and if conclusions can 
be drawn from comparison of the two tests, each 
with the same number of cows, selected in the same 
manner, and under like conditions, it is that in 
eleven years the Jerseys have increased largely in 
flow of milk, and in the production of butter. 

The records of the Jerseys in the ninety-day test 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



365 



Si the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago, 
June-August 29, 1893, give the following summary 
of results for the twenty-five cows entered : 

Total lbs. Average per Total 

milk cent fat lbs. butter 

Grand total 73,488.8 4.784+ 3,516.1 

Average per cow . . . 2,939.6 4.784+ 140.6 

Daily average per cow . 32.6 . . 1.56 

Most of the cows had been in milk one to three 
months, and one at least five months prior to the 
beginning of the test. 

The records of the Jerseys in the 120-day cow- 
demonstration test at the Louisiana Purchase Ex- 
position at St. Louis, June 16-October 13, 1904, 
give the following summary of results for the 
twenty-five cows entered : 

Total lbs. Per cent Lbs. of Lbs. of 

milk of fat fat butter 

Grand total . . . 124,524.2 4.666+ 5,810.7 6,841.6 
Total average per 

cow 4,981.0 4.666+ 232.4 273.7 

Daily average per 

cow 41.5 . . 1.9 2.3 

The cows averaged sixty-nine days in lactation 
at the time the demonstration began, so in reality 
at the close of the test, the cows, on an average, 
had been in milk nearly six months. The Jerseys 
not only gave over forty pounds of milk per day, 
but the milk was the richest of any in butter-fat, 
averaging 4.7 per cent, or an average of more than 
two pounds of butter per day for each cow, making 
a total of 274 pounds in 120 days. In the two 
months in which they were milked prior to the 
beginning of the test, they should have produced 
about the same amount of butter in proportion to 
the time as they had during the test, which would 
give an average for each cow for six months of 
410£ pounds of butter. When it is remembered 
that the average dairy cow gives less than 250 
pounds of butter per year, these results seem all 
the more remarkable. These results were obtained 
without feeding the cows to their fullest capacity 
and without withdrawing a single cow because of 
sickness. They were fed on a profitable basis, each 
cow earning over cost of feed nearly $40, or a 
daily profit of 43 cents. 

It is interesting to compare results during the 
first and last part of the test for the purpose of 
showing the persistency of production and endur- 
ance. During the first ten days of the test, the 
Jerseys gave 10,942 pounds of milk, or an average 
per cow per day of 43.8 pounds ; average per cent 
of fat in the milk, 4.25 ; total pounds of fat, 466, 
or an average per cow per day of 1.86 pounds. 
During the last ten days they gave 9,382 pounds 
of milk, an average of 37.5 pounds per cow ; aver- 
age per cent of fat in the milk, 5.13 ; total amount 
of fat 481.1 pounds, or an average per cow per day 
of 1.92 pounds. While the cows decreased in flow 
of milk, they increased both in percentage and 
amount of fat, and a general improvement in the 
productive capacity of the Jerseys is indicated by 
a comparison of the two tests. 

For cheese. — The high butter-fat content of Jersey 
milk adapts it especially to the production of high- 



class cheese. At the World's Columbian Exposition 
it was given first place over the Guernsey and the 
Shorthorn in a cheese-making test. The demand for 
Jersey milk for the retail trade and for butter-mak- 
ing allows but little of it to be made into cheese. 

For beef. — The Jersey is not pretended to be a 
beef-producer. The meat is of good quality but is 
off in color. The Jersey dresses out too small a 
percentage of marketable meat, compared with the 
beef breeds, to adapt it to the butcher's block. 

For grading. — The Jerseys have been much used 
for grading on native cows to increase milk- and 
butter-production. Carefully selected bulls may be 
used for this purpose with very satisfactory results. 

Organizations and records. 

The two organizations which have done so much 
for the development of the Jersey are the Royal 
Jersey Agricultural and Horticultural Society, 
organized in 1833, and the American Jersey Cattle 
Club, organized in 1868, with offices at No. 8 West 
Seventeenth street, New York. In 1866, the first 
herdbook of the Island Society appeared. Eighteen 
volumes have been published to date. The Associa- 
tion of Breeders of Thoroughbred Neat Stock, the 
first organization in America to care for the breed, 
published six volumes of The American Jersey Herd- 
book, the last volume being issued in 1878. 

The American Jersey Cattle Club has done much 
to develop and keep the blood of the Jersey pure in 
this country. The Club registers only such animals 
in its herd register as can be traced directly to the 
island of Jersey. There have been sixty-three vol- 
umes of the register published, bringing the records 
and pedigrees for bulls up to 74,000, and for cows, 
up to 199,000. To January 21, 1908, 78,855 bulls 
and 212,515 cows had been registered on the books 
of the clerk. It is estimated that there are 120,000 
registered cattle alive in the United States today, 
besides hundreds of thousands of grades. The Jer- 
sey Bulletin, published at Indianapolis, Indiana, is 
devoted exclusively to the development of the Jersey 
cow. 

Other organizations are the English Jersey Cattle 
Society and the New Zealand Jersey Cattle Breed- 
ers' Association. The former has published seven- 
teen volumes of its herdbook ; the latter, organized 
in 1903, has published one volume of its herdbood. 

Literature. 

John Thornton, History of the Breed of Jersey 
Cattle, Jersey Bulletin, Vol. 1 (1883); Black, Guide 
to Brittany (1873); Report of Highland and Agri- 
cultural Society of Edinburgh, 1878 ; Colonel Le 
Couteur, On the Jersey, Misnamed Alderney Cow, 
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- 
land, Vol. 5 (1845); C. P. Le Cornu, The Agricul- 
ture of the Islands of Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney 
and Sark, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society 
of England, Vol. 20 (1859); Ernest Mathews, The 
Jersey Cow, Little Shardeloes, Amersham, Bucks ; 
John S. Linsley, Jersey Cattle in America, New 
York (1885); W. P. Hazard, The Jersey, Alderney 
and Guernsey Cow, Philadelphia (1872). [See also 
page 302.] 



366 



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CATTLE 



Oxen. Figs. 14, 16. Vol. I, Figs. 126, 127, 178. 

By C. S. Plumb. 

The word oxen as used in the United States is 
generally understood to refer to mature, castrated 
male cattle used for draught purposes. The term 
steer is more commonly applied to castrated male 
cattle fed for food only. In Europe and in New 
England, the word steer applies to animals not of 
full maturity. In Friesland it is applied to all bulls. 
The word ox may be, and is, properly applied to 
cattle in general, although not usually so used. 

History of the use of oxen. 

Oxen, as beasts of burden, have been used for 
centuries. In Biblical times the ox was used to 
tread out the grain at threshing time, and to haul 
burdens. In various parts of the world, where 
domestic animals have been used to till the soil, 
oxen have been used extensively from time imme- 
morial. 

The use of oxen for draught purposes in the 
more civilized countries has gradually been on the 
decline. In 1789, George Culley, the noted English 
stockman, in his "Observations on Live Stock," 
wrote that much fewer steers were then kept to 
be oxen than was formerly the case. Two reasons 
were given for this condition : one, the increased 
cost of land rent, and the other, the greater slow- 
ness of oxen than horses in draught work. Some 
fifty years later, James Cowie, of Scotland, in a 
prize essay before the Royal Agricultural Society 
of England, on the comparative advantages of 
horses and cattle in farm work, also commented on 
the falling off in the use of cattle for farm work. 
In southern Europe, in India and some other regions, 
however, oxen are yet important beasts of labor. 

In America, oxen have been used more extensively 
in New England farming than elsewhere, but in 
localities where, fifty years ago, yokes of oxen 
were common on farms, they are now rare. In 
general, the horse has replaced the ox. According 
to J. D. Avery, in the fall of 1907, there were 
exhibited at the Danbury (Conn.) fair approxi- 
mately one hundred pairs, including all breeds on 
the grounds. There were forty pairs of Devons. 
Within a year or two, as many as fifty to seventy- 
five pairs of oxen have been employed in some of 
the large lumber camps in Vermont. 

Oxen versus horses. 

There are certain arguments in behalf of the 
use of oxen for labor. They are steady at the yoke, 
sure of foot in hilly, rough regions, have great 
draught power, and may be sold to the butcher at 
a fair price after being fattened, even if eight 
years or more of age. Previous to the introduction 
of horse-shoeing, the feet of oxen were more dur- 
able than those of horses, and stood the wear of 
labor better than the feet of horses. The chief 
objection rests in their slowness and inadaptibility 
to other work than slow draught. The wider range 
of use of the horse, with his greater activity, has 
resulted in the displacement of the ox on the farm 
and in most lumber camps, where oxen at one time 



were very popular. Cowie, in commenting on the 
relative value of oxen and horses writes : " The 
farm which I occupy has been tenanted by my 
ancestors for many generations. At the time of 
the Revolution, my great grandfather, and his sons 
for many years after that, employed twelve work- 
ing horses and twenty-eight working oxen, one- 
half of each set being yoked to one plow. I now 
work the same land to better purpose, I presume, 
with six horses and two oxen." 

Breeds of cattle for oxen. 

The different breeds of cattle may be used in 
draught work, but some breeds seem much better 
suited to the purpose than others. Devon oxen 
have long been famous in England and in New 
England, showing much activity in the yoke, and 
being known as the quickest walkers in England. 
Herefords are also noted for draught use, while in 
Sussex, England, the cattle of this county have 
been regarded as of exceptional merit for labor. 
Simmenthaler oxen (Fig. 16) are worthy of special 
mention. In America, Devons, Herefords, Short- 
horns and Holstein-Friesians were used consider- 
ably for draught work. 

Handling oxen. 

While oxen may be broken in to work when two 
years of age, or thereabouts, they are not regarded 
as suited for hard work before four years of age. 
Training, however, may well be begun early. 

There are various contrivances for hitching up 
working oxen, but the customary one is by means 
of a yoke, with two animals abreast. The yoke 
consists of a wooden main piece resting on the tops 
of the necks, with two wooden bows placed about 
the necks, with the ends of the bows inserted up 
through the yoke and fastened by pins or otherwise. 
At the center of the yoke, by means of a staple and 
ring, the wagon pole or plow chain may be fast- 
ened. There are also other methods of fastening or 
harnessing. In Spanish countries the oxen are fast- 
ened at the horns with straps and thongs, making 
a very undesirable attachment to the line of draught. 
In times past in England, various forms of harness- 
ing have been used, in which bridles, lines, and tug 
straps have formed a part. 

The driving of oxen is usually conducted with an 
ox-goad or whip with a long lash. The terms, "gee," 
meaning right, and " haw," meaning left, are used 
in driving. Oxen readily turn to the direction indi- 
cated, and back or go ahead by the same instruc- 
tions as are usually given horses. The ox-goad in 
the hands of the driver, very lightly used, with the 
aid of the terms above indicated, will enable the 
driver of a yoke of cattle to go through or around 
very considerable obstacles. 

Oxen are shod with a flat piece of iron on each 
sole of the divided hoof. One of the familiar sights 
of the writer's boyhood, was a blacksmith shop, 
with special frame, where many oxen were shod. 

[For additional information about these cattle 
the reader should consult the, articles on Devon, 
Hereford, Holstein - Friesian, Shorthorn, Simmen- 
thaler and Sussex cattle.] 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



367 



Red Polled Cattle. Figs. 49, 382, 383. 

By H. A. Martin. 

Red Polled cattle are a dual-purpose breed, rank- 
ing very highly in both milk- and butter-production. 

Description. 

In general, the bull is strong, impressive, low-set 
and of good carriage, and weighs 1,800 to 2,000 
pounds, when mature and finished. The cow is of 
medium wedge-form, low-set, with top and bottom 
lines straight, except at flank, and weighs 1,300 
to 1,500 pounds when mature and finished. The 
following standard of perfection, adopted by the 
Red Polled Cattle Club of America, shows what is 
desirable and undesirable in the breed. 

Scale of Points for Red Polled Cattle 

For cows 

Disqualifications. — Scurs, or any evidence whatever 
of a horny growth on the head. Any white spots on body 
above lower line or brush of tail. Perfect 

score 

1. Color. — Any shade of red. The switch of tail and 

udder may be white, with some white running 
forward to the navel. Nose of a clear flesh 
color. Interior of ears should be of a yellow- 
ish, waxy color 2 

Objections: An extreme dark or an extreme 
light red is not desirable. A cloudy nose or 
one with dark spots. 

2. Head. — Of medium length, wide between the 

eyes, sloping gradually from above eyes to poll. 
The poll well defined and prominent, with a 
sharp dip behind it in center of head. Ears of 
medium size and well carried. Eyes promi- 
nent ; face well dished between the eyes. Muz- 
zle wide, with large nostrils 6 

Objections: A rounding or flat appearance 
of the poll. Head too long and narrow 

3. Neck. — Of medium length, clean cut, and straight 

from head to top of shoulder with inclination 
to arch when fattened, and may show folds of 
loose skin underneath when in milking form . 3 

4. Shoulder. — Of medium thickness and smoothly 

laid, coming up level with line of back ... 6 

Objections: Shoulder too prominent, giving 
the appearance of weakness in heart girth ; 
shoulder protruding above line of back. 

5. Chest. — Broad and deep, insuring constitution. 

Brisket prominent and coming well forward . . 10 

6. Back and ribs. — Back medium long, straight 

and level from withers to setting-on of tail, 
moderately wide, with spring of ribs starting 
from the back-bone, giving a rounding appear- 
ance, with ribs flat and fairly wide apart ... 14 

Objections : Front ribs too straight, causing 
depression back of shoulders. Drop in back or 
loin below the top-line. 

7. Hips. — Wide, rounding over the hooks, and well 

covered '. 3 

8. Quarters. — Of good length, full, rounding and 

level ; thighs wide, roomy and not too meaty . 6 

Objections: Prominent hooks and sunken 
quarters. 

9. Tail. — Tail-head strong and setting well forward, 

long and tapering to a full switch 2 

10. Legs. — Short, straight, squarely placed, medium 

bone 3 

Objections : Hocks crooked ; legs placed too 
close together. 



Scale of Points for Red Polled Cattle, continued 

For cows Perfect 

score 

11. Fore-udder. — Pull and flexible, reaching well 

forward, extending down level with hind- 
udder 10 

12. Hind-udder. — Full and well up behind .... 10 

13. Teats. — Well placed, wide apart and of reasona- 

bly good size 4 

Objections : Lack of development, especially 
in forward udder. Udder too deep, "bottle 
shaped" and teats too close together. Teats 
unevenly placed and either too large or too 
small. 

14. Milk veins. — Of medium size, full, flexible, 

extending well forward, well retained within 
the body ; milk wells of medium size .... 6 

15. Hide. — Loose, mellow, flexible, inclined to thick- 

ness, with a good full coat of soft hair ... 5 
Objections : Thin, papery skin or wiry hair. . 

16. Condition. — Healthy; moderate to liberal flesh 

evenly laid on ; glossy coat ; animal presented 
in good bloom 10 

Perfection 100 

For bulls 

Disqualifications. — Scurs, or any evidence whatever 
of a horny growth on the head. Any white spots on body 
above lower line or brush of tail. Perfect 

score 

1. Color. — Any shade of red. The switch of tail 

may be white, with some white running forward 
to the navel. Nose of a clear flesh color. Inte- 
rior of ears should be of a yellowish, waxy 

color 2 

Objections : An extreme dark or an extreme 
light red is not desirable. A cloudy nose or 
one with dark spots. 

2. Head. — Wide, strong and masculine, relatively 

short. Poll stronger and less prominent than 
in cow. Ears of medium size and well carried ; 
eyes prominent ; muzzle wide with large nos- 
trils 12 

Objections: Long, narrow, or lacking in 
masculine character. 

3. Neck. — Of medium length, full crest, of good 

thickness, strong, of masculine appearance . . 5 

4. Shoulder. — Of medium thickness and smoothly 

laid, coming up level with line of back ... 8 

Objections : Shoulder too prominent, giving 
the appearance of weakness in heart girth ; 
shoulder protruding above line of back. 

5. Chest. — Broad and deep, insuring constitution. 

Brisket prominent and coming well forward . . 12 

6. Back and ribs. — Back medium long, straight and 

level from withers to setting-on of tail, moder- 
ately wide, with spring of ribs starting from 
the back-bone, giving a rounding appearance, 

with ribs flat and fairly wide apart 14 

Objections : Front ribs too straight, causing 
depression back of shoulders. Drop in back or 
loin below the top-line. 

7. Hips. — Wide, rounding over the hooks, and well 

covered 3 

8. Quarters. — Of good length, full, rounding, and 

level ; thighs wide and moderately full, deep . 6 

Objections : Prominent hooks, sunken quar- 
ters. 

9. Tail. — Tail-head strong and setting well for- 

ward, long and tapering to a full switch ... 2 



368 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



Scale of Points for Red Polled Cattle, continued 

For bulls Perfect 

score 

10. Legs. — Short, straight, squarely placed, medium 

bone 3 

Objections: Hocks crooked ; legs placed too 
close together. 

11. Rudimentaries. — Large, wide apart, and placed 

well forward 12 

Position of rudimentaries 6 

Objections : Rudimentaries placed back on 
scrotum, or placed too close together, indicat- 
ing tendency to transmit badly formed udders. 

12. Hide. — Loose, mellow, flexible, inclined to thick- 

ness, with a good full coat of soft hair ... 5 
Objections : Thin, papery skin or wiry hair. 

13. Condition. — Healthy ; moderate to liberal flesh 

evenly laid on ; glossy coat ; animal presented 
in good bloom 10 

Perfection 100 

History. 

Hornless or polled cattle have existed in the 
county of Suffolk, England, from time immemorial. 
The probability seems to be that they were intro- 
duced soon after the Roman occupation. Bede says 
that the people who settled in eastern England 
after the Romans had gone, brought with them 
slaves, their cattle, and all their live-stock. Cer- 
tain it is the breed has existed in Suffolk as far 
back as we can trace the history. 

Of the Norfolk strain of the breed, Mr. H. F. 
Euren, in the account prepared for the herdbook, 
says : "The files of the Norwich Mercury show 
that as early as the year 1778, there were whole 
dairies of polled cows in Norfolk." In the adver- 
tisements of that and succeeding years, sales of 
polled cows and bulls are specially referred to. 
Mr. Money Griggs, of Gately, who died in 1872, in 
his hundredth year, and who had been for upwards 




Fig. 382. Red Polled bull. 

of eighty years, a tenant of the Elmham estate, 
informed Mr. Fulcher, when making inquiries as to 
the breed, that "from his earliest recollection Red 
Polled cattle had been kept in the neighborhood of 
Elmham." 

In America. — There seems little doubt that our 



so-called native muley cows are descendants, more 
or less mixed with other strains, of the Norfolk 
and Suffolk cows brought over by the early emi- 
grants from that section. They have been preserved 
from extinction by the persistence of their good 
qualities. The persistence with which the old Suf- 
folk traits are transmitted, under what would seem 
most adverse conditions, finds a striking illustration 
in what were known in Massachusetts as James- 
town cattle. In 1847, during the famine in Ireland, 




Fig. 383. Red Polled cow. Olena. 

the people of Boston sent a shipload of provisions 
to that country to relieve the distress. As a slight 
token of appreciation, a Mr. Jeffries, living near 
Cork, presented to the captain a Suffolk polled 
heifer. She was delivered by him to the donors of 
the provisions, and was sold at auction for the 
benefit of the fund. She proved a remarkably line 
milker, and her progeny (mostly bulls, by what 
were then known as Alderney sires) were used 
largely in the dairy herds about Boston. The prog- 
eny of these half-blood Suffolk bulls were nearly 
all hornless, and were so superior to the ordinary 
cattle of the district as to become noted. They 
were known as Jamestown cattle, from the name 
of the vessel in which the heifer came over. At 
several local fairs they were shown in considerable 
numbers. 

The first regular importation of Red Polled 
cattle for breeding purposes was made by G. F. 
Taber, of New York, in 1873. This importation 
consisted of a bull and three heifers. In 1875, he 
imported four more cows, and in 1882, three bulls 
and twenty-three heifers. From this time, the 
number brought over increased rapidly from year 
to year, until the prices on the other side became 
so high that the business was unprofitable. 

Distribution. 

In England, we find the Red Polled cattle in 
their native counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. 
They are also found in South America, Australia, 
Russia, South Africa, New Zealand, Canada and the 
United States. In America we find the greatest num- 
ber of Red Polled cattle in the Mississippi valley, 
in the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, 
Michigan, Minnesota, Iowa, the Dakotas, Kansas, 
Nebraska and Missouri. We also find them on the 
Atlantic coast, the Pacific coast and in Texas. In 




Plate XII. Shorthorn (or Durham) bull and cow 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



369 



the last-named place they are very numerous and 
do exceptionally well. 

Types. 

Suffolk Red Polled cattle. — This type was char- 
acterised by a thin, clean head; clean throat with 
little dewlap ; thin legs; a large frame; rib toler- 
ably springing from the center of the back, but 
with a heavy barrel; backbone ridged; udder 
large, loose and creased when empty ; milk veins 
remarkably large, and rising in knotted puffs. It 
was the dairy type, and was remarkable for the 
large and uniform yield of milk. It was developed 
in the county of Suffolk, England, at a very early 
date. 

Norfolk Red Polled cattle. — This type was char- 
acterized by small bones, short legs and round 
barrel, with good loins, and the head rather fine. 
It was a hardy, thriving strain, maturing at an 
early age and making a superior quality of flesh. 
It was the beef type and had poor milking quali- 
ties. It was developed at an early date in Norfolk 
county, England. 

Breeders of these two types, striving to produce 
good dual-purpose animals, that should be polled and 
red-colored, gradually worked toward the same 
type. Mr. Euren says: " The year 1846 may be taken 
as the dr te from which the Norfolk and Suffolk vari- 
eties merged into each other, so as to be spoken of 
as one and the same breed." There was a friendly 
rivalry between the two counties at the agricul- 
tural shows, and a constant interchange of the 
best blood, with a resulting improvement and simi- 
larity in the two strains. After an exhibit at 
Battersea in 1862, when it was noted that the best 
forms of the two types were of the same kind, the 
name Norfolk and Suffolk Red Polled cattle was 
given them. Later, about 1882, the first part was 
dropped, since which time the cattle have been 
known simply as Red Polled. 



The Red Polled cattle are a dual-purpose breed, 
and we find that they have made a large number of 
very creditable records, both in dairy tests and in 
slaughter tests. 

For milk and butter. — The cows give a good flow 
of milk, which tests well, and milk right up to 
calving if allowed. Some results of tests may be 
given to illustrate this point. The following dairy 
tests were made at the state fairs the past season 
(1907). At Ohio State Fair a three-days' test re- 
sulted as follows : The cow Queen Bess 20335 gave 
99 pounds of milk and 5.316 pounds of fat ; the 
cow Miss McKinley 17203 gave 82.7 pounds of milk 
and 3.843 pounds of fat ; the cow Cassandra 2nd 
16305 gave 92.1 pounds of milk and 3.48 pounds of 
fat. At the Illinois State Fair, in a three-days' test 
the Red Polled cow Olena 18772 gave 128.4 pounds 
of milk and 4.533 pounds of fat. The next highest 
cow of any breed in the show made 4.234 pounds of 
fat. At the Wisconsin State Fair, in a three-days' 
test the Red Polled cow Olena 18772 gave 125 
pounds and 12 ounces of milk, and made 5.336 
pounds of fat. 

C24 



For beef. — The steers make a good growth, 
are ready for market at an early age, and 
furnish a very fine quality of meat. The follow- 
ing slaughter tests, made at the International 
Live-Stock Exposition show the standing of the 
Red Polled cattle in meat-production : For two- 
year-olds (1906), the highest yield was made by an 
Aberdeen-Angus, dressing 69.5 per cent ; the next 
highest was a Red Polled, dressing 69.2 per cent. 
For yearlings (1906), the highest yield was a Red 
Polled, dressing 67.5 per cent ; the next highest 
was a Hereford, dressing 67.1 per cent. For two- 
year-olds (1907), the highest yield was made by an 
Aberdeen-Angus, dressing, 66.9 per cent ; the next 
highest was an Aberdeen-Angus, dressing 66.64 
per cent ; the next was a Red Polled, dressing 66.6 
per cent. In this test were fifteen entries. 

For crossing and grading, Red Polled bulls have 
been used extensively and with good results. They 
transmit the color and polled character uniformly, 
and may be used profitably on either dairy or beef 
common stock. They cross well with Shorthorns. 

Organizations and records. 

The Red Polled Society of Great Britain and Ire- 
land was organized in 1888, at which time it took 
up the publishing of the Red Polled Herdbook, 
which had been published by H. F. Euren since 
1874. The Red Polled Cattle Club of America was 
organized at Chicago in 1883. The first volume of 
its herdbook appeared in 1887, since which time 
nineteen volumes have been issued. Until 1901, 
the American Red Polled Herdbook included all of 
the cattle entered in the English series. At present 
only cattle grown in this country are published in 
the American series. There are several state asso- 
ciations in America devoted to the breed. 

Literature. 

For references, see page 302. 

Shorthorn Cattle. Figs. 46, 276, 384, 385. 

By Herbert W. Mumford. 

Shorthorn cattle are a breed possessing both 
beef and dairy types. Registered and grade cattle 
of this breed are more numerous than the cattle of 
any other beef breed. They originated in the valley 
of the Tees river, in northeastern England, and first 
became prized by farmers in the shires of Durham, 
Northumberland, Lincoln, and York. Largely from 
the localities in which they originated, Shorthorns 
were formerly called Teeswater cattle and Dur- 
hams. These names as referring to Shorthorns 
have now largely become obsolete. 

Description. 

The general conformation of the Shorthorn is 
that of the beef type. The breed is characterized 
by width and depth of form, great scale and sub- 
stance, and symmetry and style. It is the largest 
of the beef breeds. The head should be wide 
between the eyes, short from eyes to nostril, and 
while it should be neat and refined, it should indi- 
cate good feeding qualities. The horns are short 



370 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



and rather fine, should curve gracefully forward, 
and should be waxy white in color, with dark tips. 
A "spike" horn is objectionable. The neck should 
be short and fine, and smoothly jointed to the head 
and shoulders. The shoulders are rather upright, 
and frequently inclined to be bare of flesh. The 
back should be straight, level and broad, and 
deeply covered with flesh. The strong feature in 
the make-up of the Shorthorn is the hind-quarter, 
which is said to be the best of any breed. The 
thighs are wide, deep, and long, and well tilled 
down in the twist. The line of the back of the 
thigh is nearly straight from the tail down, giving 
a characteristic squarely built appearance. As a 
rule, the body is deep, with a good heart and digest- 
ive capacity. The flanks should be well let down, 
making a nearly straight under-line. The legs are 
medium length and of fine yet strong bone. The 
breed has a great capacity for the production 



rf?£Sfc 



i!f!W» 




Fig. 384. Champion Shorthorn bull. Whitehall Sultan 163573 

of flesh, and as they become fat there is a tendency 
to produce patches of fat about the tail-head and 
rolls along the sides. 

A criticism of the breed that has been made in 
the past is that Shorthorns were too long in the 
legs. There was probably just ground for this 
criticism in the old type of Shorthorn, but since 
the breed has received such an infusion of the 
blood of the low-set, short-legged Scotch type, this 
tendency has been largely done away with. 

The color of the Shorthorn is more variable than 
that of any other breed of cattle. It may be pure 
red, pure white, a mixture of these two colors, or 
roan. Roan is distinctively a Shorthorn color, and 
may always be regarded as an indication of Short- 
horn blood. Red and white were always character- 
istic colors of the old Shorthorn breed in England, 
but after their introduction into the United States, 
white became unpopular, especially on the western 
ranges, and anything except a solid red color was 
greatly discriminated against. The demand for red 
cattle became greater than the supply of good 
individuals, and sires of very ordinary character 
were used for no other reason than that they were 
red, while excellent individuals of the lighter 
colors were rejected. Good sense and sound judg- 



ment finally prevailed in the matter, and the red 
color craze has abated so that whites and roans 
have again come into popularity. 

No scale of points has been adopted for the 
Shorthorn breed of cattle. 

History. 

As has been said, the Shorthorn breed of cattle 
originated in northeastern England, and first 
became popular in the shires of Durham, North- 
umberland, Lincoln and York. From this somewhat 
restricted territory their popularity gradually ex- 
tended throughout England and Scotland, until, 
early in the nineteenth century, they were by far 
the most popular race of cattle in the British Isles. 
Authorities differ somewhat as to the particular 
stock used in developing this breed. All agree, 
however, that the largest factor entering into their 
production was the native cattle of the northeast- 
ern section of England. That occa- 
sional crosses of Dutch bulls were 
used is probable. 

Collings Brothers. — Improvement 
began about 1750, although very lit- 
tle methodical or efficient work was 
accomplished prior to the cattle- 
breeding operations of Messrs. Rob- 
ert and Charles Collings, of Barmpton 
and Ketton Hall. By careful selection 
and inbreeding they succeeded in set- 
ting standards towards which con- 
temporary breeders aimed. Charles 
Collings' first Shorthorn purchase was 
made in 1784. His herd was dispersed 
successfully in 1810. Robert Collings' 
herd was sold partly in 1818 and the 
remainder in 1820. While these two 
brothers operated their farms sepa- 
rately and maintained separate herds, 
their methods and accomplishments were similar. 
They were unusually fortunate in the purchase of 
that first great Shorthorn sire, Hubback (319). 
While this was an undersized bull, yellow-red in 
color, he proved a fortunate " nick " for the late- 
maturing, coarse cows so common in the early his- 
tory of the breed. As breeders of the Durham Ox, 
The White Heifer that Traveled, Favorite (252) and 
Comet (155), these pioneer breeders established a 
reputation for breeding good Shorthorns that has 
made an impression on every careful student of the 
early history of the breed. 

Other English breeders. — Among others, the fol- 
lowing breeders were identified with the early 
history of the breed : Sir William St. Quintin. Sir 
James Pennyman, and Messrs. Milbank, Shatter, 
Pickering, Stephenson, Wetherell, Maynard, Dobin- 
son, Charge, Wright, Hutchinson, Snowdon, Wais- 
tell, Richard and William Barker, Brown, Hall, 
Hill, Best, Watson, Baker, Thompson, Jackson, 
Smith, Jolly, Masterman, Wallace, and Robertson. 
Darlington was for years looked on as the center 
of Shorthorn interests, although, strange as it may 
seem, there is but little activity in breeding Short- 
horns in that section at the present time. 

Thomas Bates of Kirklcvington. — Thomas Bates, 



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371 



who was destined to become such an important 
factor in the breeding of Shorthorn cattle, pur- 
chased his first stock in 1800. He had previ- 
ously been a breeder of Kyloes or West Highland 
cattle. He was well prepared for uhe work he 
undertook, and established families of Shorthorns 
of such pronounced individuality and recognized 
excellence of pedigree that they were at one time 
by far the most popular strain of the breed. 
Prices were paid during "boom times" for Bates' 
Shorthorns that have never been approached by 
Shorthorns of other lines of breeding. Thomas 
Bates was a stickler for pedigree. He assumed 
that cattle bred along certain specified lines would 
produce, when mated, almost invariably certain 
desired results. The particular family or tribe 
which he developed most and favored most was the 
Duchess. Fabulous prices have been paid for rep- 
resentatives of this family. The highest recorded 
price, $40,600, was paid for a cow of 
this family at the New York Mills 
sale of September 10, 1873. 

Belvedere (1706) was one of the 
best bulls used by Bates, while the 
Duke of Northumberland (1940), the 
acknowledged champion bull of Eng- 
land in 1842, was undoubtedly the 
best bull ever produced at Kirklev- 
ington. Bates' aim in breeding was 
to produce a dual-purpose cow, and 
as a consequence he gave careful 
attention to preserving the milking 
qualities of his Shorthorns. There 
was a characteristic style and finish 
about Bates' Shorthorns that still 
clings to cattle containing a strong 
infusion of this blood. While cattle 
of Thomas Bates' breeding were fre- 
quently seen in the show-ring from 
1838 to 1848, and wherever shown were unusually 
successful, he was personally very much opposed 
to training cattle for show. The Bates herd was 
dispersed in 1850, when prices were very low, and 
as a consequence the cattle did not bring what 
they were worth. 

The Booths. — The elder Booth was a contempo- 
rary of Thomas Bates. His first herd was established 
at Killerby in 1790. His especial aim was to breed 
an earlier-maturing beast that would be noted for 
its beef-producing rather than its milk-producing 
qualities. While Mr. Booth was very ready to admit 
that the Collings had greatly improved Shorthorns, 
he did not think, as many of the breeders of the 
time apparently thought, that it was necessary to 
buy the females composing his herd of them. 
Among his early purchases were five heifer calves 
from the herd of Mr. Broader of Fairholme. To 
mate with these heifers, Mr. Booth purchased the 
Robert Collings bred bull, Twin Brother to Ben 
(660), and one of his get. Some of the best of the 
Killerby and Warlaby cattle descended from this line 
of breeding and from the following tribes or fam- 
ilies : Blossom, Bright Eyes, Isabella and the Booth 
Red Roses. Another bull which was purchased of 
Robert Collings was Suworow (626), at the disper- 



sion sale of the Ketton Hall herd in 1810. Mr. 
Booth purchased the bull Albion (14), which proved 
to be a most excellent sire. Most of his bulls were 
from the Collings' herds. Besides the families of 
Shorthorns mentioned, Thomas Booth was partial 
to the Strawberry and Bracelet tribes. In 1819, Mr. 
Thomas Booth gave up the Killerby farm and a part 
of his herd to his son John, and removed to his 
Warlaby farm, so prominent in Shorthorn history. 
To another son, Richard, who was on the Studley 
farm, he had also sold a number of his Shorthorns. 

Other families of Shorthorns which should be 
associated with the Booth families are the Fare- 
wells, the Broughton, Dairy Maids or Moss Roses, 
Gaudy or Lady Betty sort, Mantilinis and Belindas. 

Perhaps the three most famous show animals 
bred by Booth were Bracelet and Necklace, twin 
heifers, sired by Priam (2452) and Lady Fragrant. 
The twin cows mentioned proved excellent breed- 




Fig. 385. A typical dual-purpose Shorthorn cow. Gipsy Maid. 

ers. The most famous bull used by any of the 
Booths was Crown Prince (10087), "The bull of all 
Booth bulls," the one that was to Warlaby what 
Duke of Northumberland was to Kirklevington, 
and Champion of England was to Sittyton. Crown 
Prince was considered too valuable a stock-getter 
to be fitted for exhibition. 

The Booth family is still interested in the breed- 
ing of Shorthorns and the operations of this family 
will always remain an interesting chapter in the 
history of Shorthorns. They were prominent in the 
leading live-stock shows of the country, and un- 
doubtedly the breeding qualities of many of their 
best cattle were affected by high feeding for exhi- 
bition purposes. 

In United States. — The first recorded importation 
of Shorthorns to the United States was that of Mr. 
Miller, of Virginia, and Mr. Gough, of Baltimore, 
Maryland. These gentlemen imported from Great 
Britain, in 1783, some cattle that were undoubtedly 
of the Shorthorn breed. In the years 1790 and 

1795, it is thought that they brought in consign- 
ments of cattle of the same breed. In 1791 and 

1796, Mr. Heaton brought several Shorthorns from 
England to the state of New York, which were lost 
among the common stock of the country. A Scotch- 



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man named Cox, brought a Shorthorn bull and two 
cows to Rensselaer county, New York, in 1815. 
The first Kentucky importation was made in 1817, 
by Colonel Lewis Sanders, who purchased through 
an agent eight Shorthorns and four Longhorns. 
At about the same time, James Prentice, of Lexing- 
ton, Kentucky, imported two good Shorthorn bulls. 

Importations were brought to the state of Massa- 
chusetts in 1817 by Samuel Williams, in 1818 by 
Cornelius Coolidge. In 1822, Mr. Williams sent over 
the roan yearling heifer Arabella, by North Star 
(460). The Arabellas were noted for being heavy 
milkers, and at one time constituted a large and 
valuable family. Other Massachusetts importations 
of an early date were made by Messrs Lee, Orr, 
Monson, Coffin, Rotch and Silsby. From 1821 to 
1828, several unimportant importations were made 
to New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland. In 1833, 
Walter Dunn, living near Lexington, Kentucky, 
imported six head of valuable Shorthorns. Another 
importation was made by Mr. Dunn in company 
with Samuel Smith in 1836. 

The year 1833 was an important one in Short- 
horn history, for it saw the organization of the 
Ohio Importing Company, "For the purpose of pro- 
moting the interest of agriculture and introducing 
an improved breed of cattle." Felix Renick was 
chosen as the agent of this company to go to Eng- 
land to select cattle for the company. While it 
was not restricted to purchase all Shorthorns, it 
decided, after considerable investigation, to import 
only Shorthorns. Among the herds visited were 
those of Maynard, Booth, Bates, Whitaker, Alth- 
rope, Craddock, Raine and Paley. Seven bulls and 
twelve females were carefully selected for the first 
importation. In this lot were the two heifers, Rose 
of Sharon and Young Mary, which were destined to 
play such an important part in the history of Short- 
horns in the United States. This importation was so 
satisfactory to the shareholders of the Ohio Import- 
ing Company that their agent was soon author- 
ized to make arrangements for further importations. 
In 1835 and 1836, Mr. Whitaker, through Mr. 
Renick's authorization, sent out two shipments 
comprising forty-two animals to the Ohio Import- 
ing Company. Among these were Josephine, Young 
Phyllis, Illustrious, and Harriet. In August, 1836, 
this company held a sale on Felix Renick's farm 
in Rose county, Ohio. Forty-three animals were 
sold at an average price of $803.25, or a total of 
$34,540. The final dispersion sale of the company 
was held in 1837, at which the fifteen animals 
averaged $1,071.65. A number of importations 
were made to Ohio from 1836 to 1840. In 1839, 
the Kentucky Importing Company brought over a 
number of Shorthorns. 

From 1840 to 1850, agriculture in the United 
States was in a very depressed state, and the cattle 
industry, along with other farm interests, remained 
practically at a standstill. There was little demand 
for breeding cattle, which resulted in large num- 
bers of Shorthorn breeding stock finding their 
way to the shambles. In 1852, the Scioto Valley 
Importing Company was organized. This company, 
through its agents, George W. Renick and Dr. 



Arthur Watts, imported ten bulls and seventeen 
females, which were sold at auction at the very 
high average of $1,351.85. This sale proved a 
stimulus to Shorthorn-cattle-breeding interests, and 
other importing companies were quickly organized, 
among which were the Madison County, Ohio, the 
Northern Kentucky, and the Scott County Import- 
ing Companies, the Clinton County, Ohio, and Clark 
County, Ohio, Associations. 

In 1852 and 1853, Mr. A. J. Alexander of Ken- 
tucky, who was visiting in Great Britain, laid the 
foundation of the Woodburn herd of Shorthorns. 
The first shipment of cattle to the Alexander farm 
was made in 1853 ; subsequently other importa- 
tions were made, which included Duchess Airdrie, 
Duchess Athol, Pearlette, Victoria 20th, Filigree, 
Lady Gulnare, Minna, Constance, Rosabella, and 
other cows. Three of the leading bulls imported 
were Duke of Airdrie, Second Duke of Athol and 
Dr. Buckingham. At the Northern Kentucky and 
Scott County Companies' sales, Mr. Alexander made 
important purchases in the cows Mazurka, Maid of 
Melrose and Equity. The Woodburn herd took a 
prominent place in Shorthorn affairs and was at 
one time probably one of the largest and best 
Shorthorn herds in America if not in the world. 
The Duke of Airdrie (12730) was used a year by 
George M. Bedford and to some extent by Abram 
Renick and Jere Duncan, as well as by Mr. Alex- 
ander. Bell Duke of Airdrie 2552, Duncan's Duke 
of Airdrie 2743, and Airdrie 2478 are considered 
among this great bull's most famous sons. 

Among the most prominent breeders of Short- 
horns in the United States at this early period 
should be mentioned Abram Renick of Kentucky. 
Perhaps the most far-reaching accomplishment of 
his efforts is to be found in the founding and 
bringing to a high degree of excellence that family 
that for many years attracted international atten- 
tion, viz., the Rose of Sharon. The bull Airdrie 
2478, already mentioned, was spoken of as one of 
medium size, very symmetrical, neat, smooth and 
stylish, and a remarkable sire of high-class bulls. 
This bull was used extensively in Mr. Renick's herd 
and sired, among other famous Shorthorns, the 
bull Sweepstakes 6230, Joe Johnson, Airdrie 3d 
13320, Dick Taylor 5508, and Airdrie Duke 5306. 
It was with the get of Airdrie that Mr. Renick 
began his system of in-and-inbreeding, producing 
the Rose of Sharons that called forth the admira- 
tion and respect of the entire Shorthorn-breeding 
fraternity. 

Even a brief history of Shorthorns should not 
omit the name of Warfield. Benjamin Warfield 
secured his first pure-bred Shorthorn in 1831. The 
first great sire in the herd was Renick 903. He 
was noted more as a sire than for his individual 
excellence. Benjamin Warfield was succeeded by 
his son, William Warfield, of Grasmere. One of the 
famous bulls used by Warfield was Muscatoon 
7057. This bull proved to be not only an excel- 
lent show bull but a sire of superior show animals. 
Mr. William Warfield originated the Loudon Duch- 
esses, by many persons thought to be one of the 
best tribes of Shorthorns evolved in America. 



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373 



Several importations were made into the eastern 
part of the United States from 1830 to 1860. This 
stock was very largely of the Bates strains. Per- 
haps the most important importations during this 
period were by Mr. Samuel Thorne, of Thorndale, 
New York. His first importation was followed by 
others in 1854, 1855 and 1856. These constituted 
the highest-priced cattle that had thus far been 
brought to the United States. In 1857, Mr. Thorne 
purchased the Morris and Becar herd, consisting 
of fifty-three Shorthorns, at the reported price of 
?35,000. 

While the principal importations were confined 
to Kentucky, Ohio, and New York, Shorthorn 
activity was apparent elsewhere, notably in Illi- 
nois, Indiana, Michigan, Missouri and Iowa. 

In Canada. — In 1833, Mr. Roland Wingfield, near 
Toronto, imported two Shorthorn bulls and five 
cows from England. Other early importations were 
made by the Home District Agricultural Society, 
Adam Furgeson, Messrs. George and John Simpson, 
William and George Miller and Frederick William 
Stone. It may be said, however, that the Short- 
horns were not imported extensively to Canada 
until Scotch Shorthorns came into popularity. 
Messrs. George and William Miller, Simon Beattie, 
George Isaac and M. H. Cochrane were first respon- 
sible for Shorthorn activity in Canada. 

The first Canadian to bring Scotch cattle into 
prominence in America was Mr. Joseph S. Thompson, 
Mayfield, Whitby, Canada. He imported the Cham- 
pion of England heifers, Sylvia and Christobel, also 
Violet 4th. Mr. James I. Davidson, Balsam, Ontario, 
was also one of the early and most ardent supporters 
of the Scotch type in Shorthorns. He started his 
Shorthorn herd in 1860. From 1881 to 1887, practi- 
cally all the stock from the Sittyton herd that was 
brought to the United States passed through the 
hands of Mr. Davidson. Hon. John Dryden, Brook- 
lyn, Ontario, founded the Maple Shade Farm herd 
of Shorthorns, in 1871. He imported that famous 
Champion of England cow, Mimulus, and other 
good ones representing the best of the Sittyton 
blood. Hon. George Brown, of Bow Park farm, will 
go down in history as a prominent factor in Cana- 
dian Shorthorn activity. Among other Canadian 
breeders and importers were John M. Armstrong, 
Arthur Johnson, W. B. Telfar, W. Major, William 
Collum, Thomas Russell, Francis Green and George 
Whitfield. 

Important events in Shorthorn history since 1860. 
—In 1869 and 1870, Messrs. Walcott and Campbell, 
of New York, imported Booth Shorthorns and the 
entire Sheldon herd of Duchesses and Oxfords. 
This was the beginning of the greatest boom in 
Bates cattle in the United States. In 1867, Col. W. 
S. King, of Minneapolis, Minn., founded his impor- 
tant herd in the northwest. From 1860 to 1880, 
Shorthorns of Bates families were undoubtedly 
preeminently popular in the United States. In 
Canada, however, Scotch Shorthorns were gaining 
in popularity. 

The first sale of cattle ever held in Dexter 
Park, Chicago, was in the year 1872. These were 
prosperous times for Shorthorn breeders. This 



prosperity extended into the next year and culmi- 
nated in one of the greatest if not the greatest public 
sales of pedigreed cattle held in the. world, namely, 
the New York Mills sale of Walcott and Campbell, 
September 10, 1873. This herd contained the only liv- 
ing Duchesses which were descended direct from the 
Bates herd without the admixture of blood from 
other sources. The sale was very largely attended 
by Shorthorn fanciers from Great Britain, Canada 
and the United States. At this sale the eighth 
Duchess of Geneva brought $40,600, and many 
others were sold at fabulous prices. Almost imme- 
diately following this sale there came a period of 
financial depression, and Shorthorn cattle gradually 
decreased in value for a few years. 

Popularity of Scotch Shorthorns. — Undoubtedly 
the most notable feature of Shorthorn history from 
1880 to the present time has been the growing 
popularity of Scotch Shorthorns. Of all the breed- 
ers of Scotch Shorthorns, Amos Cruickshank is 
looked on as the most famous. He was an Aber- 
deenshire tenant farmer, who thought that Short- 
horns had been too much pampered for practical 
use on the tenant farms of Scotland, where climatic 
conditions made it necessary for the farmers to 
choose a hardy race of cattle. He was a lover of 
Shorthorns, and determined to develop a type that 
would meet the requirements of the farmers of 
Scotland. His ideal was a short-legged, broad, 
thick-fleshed beast, carrying a good middle ; that 
is, a well-sprung rib and a thick, fleshy back and 
loin. He selected animals of this type with which 
to found his herd, and was so successful that his 
herd soon became recognized as the foremost one 
of Scotland. His brother, Anthony, was associated 
with him. Mr. Cruickshank got a very strong hold 
on Shorthorn breeders, that remains to this day. 
To such an extent is this true that one Shorthorn 
may be two to five times more valuable than 
another of equal individual merit, simply because 
it has a good Scotch pedigree and the other has 
not. 

Among those who have helped to popularize 
Scotch Shorthorns in America may be mentioned 
Col. W. A. Harris, of Linwood, Kans., J. J. Hill, of 
St Paul, Minn., and Col. T. S. Moberly, of Rich- 
mond, Ky. Many other names might be added. 

Distribution. 

The Shorthorn is the most widely distributed 
breed of cattle. It is found in Europe, especially 
in Great Britain, in Asia, South Africa, Australia, 
North and South America. It is the most popular 
and most widely distributed beef breed of cattle in 
the United States and Canada, and is found in every 
state and province in these two countries. In the 
United States, Shorthorns are found most numer- 
ously in the following states, in order of their 
importance : Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, Ohio, Indiana, 
Kansas, Nebraska, Minnesota, Michigan. They are 
still growing in popularity. 

One feature which adds greatly to the popularity 
of the Shorthorns is their great adaptability. They 
have the power to adapt themselves to varying 
conditions of food, climate and treatment. Although 



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they are best adapted to temperate regions, they 
readily adjust themselves to greater extremes of 
temperature and climate. They possess a fair 
degree of hardiness, and do fairly well under range 
conditions. The Shorthorn was the first breed used 
for the improvement of the cattle on the ranges, 
and has been used extensively for this purpose in 
the United States, Argentina and Australia, but in 
recent years has been largely supplanted by the 
Hereford. Notwithstanding its value on the range, 
the Shorthorn is best adapted to a system of mixed 
farming, such as is followed in the Mississippi val- 
ley, where land is so valuable that a cow cannot be 
kept for the calf alone, but must yield a profit in 
the dairy. Mr. George M. Rommel, in Bulletin No. 
34, Bureau of Animal Industry, United States 
Department of Agriculture, states that, of the 
150,000 registered Shorthorns estimated to be 
living in America, 5 per cent are found on the 
range, and the other 95 per cent are in the hands 
of the small farmer. 



For milk. — The Shorthorn ranks high in its dairy 
capacity. In England there have always been 
families or strains, notably those of Bates breeding, 
which have been noted for their milking capacity, 
and in England today the dairy qualities of the 
Shorthorn receive as much consideration as its 
beef-producing qualities. It is asserted that 90 per 
cent of the milk-supply of London is furnished by 
Shorthorns. In America, more attention has been 
paid to the beef side of the question, and the dairy 
qualities have been somewhat neglected, especially 
during the past craze for the thick-fleshed, blocky 
Scotch type, which were poor milkers. At present, 
however, more and more attention is being paid to 
the milking qualities of the breed, and efforts are 
being made to develop milking strains of Short- 
horns. 

Major Henry E. Alvord, in Farmers' Bulletin 
No. 106, United States Department of Agriculture, 
gives some performances of Shorthorn herds and 
individuals as follows : "Records of several dairy 
herds in the United States, within a quarter of a 
century, show a milking season of about 275 days 
and an average product of 6,500 pounds of milk. 
One herd of ten cows, three to twelve years old, 
averaged 7,750 pounds in a year. Single cows have 
averaged much more, several instances being known 
of 10,000 to 12,000 pounds in a season. The Short- 
horn milk is of good quality, rather above the 
average ; the fat globules are of medium and fairly 
uniform size, so that cream separates easily; it is 
rather pale in color. In 1824, a cow near Philadel- 
phia made over twenty pounds of butter in a week 
without special feeding. Herds of forty cows have 
averaged 209 pounds of butter in a year ; the herd 
of ten cows mentioned above averaged 325 pounds, 
and single cows have records of 400 pounds and 
over, one being of 513 pounds." 

For butter. — The Shorthorns made a very credit- 
able showing in the butter tests against the lead- 
ing dairy breeds, the Jerseys and Guernseys, at the 
World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago, in 1893. 



In the ninety-day butter test, the best Shortnurn 
cow, Nora, produced 3,679.8 pounds of milk, from 
which was made 160.57 pounds of butter, and 
during the period she gained 115 pounds in weight. 
The best Jersey, Brown Bessie (Fig. 381), produced 
3,634 pounds of milk, from which was made 216.66 
pounds of butter, and gained 81 pounds. In this 
test the showing made by the Shorthorn was very 
good, considering the fact that not nearly so much 
care and money were spent in selecting the hen 
as was done with the Jerseys and Guernseys. 

For cheese. — At the same time, the Shorthorn 
made a like creditable showing in a 14-day cheese- 
making test. In this, the Shorthorn ranked third 
against the Jersey and Guernsey, yielding 12,186.9 
pounds of milk, which made 1,077.6 pounds of 
cheese. Nora, a Shorthorn, ran second to a Jersey, 
making 60.56 pounds of cheese at a net profit 
of $6.27. 

For beef. — For the production of beef, the Short- 
horn stands second to no breed, and there are very 
few that equal it. Its popularity as a beef breed 
both in England and the United States is shown by 
the number of its representatives found at the 
leading fat-stock shows of these two countries. 
The Shorthorn is naturally thick-fleshed, with a 
maximum development of the valuable parts of the 
carcass, which causes it to dress out a high per- 
centage of carcass to live weight, although it is 
not so good in this respect as the Aberdeen-Angus. 
The Shorthorn is a good feeder, and, when supplied 
with an abundance of food, makes large gains, 
yielding good returns for the food consumed. The 
breed matures early and can be made ready for the 
block at two to two and one-half years of age ; but, 
if so desired, it will stand a longer period of feed- 
ing. When forced for a long time, there is a tend- 
ency to take on flesh unevenly, with the fat in 
patches or rolls on the rump and along the sides. 

For crossing and grading. — No other breed has 
been used for grading up common cattle to the 
extent that the Shorthorn has, and marked improve- 
ment has resulted wherever this method of grading 
has been followed, as may be seen by noting the 
improvement that has followed the use of Short- 
horn bulls on our western ranges. In our American 
cattle markets, grade Shorthorns predominate over 
all other breeds in numbers. The first cross of a 
Shorthorn on any of the beef breeds makes a good 
beef animal. The "prime Scots," which are so pop- 
ular in the English markets, are crosses of the 
Shorthorn and Aberdeen-Angus. The " blue-gray " 
steers, which are also highly prized in the British 
markets, are crosses of the light-colored Shorthorns 
on the Galloway. 

Organizations and records. 

In 1822, George Coates, of "Yorkshire, England, 
published the Shorthorn Herdbook, the first registry 
of live-stock to be issued. From this developed the 
English Shorthorn Herdbook (Coates' Herdbook), of 
which fifty volumes have now been published. 
Since 1876, it has been in the hands of the Short- 
horn Society of the United Kingdom of Great 
Britain and Ireland. 



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375 



The work of recording Shorthorns in America 
was first taken up by Mr. Lewis P. Allen, of Black 
Rock, New York, who published the first volume of 
the American Shorthorn Herdbook in 1846. Mr. 
Allen continued this publication as a private enter- 
prise until 1882, when it was purchased by the 
American Shorthorn Breeders' Association. In 
1869, Mr. A. J. Alexander, of Woodburn, Kentucky, 
published the first volume of a herdbook known as 
the American Shorthorn Record. In 1878, the Ohio 
Shorthorn Breeders' Association published the first 
volume of the Ohio Shorthorn Record, two more 
volumes of which were published later. 

The registration of Shorthorns in the United 
States at present is conducted entirely by the 
American Shorthorn Breeders' Association, organ- 
ized in 1882. This association purchased the inter- 
ests of all the Shorthorn herdbooks in the United 
States, and continued the publication, beginning 
with Volume 25 of the American Shorthorn Herd- 
book started by Mr. Lewis F. Allen. Sixty-nine vol- 
umes of this herdbook have been published, and 
Volumes 70, 71 and 72 are now in preparation, two 
volumes being published annually. Up to the close 
of Volume 69, there are registered about 273,000 
males and 421,000 females, making a total of 
about 694,000. 

The first Shorthorn herdbook in Canada was the 
Canadian Shorthorn Herdbook, the first volume of 
which was published in 1867. In 1881, the first 
volume of the British-American Shorthorn Herd- 
book was published, and the first volume of the 
Dominion Herdbook appeared in 1887. The latter 
took over the interests and records of the first two 
herdbooks, and now the registration of Shorthorns 
in Canada is through the Dominion Herdbook. 

Polled Durham Cattle. Fig. 386. 

Polled Durhams, as a breed, have the unique 
distinction of being the only breed of cattle origi- 
nating in the United States. They are very similar 
to the Shorthorn, and, in fact, the Shorthorn is 
chiefly responsible for their origin. 

Description. 

Like the Shorthorn, the Polled Durham is mas- 
sive in size, quiet in disposition, and a breed well 
calculated to meet the requirements of farmers 
wanting a hornless race of dual-purpose cattle. 
They are, however, better fitted to give satisfaction 
as beef-producers than in the dairy. During the 
early history of the breed much attention was paid 
to color and milking qualities. Red was preferred, 
but in later years roans have come to be looked on 
with more favor. With the increase in numbers 
comes the opportunity to make more careful selec- 
tions, and the breed is making rapid advancement 
both in real merit and public esteem. It possesses 
considerable prepotency. 

No scale of points for judging Polled Durham 
cattle has been adopted. Nearly all Polled Dur- 
hams that are being recorded at the present time 
are pure Shorthorn in blood, and breeders are 
striving to produce, as nearly as possible, the ideal 



Shorthorn, minus the horns. Polled Durhams are 
judged by the same standards as are Shorthorns, 
and in nearly all large shows Polled Durhams are 
judged by a Shorthorn breeder. 

Distribution. 

Herds of Polled Durhams are more numerous in 
Indiana, Iowa, Ohio and Illinois than in other 
states, although they are being introduced rather 
extensively into other sections of the country, 
notably in North Dakota, Kansas, Kentucky, Wis- 
consin, Texas and Nebraska. Several have been 
shipped to the Argentine Republic, in South 
America. 

Types. 

There are two somewhat distinct lines of blood 
to be found among Polled Durhams. These are 
designated as Double-Standard and Single-Standard 
Polled Durhams. 

Double- Standard Polled Durhams include the 
hornless Shorthorns that are eligible for record in 
the American Shorthorn Herdbook, as well as the 
American Polled Durham Herdbook. They are the 




Fig. 386. Young Polled Durham bull. 

result of retaining, as breeding animals, hornless 
Shorthorns, which occasionally appear as freaks 
in Shorthorn herds. The most of the Double-Stand- 
ard Polled Durhams are from the three families, 
White Roses, Young Phyllis and Gwynne's. 

Single- Standard Polled Durhams are eligible for 
record in the Polled Durham record only. This 
branch of Polled Durhams originated by the 
attempts on the part of a number of breeders, 
working, at first largely independently, to develop 
a race of hornless cattle with the characteristics of 
the Shorthorn breed. This was accomplished by the 
use of Shorthorn bulls on the native muley cows. 

Breeders of note. 

Among the early breeders interested in the 
development of the Polled Durham breed the fol- 
lowing were most prominent : William W. Crane, 
Tippecanoe City, Ohio; W. S. Miller, Elmore, Ohio ; 
J. F. and A. E. Burleigh, Mazon, Illinois; and Shafor 
and Clawson, Hamilton, Ohio. 

Organizations and records. 

The American Polled Durham Breeders' Associa- 
tion, which has for its object the furthering of the 
interests of the breed, and the recording of animals 
eligible to its herdbook, was organized in Chicago, 



376 



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CATTLE 



November 13, 1889, and was chartered November 
2, 1890. Three volumes of the American Polled 
Durham Herdbook have been published, the first 
having appeared in 1894. "Animals to be eligible 
to entry in the American Polled Durham Herdbook 
must be at least six months old ; must be natu- 
rally hornless ; must have both parents recorded 
therein or have one parent recorded in the book 
and the other parent recorded in the American 
Shorthorn Herdbook ; and further, must have all 
ancestry that are eligible recorded in the American 
Polled Durham Herdbook." 

Literature. 

A. H. Sanders, Shorthorn Cattle, Sanders Pub- 
lishing Company, Chicago ; Lewis P. Allen, History 
of Shorthorn Cattle ; C. J. Bates, Thomas Bates 
and the Kirklevington Shorthorns, London (1897); 
W. H. Beaver, An Arithmetical Arrangement of the 
Leading Shorthorn Tribes ; Thomas Bell, History of 
Improved Shorthorn-Durham Cattle (1871); William 
Housman, The Improved Shorthorn, London (1876); 
Plumb, Little Sketches of Famous Beef Cattle, 
Columbus, Ohio (1904); herdbooks of the various 
Shorthorn associations. [For further references, 
see page 302.] 

Sussex Cattle. Figs. 387, 388. 

By Overton Lea. 

Sussex cattle are so called from the county of 
that name in England, where they most abound. 
They are distinctly a beef breed. 

Description. 

For a short description, by way of comparison, 
imagine a Devon with the weight of a Shorthorn, 
and the picture will convey an accurate idea of the 
Sussex. More particularly, "the horns are of medium 
length, coming out at any angle, but generally 
horizontally, branching laterally, and turning 
upward toward the ends ; nose tolerably wide, with 
muzzle of flesh-color ; thin between the nostrils 



and well covered ; rump flat and long ; tail with 
white brush, which should drop perpendicularly ; 
thigh flat outside and full inside ; coat soft and 
silky, with a mellow touch ; color solid red, both 
light and dark, sometimes the two shades mingling 
and making a beautiful dappled bay ; and a few 
gray or white hairs, nearly always single, except 
on the foretop, are regarded most favorably." 
The special merits claimed for the breed are 
size, early maturity, propensity to fatten, 





Fig. 387. A Sussex bull. 



and eyes ; eyes rather prominent ; forehead inclined 
to be wide ; neck short ; sides straight ; wide and 
open in the breast, which should project forward ; 
girth deep ; legs short ; chine-bone straight ; ribs 
broad ; loin full of flesh ; hip-bone not very large, 



Fig. 388. A Sussex cow. 

prime quality of flesh laid on the most desirable 
parts, hardihood of constitution, uniform popular 
color and capacity to impress these characteristics 
on their offspring. 

The American Sussex Cattle Association has 
never adopted a scale of points for judging this 
breed. 

History. 

The origin of the Sussex, like that of all the 
oldest breeds of English cattle, is involved in 
obscurity. According to Youatt and Martin, some of 
the ancient Britons fled before the advance of their 
enemies to the Weald of East Sussex and carried 
with them their cattle, or found there some of the 
native cattle of the country, and zealously guarded 
them against all admixture. Mr. Alfred Heas- 
man, editor of the first three volumes of the 
Sussex Herdbook, and author of a chapter on 
Sussex cattle in "The Cattle of the British 
Isles," doubts whether the breed was im- 
ported or found native to the country on the 
advent of William the Conqueror and his 
followers. Be this as it may, the breed is univer- 
sally recognized to be a distinct one. It has been 
a prominent feature of Sussex from time im- 
memorial, and has preserved, unchanged through 
all vicissitudes, the same characteristics, — great 
weight, aptitude to fatten, and red color, — except 
in so far as improved by better feeding and greater 
care. Originally they were used chiefly for draft 
purposes, their great size and strength and activ- 
ity, withal, enabling them to draw promptly the 
heaviest loads and till the stiffest soil. But, even 
in remote times, the quality of their flesh was highly 
prized and, when the oxen became aged, they were 
bought up, grazed a year, and supplied the markets 
with aniinals weighing 180 to 200 stone (a stone 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



377 



is about 14 pounds avoirdupois, making the weight 
2,500 to 2,800 pounds.) 

These cattle have always been the favorite of 
the tenant farmer (than whom there is no better 
judge of a profitable animal) of Sussex and adja- 
cent counties, and have constituted for many years 
one of the chief attractions at the local stock 
shows. More recently, stimulated by the exporta- 
tion of large numbers of the principal breeds at 
fancy prices, some of the English breeders have 
sought to bring forward the Sussex more promi- 
nently at all of the leading shows of the British 
Isles ; nor are they strangers in the show-yards on 
this side of the Atlantic. Most gratifying success 
has crowned these efforts both abroad and here, as 
may be seen from the files of the English and 
American agricultural press for the past quarter 
of a century. 

In America. — The date of the first importation 
to America is uncertain. The characteristics of 
many of the so-called native red cattle, found in 
New England and in Tennessee on and near Cumber- 
land plateau, and, perhaps, in other states, suggest 
that they, in common with almost all species and 
breeds of domestic animals, were brought over by 
the early colonists. Since 1880, a number of impor- 
tations have been made, and the Sussex are domi- 
ciled on many farms and scattered overihe ranges, 
doing their full share toward the improvement of 
the native cattle. In 1884, the writer imported a 
number of this breed of cattle for his farm in Ten- 
nessee. In 1891, the Ontario Agricultural College 
at Guelph, Canada, made an importation. 

Distribution. 

Sussex cattle are not yet widely distributed. 
Their local habitat is Sussex and the adjoining 
counties in England. They have been exported to 
Canada and the United States, and, as stated in 
the agricultural press, to South Africa, Egypt, and, 
perhaps, to South America also. As far as known 
they have thrived wherever tried, and it may be 
stated safely that they will do well wherever any 
of the bovine species can be produced successfully. 
Cattle from the herd of the writer have been dis- 
tributed to several parts of Tennessee, and to Ala- 
bama, Arkansas, South Carolina and Texas. Other 
herds are found in Maine, Indiana and Illinois. 

Feeding and care. 

The breed responds as generously as any to full 
feeding and care, and thrives on rough and scant 
pasturage. In cold weather, shelter — the lee side of 
a shed, or wind-shield, or straw-stack, if no better 
is obtainable — is a distinct advantage ; at other 
seasons, nothing but fair grazing is required. 

Uses. 

For milk. — As the Sussex is primarily a beef 
breed, its milk-giving qualities have not been espe- 
cially developed. At the same time, the cows, 
almost without exception, give milk of most excel- 
lent quality and, if milked closely, make surpris- 
ingly good dairy animals. They fatten when dry 
more readily, perhaps, than the ox. 



For beef. — The Sussex has achieved the highest 
honors " on the scale and the block." The object 
of the breeders, as a class, revealed by the typical 
Sussex of today, has been to produce the most 
profitable butcher's beast ; to hasten the period of 
maturity and improve the quality, without forget- 
ting for a moment to preserve these most excel- 
lent characteristics of the breed, — sound constitu- 
tion, capacity "to rustle," fecundity and prepotency. 
The Sussex makes large and rapid gains, and 
attains great weight. About 1,500 pounds for cows 
and 2,000 pounds for bulls represent the average 
weights of animals in good breeding condition. The 
average weight of a well-fatted bullock, twenty- 
four months old, may be safely put at 1,400 pounds. 

For grading. — The prepotency of Sussex bulls 
makes them valuable for crossing on native or 
grade stock, to improve the beefing qualities and 
ability to graze. They readily stamp their charac- 
ters on their crosses. 

Organizations and records. 

At a comparatively early date in the history of 
registration, the English Sussex Herdbook Society 
established che English Sussex Herdbook, tracing 
pedigrees to the year 1855. The American Sussex 
Register was established in 1889 by the American 
Sussex Cattle Association. Comparatively few Sus- 
sex cattle have been imported to the United States, 
and only one volume of the Register has been pub- 
lished (1906), containing something less than 300 
entries. 

Literature. 

Arthur Young, General Views of Agriculture in 
the County of Sussex (1793). [For further referen- 
ces, see page 302.] 

Some of the Lesser Known Breeds of Cattle. 

Figs. 389-394. 

By C. S. Plumb. 

A larger number of breeds, or so-called breeds, of 
cattle exists than is commonly supposed. In various 
sections of Europe, for many years the inhabitants 
have bred and developed breeds that seemed espec- 
ially adapted to the local environment. This condi- 
tion exists even today, to such a degree that one 
finds breeds of merit, yet of limited distribution, in 
various districts of Great Britain and on the conti- 
nent of Europe. Among the lesser known, yet valu- 
able breeds, may be mentioned the Black Welsh, 
Brahmin or Sacred, Breton or Brittany, Kerry, Long- 
horn, Normandy, Simmenthal, and West Highland. 
All excepting the Black Welsh and Longhorn have 
been introduced to some extent into America. 
These breeds, however, are very rare in this coun- 
try. In America, there is also the Texas Longhorn 
type, which is fast passing, but which has filled an 
important need. 

Black Welsh Cattle. Fig. 389. 

Black Welsh cattle are found principally in 
Wales, and are of obscure ancestry. They have 
been regarded as of aboriginal ancestry and have 



378 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



numerous characteristics in common with the West 
Highland breed. Black, horned cattle are found in 
both North and South Wales, and represent two 
different types. They resemble each other to a con- 
siderable extent, but those of South Wales are 




Black Welsh bull. Prize winner at Royal Agri- 
cultural Society Show. 

distinctly coarser and larger than those of North 
Wales. Those of the south are not popular in the 
north. Some of the special characteristics are a 
black color, although brownish black or reddish 
black sometimes prevails. White hair rarely occurs, 
excepting on the udder of the cow, the scrotum of 
the male and the brush of the tail. The horns 
are rather prominent, being yellowish white with 
blackish tips, and somewhat wide -spreading and 
carried forward with the bull, and narrower and 
more upright with cows. These cattle are beefy in 
type, and are inclined to be well-fleshed. They are 
criticized for slackness of loin, flatness of rib and 
prominence of rump. The temperament is some- 
what lively. 

These cattle are indigenous to a hilly grazing 
country, and are particularly adapted to grazing 
purposes. They are rarely stable-sheltered in winter 
and depend on pasturage for food the year round. 
As a result of this open method of life, the breed 
is a very hardy one. When kept on the uplands 
with sparse herbage, the cattle tend to be some- 
what smaller than those on the richer lowlands. 
They are also somewhat slow to mature. Some 
specimens of the breed attain considerable weight, 
however. In 1883, at the Smithfield Club Show, at 
London, a four-year-old steer was exhibited that 
weighed 2,464 pounds, while a fat cow was cred- 
ited with a weight of 2,214 pounds. These, of 
course, are very excessive figures. Fair represen- 
tative weights are given as 1,500 to 1,800 pounds 
for the bull, and 1,300 to 1,400 pounds for the 
cow. 

Black Welsh cattle are rated as very fair milkers 
by Welshmen. The cows average about 3,000 
pounds of milk a year, while a better sort of indi- 
vidual produces 4,000 or more pounds. The quality 
of the milk is excellent. The Earl of Cawdor, a 
leading exhibitor of these cattle in the past, states 
that his cows produce twelve to fourteen quarts of 
milk daily, and that the quality, color and flavor of 
the butter from this milk is unsurpassed. 

This breed, although unknown in America, is 
prominent in Wales and is well represented in some 



of the important English cattle shows, notably the 
Royal Agricultural Society Show. The breeders of 
North Wales established a herdbook association in 
1883, and published the first volume of their records 
that year. The South Wales breeders also had a 
herdbook association. In 1904, these two societies 
amalgamated into the Welsh Cattle Society, and 
published their first herdbook in 1905. 

Brahmin, Sacred Cattle or Zebus. Fig. 390. 

These are a species of humped cattle, known as 
Bos Indicus. They are the so-called Sacred cattle 
of India. In works on natural history they are gen- 
erally described as "Zebus." They were first intro- 
duced to the United States, perhaps, in 1853, by 
Mr. Davis, of South Carolina. Some other importa- 
tion for agricultural purposes followed, notably in 
1906. The Davis cattle were taken westward, their 
descendants becoming distributed in the Southwest 
and in Mexico. They are characterized by a light, 
silvery-gray color, with darker shadings of fore and 
hind parts ; with hump over the shoulders, exces- 
sive dewlap and fulness of throttle, large drooping 
ear, and black, recurving horns. The disposition is 
not good. 

Brahmin cattle were introduced to the southern 
states in the hope that they would better withstand 
the warm climate, insects and disease than would 
other cattle. In 1888, Prof. G. W. Curtis, of Texas, 
wrote of them to some extent in his work on 
" Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Swine," in which he 
stated that the pure-breds had played an important 
part in improving the native stock in southern 
Texas. The cross is said to improve the native beef, 
but cattle of this kind and their grades are not to 
be regarded seriously as factors in our live-stock 
industry. The cows yield a fair amount of milk, it 
is said, but it is very low in butter-fat. In India, 
these cattle are used for domestic purposes, espe- 
cially as oxen. 

Zebu cattle are being imported from time to time, 
but mainly for circuses or zoological gardens. They 




Fig. 390. Brahmin bull {Bos Indicus). 

have been imported to South America, to cross with 
the native Caracu, in the hope of securing a hybrid 
that will be less subject to prevalent diseases. 

In regard to the importation of 1906, Dr. Mark 
Francis writes as follows : "In 1906, A. P. Borden, 
Pierce, Texas, went to India and brought sixty-four 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



379 



head to America. They arrived at New York in the 
spring (1906) and were held in quarantine on an 
island off the coast of New Jersey all summer. The 
Bureau of Animal Industry destroyed about one- 
half of them for surra. The remainder were finally 
released, and arrived on the Pierce Ranch at Pierce, 
Texas, in November (1906). They were held here 
several months, when the lot was divided, and one- 
half of them taken to Victoria, Texas, and put on 
the ranch of Thomas O'Connor. There are seven 
distinct families, or strains of blood, represented. 
All are bulls but three. I tested seven of them to 
see whether they were immune to Texas fever. We 
got no reaction from inoculation, and decided that 
the whole lot were probably immune to Texas fever. 
Mr. Borden shows that those cattle that have some 
Brahma or Brahmin blood in them are in good flesh, 
while those carrying some Shorthorn or Hereford 
blood are in poor flesh, and must be fed in winter. 
His claims appear to me to be sustained. The Brah- 
min cattle seem to be able to stand the mosquitos, 
ticks, horn flies, liver-flukes and parasites generally, 
much better than the so-called improved breeds. 
The bulls are of gojd size and bone, and not any of 
them are the small ' billy-goat ' type seen in a cer- 
tain menagerie. The oldest of Mr. O'Connor's bulls, 
a four-year-old, weighs about 2,000 pounds. This 
indicates the size that is attained." 

Breton or Brittany Cattle. 

Breton or Brittany cattle are native to that sec- 
tion of Western France known as Brittany. They 
are one of the oldest breeds of Europe, and no doubt 
their blood was used in the early stock of what 
later became the Jersey and Guernsey. 

The Breton cattle are black or black and white 
in color, although in one section red and white 
occurs. This is one of the smallest of the horned 
breed of cattle, having an average height of about 
thirty-six inches at the withers. It is a dairy breed, 
and, like the Kerry, the cows produce generously 
of milk in proportion to size. The average yield is 
about 1,700 pounds of milk a year, with well-fed 
individuals producing 2,500 pounds or more. When 
we bear in mind that cows of this breed weigh 350 
to 450 pounds, and receive but scanty attention 
as a rule, this is a fair record. It is said that the 
Breton is very hardy, and that the cows live and 
do well where cattle of other breeds would starve. 
The Breton has been kept pure in some sections of 
Brittany, and in other localities the cows have 
been crossed with Shorthorn and Ayrshire bulls. 
The Shorthorn improved the size and fattening 
qualities, but unfavorably affected the milk secre- 
ting capacity. The Ayrshire cows did not give 
satisfactory returns either in beef or milk, while 
the docile temperament of the Breton was mate- 
rially injured. 

A few Breton cattle were brought to Massachu- 
setts many years ago, and the writer became 
familiar with a pair of them in the herd of the 
Massachusetts Agricultural College. These were 
very small in size and mostly black in color. Unfor- 
tunately, they were disposed of before their merits 
became known. 



HOLDERNESS CATTLE 

In southern Yorkshire, England, lying north of 
the river Humber, is a rich, level district long ago 
known locally as Holderness. Here the cattle at- 
tained considerable size, were rather light of shoul- 
der, large behind, had a considerable reputation as 
milkers, but were rather coarse in quality of flesh. 
These cattle, which were often more or less black 
in color, greatly resembled the Dutch cattle near 
by in Holland ; in fact, it has been said that they 
originally came from Holland. Undoubtedly this 
early stock played its part in the development of 
the Shorthorn, and contributed toward establishing 
the value of the Shorthorn as a milk- producer. The 
cows were famous milkers and were especially pop- 
ular with dairymen supplying London with milk. 
As late as the middle of the last century they had 
become much crossed with Shorthorn bulls, and the 
old-fashioned Holderness cow was rarely met with. 
In the present day this breed is of no special in- 
terest, excepting historically. 

The American Holderness is a very little known 
American breed, said to have had its foundation in 
Holderness cows imported from the West Riding 
of Yorkshire about 1830. Just who was the first 
importer is not known. It is said that they were 
introduced into Massachusetts about that date. The 
man who is responsible for whatever progress the 
breed has made in America, is Truman A. Cole, of 
Solsville, N. Y. About 1855, he purchased from 
Mr. Knox, of Oneida county, N. Y., a single cow of 
this breed, which was said to have been from im- 
ported stock. She was a red and white cow, and 
was a superior milker. When purchased she was in 
calf, and in season dropped a bull. Later he was 
was bred to his dam, and from this foundation, by 
close inbreeding, has come this little-known Ameri- 
can breed. In form, these cattle are said to resemble 
much the black and white cattle of Dutch breeding, 
with color which varies from red and white in 
calves to very dark brown or black at full maturity. 
They are deep-bodied, have large udders and teats, 
swollen and tortuous milk-veins, and yellow skin. 
The escutcheon is especially well developed. In 
1879, Mr. Cole had in his herd nineteen cows that 
averaged 308 pounds of butter per cow. While the 
cows do not produce so heavy a yield as do the 
Holstein-Friesians, they give milk somewhat richer 
in butter-fat. The butter is excellent, of good keep- 
ing quality, and sold on the Utica (N. Y.) market 
at an advanced price. It is said that the cows fatten 
readily when dry and make a good quality of beef. 
A number of head from Mr. Cole's herd were sold 
to other breeders. [See pamphlet " Holderness Cat- 
tle," issued by Truman A. Cole (1887).] 

Kerry and Dexter-Kerry Cattle. Figs. 391- 

393. 

Kerry cattle, embracing both beef and dairy 
types, have been bred by the people of Ireland as 
far back as history gives record, and are distinctly 
an Irish breed. Probably they are descended from 
the smaller type of the aboriginal cattle of Britain. 
They are found in largest numbers in the south- 
western part of Ireland in what are termed the 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



Kerry mountains. Herds are found, however, scat- 
tered all over the island. 

There are two types of Kerry cattle, the true Kerry 
and the Dexter-Kerry. The true Kerry (Fig. 391) is 




Fig. 391. Kerry cow. 

distinctly a dairy breed, and is usually of a black 
color ; red, however, may occur. White often pre- 
vails about the udder of the cow or the scrotum of 
the bull, but not elsewhere. The type is muscular, 
of the dairy form, with 
lean head, fairly thin neck, 
rather narrow withers, 
thin thighs and compara- 
tively capacious udder. 
Good specimens show re- 
finement, although, in 
their native homes, Ker- 
ries often show the effect 
of scanty food in retarded 
growth and rough appear- 
ance. The true Kerry cow 
at maturity usually weighs 
500 to 600 pounds and the 
bulls 800 to 1,000 pounds. 
These figures vary accord- 
ing to care and food. As 
milk-producers, cows of 
this breed rank high, yielding an unusually large 
amount for their size. They have been known to 
give sixteen quarts a day when fresh, and the cow 
Red Rose produced nearly 10,000 pounds in one 
year. 

The Dexter-Kerry (Figs. 392, 393) is a beefy type 
of the Kerry family. It is of obscure ancestry, but 
it is supposed that a Mr. Dexter developed it by 
crossing the true Kerries on cattle of a beefy sort, 
possibly Shorthorns. This is really a diminutive, 
dual-purpose type. The composition is rather beefy, 
showing compactness, breadth of back, depth of rib, 
thickness of flesh generally, with excellent udder 
development. The legs are very short. Famous 
bulls of the breed have weighed about 500 pounds 
at maturity, and cows even less. Some well-known 
show Dexter-Kerries have stood about thirty-six 
inches high at maturity. The color is variable, and 
may be black, red or roan. The Dexter-Kerry is 
suited to beef-production on a small scale, and 
yields a very high grade of meat. The steers are 
found on the Irish market, and each year a small 
but select class are on exhibition at the Smith- 




Fig. 392. Dexter-Kerry bull, La Mancha Union Jack. 
A great prize winner. 



field Club Show in London, where special prizes are 
offered for small cross-breds. In 1901, at a fat- 
stock exhibition at Birmingham, England, the first- 
prize Kerry steer weighed 840 pounds at eighteen 
months of age. This family of Kerries also pro- 
duces considerable milk, although the milk-secreting 
habit is not so persistent as with the true Kerry. 

Some choice herds of Kerries are to be found in 
England on the estates of men of wealth, who have 
taken up this little breed more as a fad than other- 
wise. A few specimens found their way to America 
many years ago, but the purity of breeding was 
soon destroyed. Twenty-five years ago there were a 
few pure-breds at the Massachusetts Agricultural 
College, but these were dispersed. At the present 
time, small herds are owned in New York and West 
Virginia, and another has recently been established 
in Illinois. Exportations of Kerries have been made 
from Ireland and England to Australia, South 
Africa and Canada. Undoubtedly the breed has 
much of merit and it deserves more attention. Its 
hardy character and capacity to produce milk on a 
large scale, in proportion to its size and cost of 
production, justifies its growth in public favor. 

Longhorn Cattle. 

Longhorn cattle repre- 
sent a breed that was 
established in a definite 
manner by the breeding 
operations of Robert 
Bakewell, mainly in the 
latter half of the eigh- 
teenth century. Bakewell, 
largely by a process of 
selection, developed the 
cattle in the midland 
counties of England, nota- 
bly Leicester, producing 
more rapid fattening, 
earlier maturity, and more 
economical killers than 
had previously existed. Longhorns became very 
famous and for many years were regarded as the 
best beef cattle of the country. Then the Shorthorn 
began to receive the attention of intelligent breed- 




Dexter-Kerry cow 



ers, and the Longhorn gradually assumed an insig- 
nificant position among British breeds. Today, Long- 
horn cattle occur in very small numbers in Britain 
and their reputation is largely a matter of long ago. 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



381 



This breed is of the large beef type, carrying 
considerable width of back, depth of rib, fulness of 
hind-quarter and thickness of flesh. Longhorns differ 
from other British breeds in the horn and color. 
The horn is very long, spreading, and often droop- 
ing. The writer has a photograph of a pair of these 
horns which measured eight feet around the curve, 
from tip to tip. The color of hair is commonly 
brindle, or brindle and white, or red and white, 
with white along the back and also with very light 
shading along the belly. The hair attains con- 
siderable length and the skin is thick and mellow. 
Coarseness has also attended the Longhorn. While 
not producing heavily of milk, the milk is regarded 
as rich in butter-fat. 

The breed today is comparatively unknown in 
England, although efforts have been made to bring 
it back into popular favor. At recent shows of the 
Royal Agricultural Society of England, a few Long- 
horns have been exhibited and have attracted much 
attention, though mainly for their historic associ- 
ations. 

The Longhorn Cattle Society was organized some 
years ago, and in 1878 the first volume of a herd 
register was published, which recorded 286 bulls 
and a somewhat larger number of cows. 

Normandy Cattle. 

Normandy cattle are natives of Normandy, in 
northwestern France. Strictly speaking, the com- 
mon cattle of this section are known as the Co- 
tentin breed, there being various other races or 
breeds in France. 

Some of the more important characteristics of 
this breed are as follows : Color variable, but usu- 
ally either brindle, black or red ■ head and neck 
rather heavy, the latter possessing more dewlap 
than with the British breeds ; body of large size, 
inclining to be flat of rib ; bone inclined to coarse- 
ness ; size large, developing heavy weight at ma- 
turity. The character of the meat is said to rank 
very high, although animals of the breed will not 
dress out a percentage of carcass to offal equal to 
the Shorthorn, Aberdeen-Angus or Hereford. As 
producers, the cows rank very high in France, 
yielding a large amount of milk rich in butter-fat. 
In the late seventies, Richardson wrote of dairies 
in LeBessin, near Isigny, that produced $5,000 
worth of butter a year. Large amounts of butter 
and cheese are made in Normandy and extensive 
exports are made to other countries. Cotentin cattle 
have been crossed considerably with the Shorthorn, 
the two breeds nicking to great advantage. 

A few cattle were brought to the United States 
from Normandy about 1895 by the late Theodore A. 
Havemeyer, and kept on his farm at Mahwah, N. J. 
They were imported for experimental purposes, to 
cross on Jerseys in the Havemeyer herd. The milk 
records of the pure-bred Normandy cows in this 
herd were quite comparable with those of so-called 
dairy Shorthorns. This herd was dispersed before 
the value of the cows became known. 

A herdbook society, for promoting the breed, 
exists in France (Herdbook de la Race Normande 
Pure), with headquarters at Calvados. 



SlMMENTHAL CATTLE. Fig. 16. 

Simmenthal cattle, also called Bernese, and the 
Spotted Race, are native to the valley of the Simme 
in Switzerland. These 1 and the Brown Swiss are the 
two important breeds of cattle in Switzerland. It 
is a very old breed and has long been looked on 
with favor in its native land. The cattle are better 
adapted to the Swiss valleys than to the mountain 
sides. 

Not much of an attempt has been made to intro- 
duce this breed to America. About 1895, Mr. T. A. 
Havemeyer, of New York, imported some Simmen- 
thal cattle with the purpose of crossing them with 
Jerseys. This he did and continued the work some 
years, but with his death the herd was dispersed in 
1898, before any definite results were made public. 
One purpose of Mr. Havemeyer's experiments was 
to use the Simmenthal blood on the Jersey to 
improve the constitution, the former being a very 
hardy breed. So far as the writer is aware, this is 
the only serious attempt to introduce this breed to 
America. Without doubt the Simmenthal has merit, 
and it is singular that it should not have found its 
way to this country to a greater extent than it has. 

This breed is what may be known as a dual- 
purpose sort, producing both beef and milk to a 
creditable extent. The tendency is somewhat to 
a blocky, thick conformation, covered well with 
flesh, while the cows in mature form carry large 
udders. The color is usually spotted, of drab or 
yellowish red and solid white markings. Sometimes 
the color is almost solid. Animals of the breed are 
large, and bulls attain a weight of 2,000 to 2,500 
pounds, and cows often weigh over 1,500 pounds ; 
and larger weights are not uncommon. These cattle 
are also much used for oxen (Fig. 16), which may 
weigh 2,000 to 2,500 pounds. 

As milk-producers, the cows have a fair reputa- 
tion. A number of dairies in Switzerland, where 
records are kept, show milk-yields to range from 
7,000 to 8,000 pounds a year. The milk is of a 
medium quality, twenty-five pounds yielding about 
a pound of butter. Ten pounds of milk are also 
usually counted to make a pound of cured cheese. 

Some interesting milk records were secured with 
the pure-bred Simmenthalers in the Havemeyer 
herd. The cow, Pfan (79), from April 24, 1896 to 
February 27, 1897, produced 9,500 pounds of milk. 
Bari (411), as a four-year-old, from July, 1896 to 
September, 1897, produced 11,251 pounds of milk. 
Spiess (413), a five-year-old, from April 11, 1896 to 
April 22, 1897, produced 10,879 pounds of milk. 
These are better records than those published in 
Switzerland. 

The Simmenthal as beef cattle rank high in 
Switzerland. They are expected to mature in about 
four years, and the beef is credited with being fine 
of grain and of superior flavor. 

Texas Longhorn Cattle. Fig. 394. 

There is no distinct breed of this name. What is 
familiarly known as the " Texas steer " is descended 
from the early Spanish cattle first introduced into 
Mexico, later becoming distributed over the south- 
western range. The color was variable, dun, yel- 



382 



CATTLE 



CATTLE 



low, black, and red prevailing, often with striking 
white markings. These were narrow-backed, flat- 
ribbed, leggy cattle, with heavy head and frequently 
widely spreading horns. They were slow and hard 
feeders, and did not attain large size, the bulls 
rarely weighing over 1,200 pounds and the cows 
ranging from 600 to 900 pounds. With the develop- 
ment of the western range in the seventies, began 




Fig. 394. Texas Longhorn. 

the introduction on a considerable scale of pure- 
bred Hereford and Shorthorn bulls. Since this time, 
the old Longhorn has been about bred out, and today 
Texas and the Southwest have cattle really much 
superior in breeding to most of the other sections 
of the country. 

West Highland Cattle. 

West Highland cattle represent a distinctly 
Scotch breed. From time immemorial the West 
Highland, or Kyloe as it was formerly known, 
has been bred among the mountains of western 
Scotland. It is generally thought that this breed is 
of aboriginal descent. Over a century ago, Culley 
included the Highland as one of the very few breeds 
treated by him in his book on live-stock. Undoubt- 
edly, West Highland cattle have been bred for 
centuries in the west highlands, especially in Argyll, 
Perth and Inverness counties and on the Hebrides 
islands. 

The West Highland is distinctly of the beef 
type, being blocky, broad of back, deep-ribbed, 
thick-fleshed and short of leg. The long, wide- 
spreading horn, and long, shaggy mane and coat of 
hair are peculiar to this breed and give it much 
individuality. The hair in winter has extreme 
length and thickness, and gives admirable protec- 
tion from rain and cold. The color is variable, 
and black, brown, red and brindle are seen in the 
same herd. A rich yellowish red or tawny color is a 
favorite with some breeders. Broken colors are not 
popular and are uncommon. 



West Highland cattle do not usually attain large 
size. They are slow to mature, and the cows weigh 
about 900 pounds and the bulls 1,200. One may 
see much larger specimens at the Scotch shows, but, 
under ordinary field conditions, they do not weigh 
heavy. The quality of beef produced by the breed 
is very superior. Nothing excels it in the British 
market. The flavor is choice and the grain fine and 
of the best quality. In the London mar- 
ket a well-fleshed West Highland steer 
brings the highest price. 

As milk-producers the cows are very 
ordinary. This might naturally be expected, as 
the main object is simply to furnish the calves with 
milk, and not, to any extent, to furnish milk for 
domestic purposes. 

Cattle of this breed are very hardy. Their lives 
are passed on the hills, and, as a rule, they never 
see the interior of a barn, even in midwinter. In 
temperament they are wild and high spirited when 
on their native hills, and never assume the docility 
of the Shorthorn or Jersey under the most domestic 
surroundings. Their reproductive qualities are said 
to be good, and the cows continue as active 
breeders for more years than is usual with most 
other breeds. 

The West Highland breed is chiefly valued in 
Scotland for its easy-keeping character and valua- 
ble beef. It has never secured a foothold of sig- 
nificance away from its native hills. One may 
occasionally see herds on estates in England, but 
these are steers brought from the Highlands for 
fattening, and are kept in part for their picturesque 
effect. A few specimens of the breed have been 
brought to America, but they have been regarded 
mainly as curiosities. Some attempt has been made 
to introduce them on the western range, notably 
in Kansas and the far Northwest, but nothing has 
yet come from the movement. While their hardi- 
ness and superior quality of beef commend them, 
they are so inferior to the Hereford, Shorthorn or 
other beef cattle on the range, in rapid maturity 
and weight, that they are not likely ever to receive 
serious consideration from the pure-bred point of 
view. The cross-bred West Highland may be an 
improvement on the pure stock, but even then the 
value of the herd in America is open to serious 
question. No doubt in the grazing districts of the 
higher mountains of the Atlantic coast states the 
breed might prosper and be of value. West High- 
land cows may be crossed with other British beef 
breeds to advantage, but this will be breeding away 
from the blood of the mountain breed rather than 
toward it. Galloway and Aberdeen-Angus bulls are 
especially commended for this purpose. The use of 
the West Highland bull on native cows might con- 
tribute to constitutional vigor, but it is more than 
likely that more will be lost than gained by such a 
cross. 

Literature. 

American writings contain very meager accounts 
of these lesser-known breeds of cattle. For gen- 
eral references, the reader is referred to page 
302. 



DOGS 



DOGS 



383 



DOGS, FARM. Canis familiaris, Linn. Canidoe. 

Figs. 395-399. 

The dog belongs to the order Carnivores, the 
family Canidas, and the genus Canis. The origin of 
the domestic dog is not known. It is supposed that 
it is the result of many crosses with many different 
types, under various conditions, as the owner wan- 
dered from place to place. It is probable that the 
jackal and the wolf have been important elements 
in the evolution of the domestic dog. 

The dog has long occupied a prominent place on 
the farm, especially as a watch-dog and a sheep-dog. 
Much of the police duty- on the stock-farm is en- 
trusted to the dog. He looks out for the vermin and 
small game that would become troublesome ; he is 
an indispensable aid in hunting ; and as a compan- 
ion he is a privileged member of the household. 

The adaptability of certain breeds of dogs for 
farm purposes is generally known. The care and 
intelligence displayed by a well-trained dog in 
handling stock is well-nigh remarkable. The two 
recognized breeds for herding and driving purposes 
are the Collie and the Old English Bobtail Sheep- 
dog. Individuals of many other breeds are trained 
for this work with some success, and a great variety 
of dogs, good, bad and indifferent, are found on 
the farm. 

The Collie Dog. Fig. 395. See also page 595. 
By Herbert W. Mumford. 

The Collie is one of the most useful breeds of 
farm dogs. His origin is not known. Probably, 
however, he has been developed from the Old Eng- 
lish Sheep-dog by crossing with the Scotch Grey- 
hound. The rough-coated Scotch Collie is the best 
known and most highly prized variety in this coun- 
try. The smooth-coated type is well known in Great 
Britain and is preferred by some persons. 

Dog shows and public sheep-driving trials have 
had a tendency to popularize the Collie. They have 
had a wholesome effect in setting standards and 
bringing about greater uniformity in type among 
so-called high-class Collies. There was a noticeable 
lack of uniformity among them previous to the 
establishment of these exhibitions. It should not be 
inferred that all Collies are invariably good and 
that one is sure to get a good dog if only he buys a 
pedigreed Collie. It means simply that there is a 
well-defined ideal type which progressive breeders 
are striving to produce. As in other breeds of 
domesticated animals, fashion in blood lines, in col- 
oring, and in markings, has to be reckoned with in 
determining the value of a Collie. 

Description. 

In general, the Collie is light and graceful, show- 
ing a combination of agility, speed and suppleness, 
with a power of endurance that few other breeds 
possess. High intelligence, good appearance and 
devotion characterize this breed. The following is 
a description of a rough-coated Collie as revised by 
the Collie Club in 1898 : 

The skull should be flat, moderately wide between 
the ears, and gradually tapering to the eyes. 



There should be only a slight depression at "stop.'"' 
The width of the skull necessarily depends on the 
combined length of skull and muzzle, and the whole 
must be considered in connection with the size of 
the dog. The cheek should not be full or prominent. 
The muzzle should be of fair length, tapering to 
nose, and must not show weakness, or be snipy or 
lippy. Whatever the color of the dog may be, the 
nose must be black. The teeth should be of good 
size, sound, and level ; very slight uneveness is 
permissible. The jaws should be clean-cut and 
powerful. The eyes are a very important feature, 
and give expression to the dog. They should be of 
medium size, set somewhat obliquely, of almond 
shape, and of brown color except in the case of 




Fig. 395. An imported rough-coated Scotch Collie. 
Owned by J. I. Behling, Milwaukee. 

marles, when the eyes are frequently (one or both) 
blue and white or china ; the expression should be 
full of intelligence, with a quick, alert look when 
listening. The ears should be small and moderately 
wide at base, and placed not too close together on 
top of skull, nor too much to side of the head. When 
in repose they should be usually carried back, but 
when on the alert, brought forward and carried 
semi-erect, with tip slightly drooping in an atti- 
tude of listening. The neck should be muscular, 
powerful, and of fair length, and somewhat arched. 
The body should be rather long, with well-sprung 
ribs, chest deep, fairly broad behind the shoulders, 
which should be sloping ; loins should be slightly 
arched and powerful. The dog should be straight 
in front. The fore-legs should be straight and 
muscular, neither in nor out at elbows, with a fair 
amount of bone ; the fore-arm should be somewhat 
fleshy, the pasterns showing flexibility without 
weakness. The hind-legs should be muscular at the 
thighs, clean and sinewy below the hocks, with 
well-bent stifles. The feet should be oval in shape, 
the soles well padded, and the toes well arched 
and close together. The hind-feet should be less 
arched, with hocks well let down and powerful. 
The brush should be moderately long, carried low 
when the dog is quiet, with a slight upward "swirl" 
at the end, and may be gaily carried when the dog 
is excited, but not over the back. The eoat should 
be very dense, the outer coat harsh to the touch, 
the inner coat soft, furry, and very close, so close 
as almost to hide the skin. The mane and frill 



384 



DOGS 



DOGS 



should be very abundant, the mask or face smooth, as a fad. The breeding of Collies in Great Britain 

as also the ears at the tips, but they should carry is attended with greater success than in this coun- 

more hair toward the base ; the fore-legs should be try, whether the measure of success be the number 

well feathered, the hind-legs above the hocks pro- of high-class individuals produced or the net profit 

fusely so, but below the hocks fairly smooth, secured in the enterprise. 
although all heavily coated Collies are likely to mi- a 

grow a slight feathering. The hair on the brush famous Collie dogs. 

should be very profuse. The color is immaterial. A few of the famous Collie dogs in this country 

In general character the Collie should be a lithe, are : Wishaw Clinker, Winnetka Christopher, 

active dog, his deep chest showing lung power ; Wellesbourne Conqueror, Ormskirk Olympian, Par- 

his neck, strength ; his sloping shoulders and well- bold Paragon and Ellwyn Perfection. Most of 

bent hocks indicating speed ; and his expression, these dogs are rich in blood of one or more of the 

high intelligence. He should be a fair length on following dogs that have been looked on as pillars 

the leg, giving him more of a racy than a cloddy in the Collie studbook : Stracathro Ralph, Christo- 

appearance. In a few words, a Collie should show pher, Metchley Wonder, Edgbaston Marvel and 

endurance, activity, and intelligence, with free and Great Alne Douglas. One of the most celebrated 

true action. In size, the dogs should be twenty-two Collies of history is Southport Perfection. This 

inches to twenty-four inches at the shoulders ; the dog sold at one time for $6,000. Christopher, a 

bitches, twenty inches to twenty-two inches. In scarcely less celebrated dog, sold for $5,000. 

weight, the dogs should register forty-five to sixty- Metchley Wonder and Edgbaston Marvel each sold 

five pounds ; the bitches, forty to fifty-five pounds, for $2,500. 
The smooth Collie differs from the rough only in 

its coat, which should be hard, dense, and smooth. < -' are an<i fading. 

Faults. — The following are considered faults : Every dog, whether on the farm or elsewhere, 

Domed skull, high-peaked occipital bone, heavy, should have an individual kennel which he may 

pendulous, or prick ears, weak jaws, snipy muzzle, look on as his home, and where in case of sickness 

full staring or light eyes, crooked legs, flat or hare he may be isolated and given proper care. The 

feet, curly or soft coat, cow hocks, brush twisted location of the kennel should be carefully chosen, 

or carried right over the back, and an under- or an Abundant sunlight and good drainage are prime 

over-shot mouth. requisites in preserving the health of a dog. If it 

is desired to have a yard in which the dog can be 

Scale op Points for Collie Dog Perfect confined? this should be dry and well drainedi and 

1. Head 25 preferably have a concrete floor, as dirt yards about 

2. Ears 15 kennels soon become foul and thus invite disease. 

3- Body 15 A southern exposure is best. In hot weather, ample 

4. Legs and feet 15 provision for shade should be made, but it is not 

fi ' m ?, ~? desirable to have the yard entirely or even largely 

" shaded, as the sun should have access, as far as 

Perfection . . 100 practicable, at some time during the day, to every 

part of the enclosure. 
In the matter of color there is much variation. Straw makes very satisfactory bedding for the 
There are the so-called sables, the sable and whites, kennel, the sleeping bench of which it is best to 
the black and whites, the whites and the tricolors, have raised about ten inches from the floor. Ken- 
black, tan and white. The most desirable white nels should be cleaned frequently and thoroughly, 
markings on either the tricolors or the sable and and the bedding changed every week. When the 
whites are a white stripe in the face, a full white kennels are being cleaned, they should be carefully 
collar, white breast, white feet and white tip to disinfected. An occasional liming or whitewashing 
the tail. There are but relatively few Collies that is excellent. 

possess these perfect markings and some of them As a rule, mature dogs are fed too often. Twice 
that do are deficient in more important points, daily is ample, — a light breakfast and a hearty 
Color should be the last consideration in buying a evening meal. There is a great difference in the 
Collie dog. food requirements of different dogs, some being 
n - , .... light eaters while others consume large quantities, 
is ri u ion. rp^jg d jfl; erence ; s due largely to their temperament 
From his native home in Scotland, the Collie has and degree of activity. The judgment of the one 
gone out into all parts of the civilized world ; and who feeds the dog must be depended on properly to 
wherever he has arrived he has made innumerable regulate the quantity of food required. The general 
friends. His rare beauty and intelligence, together appearance of the dog's coat and his behavior when 
with the enterprise of Collie breeders, won and has fed are fairly good guides. Meat should not corn- 
held for him a leading place among those who have prise any large part of the ration of the dog. Most 
a fondness for dogs. authorities on the feeding of dogs agree that they 
_ The Collie has become such a prime favorite that should not be fed warm food. All cooked foods 
his popularity in the city, as well as in the country, should be allowed to cool before being fed. Dogs 
is second to no other breed. Dog fanciers nearly should be encouraged in every way to eat dry bis- 
everywhere have taken up the breeding of Collies cuits. Cooked vegetables should be fed at least 



DOGS 



DOGS 



385 



twice a week, although care should be taken not to 
feed too much soft food. Regularity in feeding 
dogs produces the same beneficial effects that it 
does in the feeding of other kinds of domestic ani- 
mals. As a rule, the feeding of the dog is given 
very little thought. Feasts and fasts are the order, 
and such treatment is likely to cause serious diges- 
tive disturbances. 

Cost. 

If one insists on buying a high-class Collie, that 
possesses to a great degree all of the fancy points 
of the breed, including color and markings, he must 
be prepared to pay a high price, as has been shown 
in the preceding paragraph. Such Collies are rare, 
and the experienced breeder feels well satisfied if 
he is able to secure a high-class one from each 
litter. Pedigreed Collies of indifferent breeding and 
individuality may be purchased at very low prices, 
but Collies of choice breeding and individuality are 
worth from twenty dollars up. Well-bred puppies 
that are not desirable, from the fancier's point of 
view, because of some lack in individuality, are 
disposed of by the breeders at ten to twenty 
dollars. The breeding of Collies good enough to 
win at leading shows is an extremely difficult busi- 
ness. The breeding of Collies that are much more 
handsome and more useful than the average dog, 
is relatively easy. 

Uses. 

While originally developed as a sheep-dog to aid 
the shepherd in guarding, herding and driving 
sheep, and still holding a foremost place for this 
purpose, the Collie has become a universal favorite 
as a companion for children and grown-ups and as 
a watch-dog. 

There are those who think that the smooth- 
coated Collie is a better worker than the rough- 
coated type. Again, there are those who are preju- 
diced in favor of the tricolor, or black and white 
and tan, as a worker. The sable and the sable and 
white, however, are most popular among the fan- 
ciers and will usually sell more readily and at 
higher prices than the tricolors. 

Because the Collie is such a favorite at dog- 
shows and has been so persistently bred for the 
bench, it is said that the modern bench type has 
lost much of its former intelligence and instinct 
for driving. It must be admitted that but very few 
of our most valuable Collies have ever been trained 
to drive live-stock, and the majority of them, until 
trained, would be useless for agricultural purposes. 
It is even doubted whether some of them are sus- 
ceptible of a high degree of training. This latter 
is true not only of show Collies but of others as 
well. There is no good reason why a good show 
Collie should not make, with proper training, a 
good driver. Well-trained dogs, however, are sel- 
dom in proper condition for show. The rugged life 
to which many of them are subjected unfits them 
for exhibition purposes. In this way, the show 
may militate against the best development of the 
Collie for farm purposes. 

It is doubtful whether the Collie has really lost 

C25 



in intelligence. He has certainly lost much in 
opportunity, but what he has lost in opportunity 
he has gained in beauty and elegance ; and while 
formerly only the sheep-herder was familiar with 
his excellent qualities and privileged with his 
companionship, he is today admitted to the most 
exclusive society. 

Ailments. 

The ailments of dogs that are most troublesome 
and likely to be met with are distemper, worms 
and fleas. 

Distemper. — Of all the diseases of dogs, distem- 
per is by far the most to be feared. It assumes a 
great variety of forms and is not so well under- 
stood as other diseases (see page 142). The writer 
takes the liberty of quoting from "The Collie" 
[see Literature] the discussion of the disease as it 
appears in that work : " It is a contagious febrile 
disease, and therefore, once it has been diagnosed, 
the subject should be isolated, and the same person 
should not be allowed to wait on the affected dog 
and the healthy ones, as the contagion is readily 
conveyed. In order to prevent distemper, all that 
the thoughtful owner can do is to keep his young 
stock in robust health ; then, if any, or all, should 
fall victims, they will be less liable to "go under" 
than the weakling and the wastrel. 

" Usually the disease is ushered in with catarrh, 
accompanied by a poor appetite, lassitude, hot nose, 
furred tongue, eye inflammation, and a discharge 
alike from eyes and nose — thin at first, but becom- 
ing thicker as the disease progresses. Usually, too, 
the bowels are loose, while the under part of the 
belly not infrequently becomes spotted. Good nurs- 
ing will do more good than drugs, providing it be 
in conjunction with warmth and well-ventilated 
quarters. An even temperature is desirable, and 
the patient should wear a flannel coat. The eyes 
and nose should be sponged clean of discharge, 
using a little rose-pink solution of Condy's Fluid 
(warm). There is almost certain to be a cough ; but 
so long as the lungs and bronchi are not involved, 
this will soon cease to trouble. When, however, 
pneumonia supervenes, the aid of the veterinary 
surgeon should be at once invoked, as also when 
that form of distemper accompanied by jaundice is 
present. This latter is shown by the yellowness of 
the mucous membranes — a condition that has given 
rise to the name of the "yellows." Diarrhea, if 
present, should be relieved by means of carbonate 
of bismuth, given dry on the tongue twice a day — 
the dose varying from 10 grains to 30 or 40 grains. 
If there be a high temperature (over 103°), some- 
thing must be done to reduce it. Dissolve 2 drams 
of salacin in a little hot water, add J ounce of tinc- 
ture of gentian and sufficient water to make 6 
ounces, and give a dessertspoonful three times a 
day. 

" The food during the time the patient is unwell 
should be light and nourishing. It may consist of 
good broth poured over stale brown bread. The 
best is made from sheep's head boiled. The meat 
may also be cut up and added to the mass. Beaten- 
up egg and Bovril are also useful when more solid 



386 



DOGS 



DOGS 



food is refused. The patient should be fed on the 
'little and often' principle." 

Worms. — Tapeworms, threadworms and round- 
worms are commonly met with. The roundworm is 
the form which most prevails in puppies, while the 
tapeworm is frequently found in adult dogs. The 
presence of worms is usually indicated by a staring 
coat, a cough, irregular bowels, and, in some in- 
stances, severe diarrhea, and sickness. In some 
cases worms are vomited. Various worm remedies 
for dogs are on sale at drug-stores, and many of 
these remedies are as satisfactory as any prescribed 
remedies with which the writer is familiar. Vermi- 
fuges, of whatever nature, should always be admin- 
istered to a dog after a period of fasting. 

Fleas. — Fleas greatly annoy dogs, and the long 
coat of a rough-coated Collie makes a good refuge 
for them. There are numerous insecticides on the 
market that are good. Care should be taken when 
attempting to eradicate fleas or lice, thoroughly to 
clean the kennel and follow the cleaning with a 
free use of some good insecticide. 

Organizations and records. 

The Collie Club of England was founded in 1881. 
This club aided greatly in promoting the interests 
of the breed both at home and abroad. An Amer- 
ican Collie Club has also been organized. A Collie 
studbook is issued. There are a few local Collie 
clubs scattered over the country. 

The Old English Bobtail Sheep-dog. Fig. 396. 

By Frederick Freeman Lloyd. 

The name of this useful, sagacious and quaint- 
appearing dog exactly explains his ancestry and 
occupation, although, strictly speaking, the Bobtail 
Sheep-dog is as much a cattle-dog as a sheep-dog. 
There are varieties of these rough- and heavy-coated 
Sheep-dogs in other European and Asiatic countries 
than England, which, however, have long tails. It 
is one of the oldest breeds of dogs. 

Description. 

In general appearance, the Bobtail is a strong 
compact-looking dog of great symmetry, absolutely 
free from legginess or weaselness, profusely coated 
all over, very elastic in his gallop, but in walking 
or trotting he has a characteristic ambling or pac- 
ing movement. His bark should be loud, with plenty 
of "ring" in it. He is a thick-set, muscular, able- 
bodied dog, with a most intelligent expression, free 
from all poodle and deerhound character. While a 
fast-enough dog for the wildest of sheep, he is not 
hard on them ; and his great sense or sagacity 
makes him more of a human companion than simply 
a dog-aid. 

While breeders of Collies and some others of 
their kind breed for long-headed dogs, the producers 
of Bobtails strive, and rightly, after good, capacious 
skulls, and those well-developed frontal bones that 
go to make up, what is generally considered the 
" brain-box," that structure that contains the com- 
mon sense always required in a dog whose every- 
day occupation is tending herds and flocks. 



A great characteristic of the Bobtail is his raj 
gedness. Because of the density of his coat he can 
put up with the most severe climates. The best 
Bobtails have very heavy coats, there being an 
undercoat on the body with a long, harsh and almost 
wire-like overcoat of the texture of the mane of 
a horse. The undercoat keeps the dog warm and 
his skin protected from wet and rain, while mois- 




Fig. 396. Old English Sheep-dog. Owned by Mrs. Mitchell 
Harrison, Chestnut Hill, Pa. 

ture will roll off the outer coat. Great points in 
the breed are the all-round feathered fore-legs, 
and the general massiveness and squareness of the 
hind-quarters. 

Bobtails may be of any color, but the most valued 
and beautiful are the pigeon-blue and white, and 
the dark steel-blue and white, the white being found 
about the muzzle, head, collar, neck, fore-legs and 
sometimes from the hocks to the feet of the hind- 
legs. These hocks should be well let down, while 
the fore-legs must be straight, and the body well 
loined, comparatively short, and strongly ribbed and 
rounded. The darker blue puppies are born black ; 
with a little age, white hairs come through the 
black, which become lighter, the whole making a 
blue grizzle. Some dogs are entirely whole or self- 
colored. While these are not less useful, the marked 
ones are preferred, for they are more striking in 
appearance, and, as workers, can be seen at a 
greater distance, especially in dismal and indiffer- 
ent weather. 

The colors of the eyes of a Bobtail vary according 
to the body or color of the dog. In the blues, the 
eyes are bluish and grayish. With white dogs we 
will very often find a "wall," "china" or "marble" 
eye. This is highly typical. It is said that a dog 
with a wall eye never fails in the sight of that 
organ. 

It is more than probable that dogs of this breed, 
in the ages that are past, were bigger, for they 
had, generally, to protect their flocks from the 
larger carnivoras, which Britain does not now pos- 
sess. Within the last two decades Bobtails have 
become larger. Soft coats have, unfortunately, been 
somewhat noticeable, but the majority of speci- 
mens we see at the present-day shows are magnif- 
icent creatures. The present-day dogs are in type, 



DOGS 



DOGS 



387 



make and shape, coat, stature and general charac- 
teristics a great deal better than the first of this 
breed to arrive on this continent. A dog standing 
twenty-five inches, fair measurement, at the 
shoulder may be considered tall enough ; a bitch 
two inches less would be considered equally well 
grown. 

The following is the official description of the 
Old English Sheep-dog : The skull should be capa- 
cious and rather squarely formed, giving plenty 
of room for brain-power. The parts over the eyes 
should be well arched and the whole well covered 
with hair. The jaw should be fairly long, strong, 
square and truncated ; the stop should be defined to 
avoid a deerhound face (the attention of judges is 
particularly called to the above properties, as a 
long narrow head is a deformity). The eyes vary 
according to the color of the dog, but in the glau- 
cous or blue dogs a pearl, wall, or china eye is 
considered typical. The nose is always black, large 
or capacious. The teeth are strong and large, 
evenly placed and level in opposition. The ears are 
small and carried flat to side of head, and coated 
moderately. The fore-legs should be dead straight, 
with plenty of bone, removing the body a medium 
height from the ground, without approaching leg- 
giness ; they should be well coated all around. 
The feet should be small and round, the toes well 
arched and the pads thick and hard. Tail: Puppies 
requiring docking must have an appendage left of 
one and one-half to two inches, and the operation 
must be performed when the puppy is not older 
than four days. The neck should be fairly long, 
arched gracefully, and well coated with hair. The 
shoulders should be sloping and narrow at the 
point, the dog standing lower at the shoulder than 
at the loin. The body should be rather short and 
very compact ; the ribs well sprung, and the brisket 
deep and capacious. The loin should be very stout 
and gently arched, while the hind-quarters should 
be round and muscular, with well let-down hocks, 
and the hams densely coated with the thick long 
jacket, in excess of any other part. The coat 
should be profuse and of a good hard texture ; not 
straight, but shaggy and free from curl. The 
undercoat should be a waterproof pile, when not 
removed by grooming or season. As to color, any 
shade of gray, grizzle, blue, or blue merled, with 
or without white markings, or in reverse, is allow- 
able. In height, twenty-two inches and upwards for 
dogs, and slightly less for bitches is required. 

Scale op Points for Old English Sheep- 
dog Perfect 

score 

1. Head 5 

2. Eye 5 

3. Color 10 

4. Ears 5 

5. Body, loins and hind-quarters 20 

6. Jaw 10 

7. Nose 5 

8. Teeth 5 

9. Legs 10 

10. Neck and shoulders 10 

11. Coat 15 

Perfection 100 



History. 

Seventy-five to one hundred years ago, tailless 
dogs were exempt from tax in England. It was 
supposed that he would be a man of little pride 
who would own a tailless dog in those days, a sure 
sign that he was too poor or too mean to pay for 
his canine farm help. Still, there were other rea- 
sons. The game laws of the native country of the 
Bobtail have always been very strict, and to kill a 
hare was looked on, until a few years ago, as almost 
a crime on the part of a tenant farmer. The tail 
is a natural help to a dog in turning quickly, as 
the hare turns when coursed and overtaken. With- 
out his tail, the dog is sadly at fault in the wrench 
and turn, and he loses much ground. For this 
reason, the cut or bobbed sheep-dogs were not 
looked on as dangerous to game, and their owners 
were given tax exemptions for them accord- 
ingly. 

From this breed of short-tailed dogs arose the 
splendid animals kept today for bench shows, sheep- 
dog trials, sheep-herding, general farm work, and 
companions. They are among the most valuable of 
all breeds, and the importations and breeding oper- 
ations in the United States and some parts of 
Canada are extensive. 

The Old English Sheep-dog was the old-fashioned 
sheep-dog of the English farmer of generations ago. 
But with the advent of Scotch Collies from the 
North, which mostly accompanied their masters 
engaged as stewards or managers, — for Scotchmen 
have always been noted agriculturists and pastoral- 
ists, — these dogs became somewhat generally and 
widely distributed. Still, the Bobtails remained in 
the hands of drovers ; and among dealers and ■ 
farmers attending markets and fairs, they have 
always been held as of the utmost value. Their 
ability to drive strange cattle and sheep through 
crowded and difficult thoroughfares is remark- 
able. 

In America. — Perhaps the first dog of this breed, 
of any note, to be imported was Sir Lucifer, which 
was purchased in the middle "eighties" by the Glen- 
coe Kennels, East Bethlehem, Washington county, 
Pennsylvania, who also owned Bob and Dame Hes- 
ter. About 1888, Mr. William Wade, then of Hulton, 
Pennnsylvania, took more than a passing interest 
in the breed and helped to develop it in this 
country. These imported Bobtails weighed from 
sixty pounds, with the bitches of less weight, down- 
ward to forty-five pounds. Today the males and 
females are much larger, and are far more valuable. 
Twenty years ago in England (the dog market of 
the world), good show specimens were worth $250 ; 
now $500 to $1,000 is no uncommon price ; and 
at such figures some of the present-day dogs 
have reached these shores. While there were but 
three or four individuals in 1886, no fewer than 
thirty-three first-class specimens were registered 
at the American Kennel Club, New York, 1906. 

Never were there more and better Old English 
Bobtail Sheep-dogs than at the present time. The 
breed is strongly supported, not only by agricul- 
turists who value them for their work and good 
looks, but other persons of position in both hemi- 



388 



DOGS 



DOGS 



spheres, who recognize in this Sheep-dog the repre- 
sentative of the old shepherd breed, and a pecu- 
liarly sagacious and handsome animal. 

Distribution. 

The Old English Sheep-dog is now widely distrib- 
uted in those countries where dog shows are held. 
The home of the breed, and of kinds closely related 
to him, is in northern Europe. The best Bobtail 
living at the present day is Handsome Boy, owned 
by Mrs. Tyler Morse, of New York and Boston. 
Handsome Boy is a magnificent specimen, carrying 
an enormous coat. He is blind in one eye, but so 
truly representative is he, that judges are inclined 
to overlook that blemish. 

Feeding. 

The general scraps of the farmhouse make a good 
and substantial meal for the Sheep-dog. Cracked 
corn, well boiled with vegetables and fat or lean 
flesh, is eaten with avidity. With always access to 
grass the dog will keep himself in the best of health, 
the herbage being an excellent vermifuge. 

Removing the tail. 

Even in the best and most carefully bred litters 
of Bobtails, whelps are to be found with tails 
of different lengths, while some are tailless. All 
the tails should be immediately removed close to 
the rump with a pair of sharp scissors or nippers. 
A little balsam may be placed on the small sore, or 
it can be left to the good attention of the mother, 
who will lick and clean it while it is healing. The 
earlier the tail-cutting is accomplished, the more 
forward will the puppy become, while the pain is 
next to nothing. 

Organizations and records. 

The Old English Sheep-dog Club of England was 
founded in 1888, with the present writer as its first 
secretary. He drew up a description and scale of 
points of the breed on which lines the breed was, 
and is, generally judged. There is an Old English 
Sheep-dog Club of America, organized in 1903. At 
all times the addresses of the secretaries of these 
clubs, formed to promote the interests of the breed 
under notice, may be had by inquiry at the Ameri- 
can Kennel Club, New York City, and the English 
Kennel Club, London, England. The studbooks, 
wherein these dogs are mentioned and the pedigrees 
of many of the best types are given, are published 
by the English and American Kennel Clubs. 

Literature. 

There is little literature that is related particu- 
larly to farm dogs, although much has been written 
on dogs in general. The latest illustrated descrip- 
tion of Old English Sheep-dogs is given by Lloyd, 
in " Dogs," The Library Supply Company of Amer- 
ica, New York City (1907). The reader may also 
consult Lloyd, The World's Sheep and Cattle Dogs, 
Dog-Lover's Publishing Co., Lansdowne, Pa.; Raw- 
don Lee, Field, London ; Hugh Dalziel, The Collie, 
L. Upcot Gill, London ; Lee, Collie or Sheep-Dog ; 
Wickham, Practical Training of the Shepherd Dog. 



Sheep-dog Trials. Figs. 397-399. 

By Frederick Freeman Lloyd. 

The first public sheep-dog trials ever held were 
at Bala, North Wales, Great Britain, in 1873. 
Since then they have become very popular and are 
almost a national pastime in Wales, England, 
Australia and New Zealand. There are also com- 
petitions of this kind in Scotland, in the eastern 
states of the Union, and in Canada, the trials at 
the annual international fair at Toronto being 
unquestionably the best held on the American 
continent. The first trials to be held in the United 
States were at Philadelphia, in 1880, and at Pitts- 
burg, in 1881. The latter were under the patron- 
age of the Pennsylvania State Agricultural Society. 
These trials prove great attractions at fairs and 
are on the increase in this country, being supported 
by the Collie Club of America and other institu- 
tions or associations. Their value and charm lie in 
the fact that they demonstrate the true utility of 
the dog. 

Trials in Australia, England and France. 

In Australia, a small, prick-eared and generally 
black dog with a smooth or flat coat is used. He 
is called "the Barb," after a celebrated dog of that 
name. Sheep-dog trials last for days in connection 
with the annual show of the Sheep Breeders' Asso- 
ciation, at Sydney, N. S. W., a very important 
society, which interests itself in the flocks and 
sheep-dogs of possibly the greatest sheep-raising 
country in the world. Valuable prizes are offered 
at nearly all Australian shows; and, as almost every 
township and village has its annual gathering 
devoted to matters agricultural and pastoral, it 
can well be gathered that sheep-dog trials are of 
great account and held in the highest esteem. 

In England, prominent land-owners, such as 
Lord Rothschild, give large sums for prizes for 
sheep-dog trials. The competitions at Tring Park 
each autumn are watched by a vast concourse of 
town and country people, who are kept in breath- 
less excitement by the interesting work of the dogs. 
Welsh, Scotch or Herdwick sheep should always be 
used for trials ; the Down sheep are considered too 
slow and too fat. 

In France, a number of sheep — say a score — are 
used, the dog being required to fetch, drive and 
house them in a railway truck at a station. The 
trials are held under the patronage of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 

The dogs. 

All breeds of sheep-dogs are used for this work, 
the show points of the animal counting for noth- 
ing, except in the case of special prizes given for 
dogs of any particular breed when merit is con- 
sidered, so far as the bench or ring sheep-dog is 
concerned. Some extra well-bred Collies have been 
known to be very good workers in these contests, 
but the majority of the dogs used are those that 
are daily at work on farms, ranches or stations — 
the latter the great Antipodean sheep-runs, where 
dogs are of the utmost value. 



DOGS 



DOGS 



389 



The requirements of the dog are obvious. He 
should be silent at his work and never, under any 
circumstances, bite or mouth his sheep. He must 
be taught to work in the direction of the swing of 
the hand and drop to whistle or voice, or go on as 
desired. The merit of a dog is estimated by the 
time he takes to pen his charges without materially 
forcing them. Naturally, now and then, a dog is 
favored with "luck," but the best animal is nearly 
always to be found the winner of the stake. Three 
money prizes are generally given, with extra 
honorariums for the shepherd or handler. 

All dogs, except the working one, must be held on 
a leash during a trial ; in the event of a dog get- 
ting loose, the owner of it should be promptly 
fined, or the dog disqualified from competition, at 
the option of the stewards. The fine must be men- 
tioned in the rules governing the meeting. 

There is no studbook for dogs that have com- 
peted or won at sheep-dog trials. Pedigrees may 
be given on the entry form, but the age (if 
known) must be mentioned at the time of making 



back themselves and dog to drive a hen into a 
small flower-pot placed lengthwise in the open field 
in a given number of minutes. The progeny of 
domestic dogs crossed with wild dogs cannot be 



3 W 

m 




D 


v\ 


""-» B 


-J ~<] 



Fig. 397. Simple course for sheep-dog trial. A. Sheep; B, 
course, outside of flags; C, pen, made of three ordinary 
hurdles, with sufficient room at opening to allow entrance 
of only oue sheep at a time; D, shepherd's first position 
on sending dog to find sheep, say 800 yards away; E, first 
position of judges; F, public. Time allowed, say fifteen 
minutes. 

the entry. The fuller the particulars the more wide- 
spread becomes the fame of the dog's works. A 
dog should be reckoned a puppy until he is twelve 
months old on the first day of the competition in 
which he is entered. Dogs and bitches are consid- 
ered of the same account, but in no case may a 
proud or in-season female be worked at public trials. 

The sheep. 

The handler or shepherd must not touch the 
sheep with his hands, and should remain in close 
proximity to the home hurdles and pen until the 
driven sheep arrive in that neighborhood. Strange 
(to the dog) sheep are always used, a trio from 
flocks before unassociated being the charges. 
Strange wild sheep are wilder than ever ; they will 
not pack but will "split" and run in all directions, 
giving the dog the maximum of work and try- 
ing his temper to the utmost. A ewe, a wether 
and a big lamb — all strangers — make a difficult 
trio. Sheep from the same flock are more easy to 
handle, and it is advisable to provide such for early 
trials when the dogs have not yet reached the per- 
fection of "professional" trial dogs and worked by 
very experienced public handlers. It may be men- 
tioned here that Australians have been heard to 





1 ' 1 







/ 




® 






ft 


h 


c~ 




B 


*~~E 



Fig. 398. Course for medium-trained dogs. A, Sheep; B, first 
pair of single hurdles with room between for only one 
sheep to pass; C, two sets of hurdles joined, placed twenty- 
five yards from B, and allowing same room as B; D. pen 
made of three hurdles, twenty yards from 0, with room 
for entry of one sheep at a time: E, shepherd; F, public; 
O, judges. Time allowed, say fifteen minutes. 

depended on for generations as honest and non- 
worrying sheep-dogs. 

The course. Figs. 397-399. 

Of the plans given, the one represented in Pig. 
398 is recommended for medium-trained dogs. 
The one suggested in Fig. 399 is very complex, and 
is suitable only for dogs of considerable experi- 
ence. It is difficult because of the maltese cross, 
which is hard to negotiate. It is suitable for a 
show-ring enclosure, the judges acting from a 
stand. The arrows indicate the course over which 
the sheep are to be driven. A study of these plans 
will best indicate the nature of the trials. The 
sheep are turned out of the yard at some distance 
from the course. The yard may be in sight or 
hidden, as arranged. From his first position, the 
shepherd may follow his dog and sheep to the 
sheep-pen. The public or audience should, if pos- 
sible, be placed on a hill overlooking the interest- 
ing work ; the onlookers should be kept away, at 



B 


Si 


i° c 




V E 






G 


B 


~~~~ — "^""^ B 
G 







Fig. 399. Complex course. A. Sheep; B, course, outside of 
flags; C, single hurdles; D, Maltese cross (double hur- 
dles); E, pen; F, judges; G, public; H, shepherd, who may 
move anywhere inside the flags. Time allowed, say seven- 
teen minutes. 

all costs, from the actual arena. Sheep are stupid; 
they become more and more so with a strange dog, 
and midst the shouts of approval and groans of 
disappointment that ever and anon arise from the 
advocates at these exciting events. There is not a 
slow moment at a good sheep-dog trial. 



390 



FISH 



FISH 



FISH. Pisces. Figs. 400-403. 

The agricultural utilization of ponds and streams 
as sources of food income has scarcely yet begun 
in this country. The time must come when they 
will be as carefully utilized as the fields of the 
farm ; in fact, they themselves will become farm 
fields, yielding their regular product of food as cer- 
tainly as the poultry yard yields its fowls or the 
pasture its sheep. There is more or less breeding of 
fish at present, but largely of game fish, from the 
sportsman's point of view ; this point of view must 
be radically changed before water agriculture can 
attain great efficiency. We have not yet begun to 
domesticate fish in this country, although this has 
proceeded in the Old World with the carp, which is 
thus far the leading agricultural species. We shall 
some day have domestic breeds of more than one 
species of fish. 

Aquieulture is the cultivation of animals and 
plants that live in water, or whose habitat essen- 
tially comprises a body of water. The animals may 
be gill-breathers, as fishes and mollusks, or lung- 
breathers, as frogs and turtles. The microscopic 
organisms that are the food of so many aquatic 
animals, such as sponges, clams, and the young of 
fishes, constitute the plankton. [See page 393.] 

It is not the province of this cyclopedia of agri- 
culture to discuss fish at length. Brief attention 
is given to the general subject of fish-culture and 
fish-food, and to some of those kinds of fish for 
which artificial methods of propagation have been 
undertaken. The reader is referred to Shell-fish for 
discussions of raising clams, crabs, crayfish, lob- 
sters, oysters and shrimp. He may also wish to 
consult the articles on Frogs, Sponges and Turtles. 

Fish-culture. Fig. 400. 
By W. E. Meehan. 

The artificial propagation of fishes, under the 
direction of the Federal Bureau of Fisheries and 
state commissions, has become an extensive indus- 
try. Rivers, lakes and ponds, depleted of their 
fishes, are now commonly restocked with food and 
game fishes from the hatcheries of the state and 
national fish commissions. 

Fish-culture of some kind was practiced by the 
ancient Romans and also by the Chinese and Jap- 
anese. The Romans built artificial ponds opening 
into natural waters, and when the former were 
stocked, screens were placed at the outlets so that 
the fish could not escape. The Chinese and Japanese 
gathered eggs of wild fish from one body of water 
and carried them to another, where they hatched. 
They also engaged in the systematic culture of 
goldfish, and by selection produced what are now 
known as "fancies," that is, fish with more than 
one tail and with abnormally shaped bodies. It is 
supposed that this condition was produced by agi- 
tating the eggs at a certain stage of development. 

Artificial fish-culture was first employed in the 
latter part of the fifteenth century by a Jesuit 
priest, but it was put to no practical use. It was 
revived again about the latter part of the seven- 
teenth century by Jacoby, a German scientist, who 



published a paper on the subject. This paper was 
afterwards translated into French and English, but 
even this was not followed by practical efforts. It 
was not until about 1840 that fish-culture was 
definitely undertaken. Its beginnings were brought 
about through experiments made by two Breton 
fishermen, named Remy and Gehin. They made a 
close study of the spawning habits of the trout, 
and took eggs and devised an apparatus for hatch- 
ing them. The attention of the French government 
was drawn to their experiments, and Gehin was 
made a commissioner to teach others the art of 
artificial fecundation and hatching of fishes. A year 
or two later, experiments in artificial fecundation 
of salmon on the lines laid down by Jacoby and 
Remy and Gehin were successfully undertaken in 
Scotland by two Scotchmen. Later, the work was 
introduced into the United States by private indi- 
viduals, who had studied the methods of Remy and 
Gehin. Shortly afterwards, Seth Green, of New 
York, who may be considered the father of fish-cul- 
ture in America, established a hatchery and under- 
took the propagation of trout on a large scale. He 
subsequently experimented with the artificial hatch- 
ing of shad and brought it to a successful issue. 
Livingston Stone, also of New York, followed Seth 
Green's work closely and established a hatchery. 

The rapid reduction of fishes in this country, espe- 
cially in the New England and Middle states, caused 
much concern, and about 1866 a general con- 
vention, composed of delegates appointed by the 
authority of the legislatures of the several states, 
was held with a view of devising means to restore 
the fisheries. The result of the convention was the 
establishment of fish commissions in the various 
states and by the United States government. Both 
the national and the state governments constructed 
fish hatcheries or stations where fish could be prop- 
agated artificially. The energies of the states were 
at first directed principally towards the hatching of 
brook trout, while the United States Fish Commis- 
sion, although making a specialty of this fish, 
sought a broader field. Little by little other states 
followed the example of the National Fish Commis- 
sion, until some of the commonwealths, notably 
Rhode Island, New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, 
Ohio, Wisconsin and Minnesota, are propagating 
most of the more valuable game and food fishes 
within their borders. Pennsylvania and New York 
are especially active in this particular, the former 
even undertaking the culture of such fishes as 
catfish, pickerel and sunfish, in addition to what 
are commonly called the higher forms, as trout, 
shad, wall-eyed pike, whitefish and black bass. 

The science of fish-culture is advancing rapidly, 
and, while there is yet great advancement to be 
made, it is now generally conceded that it is chiefly 
a matter of the amount of money available for 
the work. 

Systems of fish-culture. 

There are three distinct lines of work in fresh- 
water fish-culture : First, the artificial taking, 
fecundating and hatching of eggs ; second, the 
natural spawning of fish in artificial ponds in fish- 



FISH 



PISH 



391 



hatching stations ; and, third, the catching of fish 
from one body of water and transferring them to 
others, anti the taking of wild eggs and artificially 
hatching them. 

Artificial fecundation and hatching of eggs. — In 
the first system, two methods are employed, — the 
use of open troughs and trays and the 
use of jars. 

(1) The open trough and tray system 
is used largely for the artificial hatch- 
ing of salmon and trout. The general 
form of the troughs used by the United 
States Bureau of Fisheries and by the 
several states is to all intents and pur- 
poses the same, the chief difference 
being in the size. The majority of the 
states employ a trough twelve to six- 
teen feet in length and about thirty 
inches wide, with a division down the 
center, and about eight inches deep ; 
but some of the states, and the United 
States Bureau of Fisheries, use a 
trough several feet in depth. Through 
the first type of trough six to nine 
quarts of water flow per minute. The 
eggs, after being fecundated and thor- 
oughly cleaned, are spread on wire- 
mesh trays, previously painted with 
asphaltum, or in wire baskets especially 
designed. In the shallow type of 

troughs there is set but one, or at most two tiers 
of trays, but in the deeper types as many as six- 
teen or more may be placed. 

After the fish have hatched, they are often 
retained in the troughs until the sac is absorbed, 
and then either planted in the streams or trans- 
ferred to outside ponds and held until the fish-cul- 
turist deems it proper to plant them. The period 
of planting varies, some culturists planting the 
trout while the sac is still attached, some when the 
sac is first absorbed, others when the trout arrive 
at the fingerling stage, while others hold them 
until they are about eight or nine months old. 

(2) Jar system. — The jar work was formerly 
conducted under what was known as the table 
system, which is still pursued by some states and 
to some extent by the United States Bureau of Fish- 
eries. The table system consists of a table in which 
is set a tank, around which are placed glass jars 
having hermetically sealed caps. Water is intro- 
duced into the jars, by means of rubber and glass 
tubes. There are two tubes for each jar ; one 
reaches nearly to the bottom of the jar for the 
introduction of the water, and the other, shorter 
one, carries the water into the tank from the jar ; 
the latter is also used to siphon out all the young 
fishes and the dead eggs. Eggs are placed in the 
jars and the water kept constantly flowing, so that 
the eggs will be in perpetual motion during the 
development of the embryo. The period of devel- 
opment of the embryo depends on the species of 
fish and the temperature of the water. Some fishes, 
as the shad, under certain conditions will hatch in 
four or five days ; others, as the whitefish, will 
require three to four months. 



The table system is being abandoned for the 
battery system (Fig. 400), for the reason that the 
latter is simpler and a larger number of eggs may 
be hatched in a smaller space and with no more 
water. A battery consists of a series of troughs 
about twelve inches deep and twelve inches wide, 




Interior of a fish-hatching house equipped with battery and 
jars, the latter showing the eggs. 

and of a length corresponding to the size of the 
hatching-house, set one above the other from the 
floor to near the ceiling. There is another type of 
battery in which the troughs are set step-fashion, 
but the former method is in more general use. The 
water is introduced into the top trough, from 
which it flows to those beneath and finally into a 
large tank at one end of the building. Faucets are 
inserted at intervals on each side of the troughs, 
from which water is carried by short pieces of 
rubber hose attached to the glass or tin tubes that 
reach to the bottom of the jars. The top of a jar is 
open and the water flows out from a lip back into 
the troughs, carrying with it the dead eggs and 
young fishes, which afterwards flow into the tank 
just mentioned. Several designs of jars are used, 
according to the fancy of the fish-culturist, but 
each type holds about four quarts of eggs. The jar 
system is used for the eggs of such fishes as the 
whitefish, shad, yellow perch and pickerel, which 
are deposited in vast quantities but are much 
smaller than the trout. 

Spawning of fish in artificial ponds. — The pond 
system is for fish from which the eggs either can- 
not be taken artificially, or from which it is diffi- 
cult to take them. The principal species for which 
pond work is undertaken are the black bass, both 
large and small mouth. The artificial culture of 
black bass is comparatively but a few years old, 
and is still largely experimental. Originally the 
ponds were relatively small, but with growing 
experience they are being enlarged, until now, 
many fish culturists advocate bodies of water three 
to five acres in extent. 

A bass pond for breeding purposes should have 



392 



FISH 



FISH 



a shelf extending over the greater part of the 
pond at an average depth of a foot and a half to 
two feet, and a kettle with a depth varying from 
two to eight feet, according to the climate of the 
region, whether the winters are very severe or are 
mild. The shelf is for the spawning grounds, and 
the kettle for hibernating and refuge. The nests 
are artificially made of coarse gravel and small 
stones. About these nests is set a wooden screen 
with two sides open. The two closed sides are to 
prevent fish in one nest from seeing fish in another. 
On these nests the fish deposit their eggs. The 
usual practice is to permit the eggs to be incubated 
under the care of the fish, and as soon as they are 
hatched, the wooden screen is taken away and 
replaced by a crib having a frame-work of iron or 
wood, and the sides covered with cheese-cloth. 
When the sac is absorbed, the little fish are trans- 
ferred from the crib to fry ponds, in which there 
is a large amount of aquatic plants of species on 
which low forms of aquatic animal life thrive. On 
this vegetation the young fish feed. When they are 
of a certain size, they are planted in the streams. 

Field-work. — The third method, which is usually 
called field-work, is divided into two distinct oper- 
ations : one, the catching of wild fish by means of 
nets and transferring them to other waters ; the 
other, gathering the spawn or eggs of fish natur- 
ally deposited, and transferring them to hatcheries 
to be developed either by the jar or the trough 
system. The gathering of wild eggs for hatching 
is looked on as very important, since it saves a 
very large number of eggs that would otherwise 
be destroyed by spawn-eating fish. 

Literature. 

There is very little important literature relating 
to fish-culture. Domesticated Trout, by Livingstone 
Stone, is a good contribution of the earlier days. 
The latest reference of value is the Manual of Fish- 
Culture, issued by the United States Fish Commis- 
sion, first in 1897, and revised about two years 
later. See also, C. H. Townsend, the Cultivation of 
Fishes in Natural and Artificial Ponds, Reprint 
from Eleventh Annual Report of New York Zoolog- 
ical Society. 

Fish Food and Feeding-grounds. 

By James G. Needham. 

The food of fishes is almost as diversified as is 
the life of the waters they inhabit. Our best native 
game fishes are carnivorous. Some of them (as 
pike, black bass) eat chiefly other fishes, mostly of 
smaller size. Some, as the brook trout, that nor- 
mally feed in part on other fishes, may thrive on 
insects alone in a pond where these are abundant. 
The sheepshead of our inland streams eats chiefly 
mollusks. Its broad, flattened teeth are well adapted 
for crushing snail and mussel shells. All our bottom- 
feeding fishes eat more or less of the various crus- 
taceans, insect larva?, snails, worms and the like, 
that occur in such places ; and all fishes, when very 
young, eat largely the free-swimming life of the 
open water, that is collectively known as plankton. 



Plankton organisms continue to be through life 
the food of a few fishes, even of some of the larger 
ones, such as the spoon-bill (Polyodon). 

Fishes may take food with the water they inhale, 
if their gill-rakers are fine enough to strain out of 
the water the minute organisms it contains ; such 
food, although it may be considerable in quantity 
and importance, comes to them with as little seeking 
as the oxygen dissolved in the water for their 
breathing. But the demands of appetite usually 
impel them to make conscious efforts to capture 
larger game, and nature has endowed them vari- 
ously to accomplish their special needs : with sharp, 
hooked teeth, as the bass, for capturing other 
fishes ; with grinding teeth, as the sheepshead, for 
crunching snail shells ; with upturned jaws, as the 
grass pike, for picking insects from the surface of 
the water ; or with down-turned and pursed lips, as 
the sucker, for drawing worms up out of the ooze 
of the bottom. Some mud-eating fishes (that live 
on the rich organic materials contained in the mud) 
of great reproductive capacity, are important as 
furnishing in their offspring a supply of food for 
the other piscivorous sorts, as the native gizzard 
shad of our sluggish inland rivers, and the imported 
"German" carp. (Figs. 401-403.) Almost the only 
fresh-water fishes that are fully protected against 
being swallowed by others are the catfishes, whose 
three stout rigidly-erected spiny fore finrays appear 
to be adequate defense, and the stickleback. 

But one reliable method of determining what fishes 
eat has yet been found, — that is the examination 
of their stomach contents. By this means it has 
been determined that the food of our best fishes is 
predominantly smaller fishes, insects and crusta- 
ceans; that the largest percentage of their food is 
insects, and that by far the most important part 
of their insect food is the immature stage of may- 
flies and midges. 

Very little is yet known of the conditions that 
make for abundance of fish-food. Plankton organ- 
isms live in the open water, but different waters 
vary wonderfully in the richness of their plankton. 
The supply they furnish varies also with the sea- 
son, but it is a part of the balance of nature that 
the supply is in all waters most abundant at that 
season (spring) when the majority of fishes, being 
newly hatched, are dependent on it. Most of them 
will turn to other food when they attain to larger 
size. On the bottom, in deep waters, there is a 
scanty fauna consisting chiefly of a few forage 
organisms, as "blood worms" (larva; of midges of the 
genus Chironomus), "caddis-worms" (larvae of the 
caddis-flies), and small bivalve mollusks (Pisidium). 
Some of our best fishes, such as whitefish and trout, 
forage largely there. The dense beds of submerged 
waterweeds that grow on trash-strewn bottoms in 
slack water, are probably the richest in organic life 
of all fish-foraging grounds. These shelter teem- 
ing hosts of mollusks, crustaceans and insect larvae. 
The smaller fishes swarm here, to be nabbed 
on the outskirts of these beds by the larger pirati- 
cal fishes that dwell in the deeper water. It is 
noteworthy that these submerged meadows (beds 
of Chara, Ceratophyllum, etc) are not browsed on 



FISH 



FISH 



393 



directly by water-animals, as are clover-fields by 
cattle ; on the contrary, they grow green, and 
grow old and die almost untouched, and the her- 
bivorous water-organisms (with the exception of a 
few caddis-worms, and others) eat them only after 
they are dead and disintegrating. The primary 
source of organic food for the large aquatic ani- 
mals is, in the water, dead plants instead of green 
plants, as on land. The most important producers 
of valuable fish-forage thus appear to be a few 
herbivorous crustace- 
ans and larva of may- 
flies and midges ; and 
the best foraging 
grounds, those sub- 
merged meadows in 
whose shelter and 
nourishment these 
forms develop in 
greatest abundance. 

Literature. 

S. A. Forbes, The 
Food Relations of 
Fresh - water Fishes, 
Bulletin of the Illinois 
State Laboratory of 
Natural History, Vol. 
2, pp. 475-538 ; J. G. 
Needham, The Food of 
Brook Trout in Bone 
Pond, Bulletin No. 68, 
New York State Mu- 



Plankton-Culture. 

By Julius Nelson. 

Plankton consists 
of very simple or mi- 
croscopic organisms 
of water, both plant 
and animal. These 
organisms are very 
numerous, and are 
usually distributed 
throughout the body 
of water, being pas- 
sively carried by its 
currents. The plant-cells, nourished by the min- 
erals in solution, and bathed by sunlight, multiply 
rapidly, furnishing food for the microscopic ani- 
mals; and both groups of organisms are the food 
of sponges, mollusks, polyps, and the young of 
nearly all aquatic animals, including the fry of 
fishes and the tadpoles of amphibians. 

Successful attempts have been made in France 
in breeding plankton for both fish fry and for fat- 
tening oysters (which see). The general method 
employed is as follows : Shallow ponds are chosen 
(or excavated), into which the flow of water may 
be controlled, whether fresh or salt. For a few 
weeks in the spring, such ponds, or elaires, should 
be emptied, and the bottom baked in the sun. Then 
follows spading and raking, after which the pond 




Fig. 403. Leather carp. 
Figs. 401-403, varieties of the domestic carp. 



is allowed to fill gradually. The water, having no 
exit, becomes warm and remains stagnant, and its 
plankton increases. Then the ponds are filled, and 
the oysters or fish are introduced. For fish-culture, 
a series of such ponds are in readiness, are pas- 
tured successively, and replenished by intervals of 
rest. 

The United States Bureau of Fisheries has suc- 
cessfully conducted experiments in the application 
of fertilizers to ponds for oyster-culture, and has 
thereby so increased 
the growth of oyster 
food that three or 
four weeks' sojourn 
of poor oysters in 
such ponds has fat- 
tened them for mar- 
ket. 

Carp. Cyprinus Car- 
pio, Linn. Cypri- 
nidm. Figs. 401- 
403. 

By J. G. Needham. 

The carp is the one 
food - fish that may 
fairly be considered 
domesticated at pres- 
ent. In common with 
most of our domesti- 
cated animals, it is a 
native of Asia. It 
was introduced into 
this country from 
Germany over thirty 
years ago, and is al- 
ready one of the most 
widely distributed 
fishes in America. It 
has been cultivated 
in ponds in Germany 
for a long time, and 
exists there in several 
improved cultural va- 
rieties. There are three 
fairly well-known va- 
rieties in our own 
waters, all of which 
are German carp : besides "scale carp" (Fig. 401), 
the parental stock, which is uniformly covered with 
scales of moderate size, there is the "mirror carp" 
(Fig. 402), which has very large scales irregularly 
disposed along the sides of the body, and the 
"leather carp" (Fig. 403), which is almost scaleless. 
But as these forms have often been liberated in the 
same waters, unrestricted inter-crossing has re- 
sulted in all sorts of varietal intergradations. 

Feeding habits. 

The carp is adapted well for life in farm ponds 
and mill dams, where there is a muddy bottom and 
an abundance of waterweeds. It is not well 
adapted to clear streams or spring ponds, and 
should not be introduced into such places ; to such 



394 



FISH 



FROGS 



waters, our native game fishes of finer flavor are 
better suited and are far more desirable. The 
young of these, when ready for planting, may be 
obtained from the state fish hatcheries. 

The carp is omnivorous in its feeding habits. 
It eats the roots and soft stems of aquatic plants, 
pulling and tugging at them and tearing off shreds 
that may be swallowed, and often uprooting small 
plants and leaving them floating. In this way 
more or less damage is done in exterminating 
eelgrass (Vallisneria) and other aquatics. It eats 
the soft parts of dead plants also and swallows 
considerable quantities of mud, rich in organic 
remains. It "roots" around in the pond bottom to 
dislodge bottom crustaceans and insect larva?. 
In consequence of these habits, it should not be 
allowed to become over-abundant in waters in 
which the native life is to be preserved. The forag- 
ing habits of the carp on the pond-bottom may be 
likened to those of hogs, "rooting" in a pasture, 
and over-pasturing produces like destructive results 
with both. 

Food value. 

The flesh of the carp, when properly prepared, 
from fishes that have had reasonably clean forage, 
is excellent, although probably never so delicious 
as that of the best of our native game fishes. 
Carp will thrive where these will not live at all, 
and for the vast areas of our country that are 
remote from the seaboard and the mountains, will 
furnish, perhaps, the best supply of table-fish avail- 
able. To prepare carp in the best manner for the 
table, it should be both skinned and drawn, soaked 
in salt water over night, then boiled, and finally 
baked with proper dressing. 

Stocking streams with carp. 

Ponds and streams may readily be stocked by 
introducing a few adult fishes of both sexes, which 
have been seined in the spring before their spawn- 
ing season. The spawning time is early, in May 
and June. The eggs are produced in vast numbers, 
each female laying several hundred thousand. 
They are scattered over the vegetation, and on the 
bottom in shallow water. They hatch very quickly, 
if they escape being eaten, and grow very rapidly, 
attaining maturity in about three years. While 
young, they may furnish an abundant food-supply 
to carnivorous fishes, as the black bass. The latter, 
of entirely different feeding habits, is a native fish 
that thrives in the same waters with the carp. 

There is no doubt that in some of our inland 
waters, such as the Illinois river, with its slow 
current and muddy bottom, the production of 
marketable fish has been greatly increased as a 
result of the introduction of the carp, and many a 
lesser area of water of similar character, now pro- 
ducing nothing of value, might be made to yield 
excellent food, if carp were planted in it. 

Literature. 

L. J. Cole, The German Carp in the United 
States, Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C. 
(1905). 



FROGS. Rana spp. Ranidce. Figs. 404, 405. 
By W. E. Meehan and E. A. Andrews. 

The Report of the Fish Commission for 1897 
contains an estimate that the annual catch of frogs 
in the United States is a little less than one million 
frogs, worth $50,000 to the hunters and $150,000 
to consumers. Reference is also made to a "frog- 
farm" in Ontario that had been running for twenty 
years, and in 1895-6 yielded 5,000 pounds of 
dressed frog's-legs for market and 7,000 living 
frogs for stocking other waters and for scientific 
purposes. 

With reference to the possibilities of artificial 
culture of frogs the report concludes as follows : 
"While at present it would perhaps be advisable to 
limit practical attempts at frog-culture to stocking 
natural waters with paired breeders, experiments 
in artificial methods should not be abandoned. There 
seems no reason why methods similar to those at 
present pursued in fish-culture may not eventually 
be successful in the case of the frogs." 

The more specific statistics of the United States 
Bureau of Fisheries for 1902, 1903 and 1904, show 
an annual business of 345,759 pounds of frogs, 
worth $26,327, and distributed as follows : Mis- 
sissippi river, 285,811 lbs., valued at $15,604 ; Illi- 
nois river, 7,255 lbs., valued at $2,053 ; Red river, 
1,850 lbs., valued at $279 ; North Carolina, 5,990 
lbs. (11,980 individual frogs), valued at $599; 
Virginia, 3,220 lbs., valued at $690 ; Lake Ontario, 
500 lbs., valued at $250. 

While' it is doubtless true that a very great many 
thousands of dozens of frogs are annually sold to 
hotels by a single commission merchant, many 
thousands also sold for bait and perhaps one thou- 
sand dozen to schools and laboratories, all these 
sales and statistics relate almost exclusively to 
frogs that are hunted and caught in nature, and do 
not indicate the existence of any frog-farming 
industry. Attempts to discover the numerous 
"frog-farms" exploited in the newspapers generally 
show them to be non-existent. Most of the so- 
called "frog-farms" are at best places for holding 
wild stock and are not breeding-places. 

Pennsylvania experiments. 

Until recently little or no systematic effort was 
made in the United States to cultivate frogs for 
the market in the same manner as certain species 
of fishes. A few persons had attempted to rear 
them in a perfunctory way, but without system. 
Pennsylvania, through its Department of Fisheries, 
was the first to make persistent experiments in 
scientific frog-culture, and to solve some of the dif- 
ficulties that lie in the way of success. The initial 
work was begun in 1899, in one of the State Fish 
Hatcheries, but failures were met with until 1904, 
when 40,000 young were developed from wild eggs. 
It was not until 1906 that breeding frogs were 
carried through the winter successfully and spawn 
taken from them and hatched. As a result of per- 
sistent experiments and investigations conducted 
at all the Pennsylvania hatcheries, the conclusion 
is reached that the mortality among wild tadpoles 



PROGS 



FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 



395 




must be enormous. It is very heavy in the hatch- 
eries, where the best conditions for successful 
rearing prevail. 

Edible species. 

There are thirteen edible species of frogs in 
America, with rather more than half a dozen sub- 
species or varieties. In the eastern United States, 
there are at least three species of edible frogs, the 

common bull- 
frog(Rana cates- 
biana), the green 
frog (R. clami- 
tans) and the 
spring or leop- 
ard frog (R. vir- 
eseens). The first 
named is the 
largest frog and 
the last the 
smallest, but the 
leopard frogs 
offer the best 
chances for suc- 
cessful cultiva- 
tion because of 

Fig. 404. Bunfrog {Sana eatesbiana). their gregarious 

character, which the others do not possess. In the 
case of most of the smaller frogs the present 
abundant supply of wild material makes attempts 
at rearing them unprofitable, but in the case of the 
largest known frog, the American bullfrog, the 
natural supply being apparently doomed to exhaus- 
tion and the market prices high, the experiment of 
rearing for the market is promising. 

Points to be observed in frog-farming. 

Experiments in the different state hatcheries in 
Pennsylvania have demonstrated that tadpoles, 
young frogs and mature frogs must be kept sepa- 
rate ; that while tadpoles will eat dead animal 
food, frogs will eat only living things, preferably 
insects ; that ponds for tadpoles should contain 
grasses, and those for young and old frogs must 
be liberally provided with water-lilies and other 
flowering water-plants to attract insect life ; that 
all ponds must be surrounded by tight boards or 
mosquito-wire fences 
to prevent frogs 
from escaping ; that 
overcrowding, even 
in the tadpole stage, 
is fatal ; that ponds 
for tadpoles should 
have and those for 
frogs must have a 
soft mud bottom below the reach of freezing, in 
which the creatures may hibernate. 

In the life-history of the frogs, the early part, 
the tadpole, presents no difficulties, since they may 
be readily fed on cheap animal or vegetable matter; 
but later, when they have left the water, the hop- 
ping frogs require live animal food. They need to 
be kept for two or three years before being market- 
able. As yet no adequate substitute for the natural 




Fig. 405. Leopard frog [nana 
virescens) . 



food, which is largely insects, has been found, and 
therefore only a limited number of frogs can reach 
maturity in a large enclosure. The bullfrog, especi- 
ally, requires a large range to obtain food enough 
and to escape the diseases that come from crowd- 
ing, as well as to diminish the losses from frogs 
eating one another. 

Frogs in the northern United States spawn first 
in April and early May. The eggs hatch in a few 
days, and if the water is not too cold and there are 
rest places, the period of development into a per- 
fect frog is, in some species, about three months. 
Progs mature in two to three years. Eggs are also 
secured in July and August, but the tadpoles 
hatched therefrom do not complete development 
until the following spring. 

Ponds for tadpoles may be about sixty feet by 
twenty feet, but ponds for young and mature frogs 
should be at least half an acre in extent. Not less 
than three acres is required to assure the farmer a 
satisfactory income. Any swamp or other ground 
into which water can be introduced may be utilized 
for frog-farming. 

Literature. 

W. E. Meehan, Frog-farming, Bulletin No. 4, 
Department of Fisheries, Harrisburg, Pa.; United 
States Fish Commission, Report 1897, Washington, 
D. C. 

FUR-BEARING ANIMALS OF NORTH 
AMERICA. Figs. 406-414. 

By E. T. D. Chambers. 

The fur-bearing animals of North America meant 
more to its original inhabitants than do all the 
flocks and herds of the present day to our agricul- 
tural community. They constituted their chief 
source of food and raiment. It was the chase and 
the barter for their pelts that drew the earliest 
European adventurers across the ocean. From the 
very inception of colonization in the New World, 
the fur trade has been associated with its industrial 
and commercial development, and indirectly with 
its social life, its romance and even its early wars. 

Extent of the industry. 

The rapacity of comparatively modern dealers 
in and hunters of furs is responsible for the all but 
total extinction of the buffalo and the sea-otter, 
and for the vast diminution in the numbers of the 
Alaska seal herd ; and yet despite the steadily 
diminishing proportion of much of the annual out- 
put of material for furs, America's fur-trade is 
more important now than it was in the palmy days 
of the old-time hunters and trapped 

In many parts of Canada, as well as in the 
United States, there has been an enormous decrease 
in the supply of beaver. The sea-otter, which 
formerly furnished 100,000 skins annually, now 
yields less than 400, and the average number of 
Alaska sealskins marketed has decreased from 
100,000 to 10,000 per annum. Other fur-bearing 
animals have taken the place of these to such an 
extent, that according to statistics furnished by 



396 



PUR-BEARING ANIMALS 



FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 



United States Vice-Consul Burrell, stationed at 
Magdeburg, more money is now earned on skunk, 
muskrat and fox skins, than ever before on beavers, 
sea-otters, seals and other rare furs. 

On the American side of the line, the volume of 
the fur trade is the largest ever known in the 
United States — greater than in the days when the 
buffalo and the beaver had the whole continent as 
a stamping ground. Its annual value runs into the 
millions of dollars. Half a million opossum skins 
are annually shipped from America to Europe, and 
a still larger number of raccoon are sent across 
the Atlantic from the northwestern states alone. 
Michigan, Wisconsin and Ohio, and the group of 
central-northwestern states furnish 600,000 skunk 
skins annually to commerce, while 50,000 Alaskan 
fox skins of all sorts find their way every year to 
the great trade sales of furs at London, Leipzig, and 
Nijin-Novgorod. The number of American foxes 
taken by trappers may be judged from the fact 
that Maine alone furnishes 70,000 a year. Hundreds 
of thousands of rabbits are trapped yearly in Cali- 
fornia, and millions of muskrats are contributed 
from the swamps of New Jersey and Delaware, to 
the value of half a million to a million of dollars 
annually, in addition to those produced by the 
states lying immediately to the south of the great 
lakes. Of the half million or so of mink skins 
exported every year from North America, the United 
States contributes a fair share, although the larger 
number go from Canada. 

Many Canadian furs pass into the hands of 
American traders, through St. Paul, St. Louis, 
Chicago or San Francisco, to either a home or a 
foreign market as the case may be. 

The home market is responsible for the consump- 
tion of an enormous amount of native fur, in addi- 
tion to the importations of Persian lamb, Russian 
sable, astrachan, monkey and others. The consump- 
tion of raccoon for men's coats, especially in Canada 
and the northern states, of mink and muskrat for 
linings, of mink, marten and otter for trimmings, 
in both countries, and of skunk manufactured into 
Alaska sable, for muffs, tippets, boas and the like, 
is very great, and would largely increase the total 
of the annual product, if added to the figure of 
North America's actual export of furs. It is 
because of the impossibility of estimating the home 
consumption that figures are not available to show 
the aggregate annual value of the North American 
fur catch. Miss Agnes Laut states that an estimate 
of $6,000,000 placed on the annual value of furs 
north of the forty-ninth parallel would not be suffi- 
cient to include what has been used for the home 
market. In Canada, as in the United States, the 
demand for furs for local consumption is steadily 
growing. The rapid increase in average wealth 
places a set of furs in the category of reasonable 
luxuries of many, whose parents, living in an era 
when raw furs were more plentiful, wore mainly 
homespun. But these must not all be placed to the 
credit of local supply, for while, as in the case of the 
United States, many native furs are manufactured 
in Canada for domestic use, and while a considerable 
proportion of the best furs worn in the country are 



reimported from Europe as finished articles, after 
having been exported as raw material, many firms 
annually send buyers to the Russian and Asiatic 
markets to purchase raw furs, which are not pro- 
curable on this side of the Atlantic, but which are 
made up here. 

As much, perhaps, to the growing fashion of 
wearing furs as to the decreased supply of fur- 
bearing animals is due the rapid increase in the 
values of domestic furs in the last few years. 
Canadian otter, which sold a quarter of a century 
ago for $2 to $8 per skin, and five years ago 
brought $15 to $18, is now (1908) worth $30 to $50. 
Mink skins sold freely in 1882 at 25 to 75 cents 
each, and the primest could be bought for a dollar. 
At present, the wholesale manufacturing establish- 
ments will pay $10 for a prime skin. Marten that 
sold for $1 to $4 per skin 25 years ago, and at $5 
to $6 half a decade ago, is now worth $10 to $35. 
Muskrat skins only a few years ago could be had 
in large quantities for 3 to 8 cents each, and are 
now worth 10 to 50. 

Protection of fur-bearing animals. 

With a constantly increasing home demand for 
furs, it is satisfactory to note from the reports of 
traders that the fur-bearing animals of the last 
great fur preserve in the world, as the northern 
part of North America has been called, are by no 
means becoming extinct. These hunting-grounds 
are for the most part in the hands of Indian and 
half-breed hunters, who would no more think of 
destroying the last beaver, fox, mink or marten on 
their respective territories, than would a farmer of 
killing off the last of his breeding stock. They only 
thin out the animals which they hunt, in such num- 
bers as to ensure the permanency of the supply. In 
Labrador, in the Mackenzie river basin, and in 
other northern parts of the continent, the territory 
hunted by each Indian family is as much its own 
for hunting purpose as is a farmer's field for culti- 
vation. Some hunters have several hundred square 
miles of territory in their respective game - pre- 
serves. Bears and caribou and such roaming animals 
are killed wherever seen, if wanted, but beavers and 
similar game and fur-bearing animals that inhabit 
restricted areas are the property of the hunter 
within whose territory they reside and breed. For 
any but their owner to kill them, except in case of 
absolute want of food, would be as unjustifiable as 
the shooting down of a neighbor's ox. 

Further protection is afforded the most valuable 
furs by the trade itself and by the dictates of 
fashion. The trade does not care to purchase at all 
the furs of animals killed out of season, so that the 
hunting-season that pays does not often extend more 
than four or five months of the year. Fashion is 
particularly fickle in regard to furs, so that the 
seasons in which there is but small demand for 
a certain class of skins afford opportunity for a 
satisfactory increase in the number of the animals 
producing them, since the hunters are aware that 
better paying prices are to be had for other furs. 

Where they are found in largest numbers and 
the greatest necessity for protection of fur-bearing 



FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 



PUR-BEARING ANIMALS 



397 



animals exists, they are usually afforded it by leg- 
islation. Nearly all the provinces of the Dominion 
of Canada, as well as Newfoundland, have enacted 
laws for such protection. In the United States, the 
majority of the states in which squirrels are found 
afford them some protection at least. The rabbit is 
protected, or partially protected, under the laws of 
Delaware, District of Columbia, Indiana, Maine, 
Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New 
Jersey, New York, Ohio, Rhode Island, and Ver- 
mont. The otter has been legislated for in Iowa, 
Minnesota, Missouri, Nevada, New Hampshire, 
North Dakota and Wisconsin. For the beaver, pro- 
tective legislation has been enacted in Idaho, Iowa, 
Maine, Minnesota, Missouri, Nevada, New Hamp- 
shire, New Mexico, New York, North Dakota, 
Pennsylvania and Vermont. There are closed sea- 
sons for bears in Alaska, New York and Pennsyl- 
vania, and the little mink is similarly protected in 
Iowa, Maine, Minnesota and New York. 

Fur-hunting. 

The story of the fur-hunter and trapper contains 
many of the most thrilling pages to be found in the 
realms of human daring and adventure. Many lives 
are sacrificed in the annual hunts for skins of the 
sea-otter and Alaska seal in the northern Pacific, 
and for the Greenland or hair-seal amid the ice-floes 
of Newfoundland waters and in the gulf of St. 
Lawrence The dreary wastes of Labrador and of 
other far northern regions of the continent of 
North America hold the bones of hundreds of Indian 
hunters who have perished of starvation and dis- 
ease on their annual fur-hunts, through the unex- 
pected failure of the game on which they have 
depended for a part, at least, of their food supply. 
As late as the winter of 1906-7, a number of Mon- 
tagnais hunters and their families perished of 
hunger while on their way from the vicinity of 
Lake Mistassini to the Hudson Bay station at Lake 
St John. 

Let us follow a party of these Indian trappers as 
they start out from the Hudson Bay post at Lake 
St. John, Bersimis, or some of the other posts on the 
coast of Labrador. The journey is made by canoe 
and portage, and the provisions and firearms, and 
sometimes the traps, too, as well as tents and other 
equipments, must all be conveyed to their respect- 
ive hunting-grounds before the winter sets in and 
makes the journey by water impossible. Sometimes 
the journey is over one or two hundred miles in 
length, and may occupy several weeks, because of 
the many portages and the quantity of provisions, 
ammunition, and the like, that must be carried 
over them. There is the family tent, too, which 
serves as dwelling on the way, and sometimes 
throughout the entire winter, although some of 
the more provident hunters erect log huts on their 
preserves. The provisions carried are rarely suffi- 
cient for the entire winter. For fresh meat the 
trapper counts on caribou, deer, hares, rabbits and 
partridges, and perhaps on an occasional bear. But 
hunting is always a more or less precarious pur- 
suit, and when there is an entire failure of game, 
as not infrequently occurs, privation and hunger 



result, sometimes accompanied by deaths from 
actual starvation. Instances are on record in which 
starving bands of Indian hunters in the far North 
have been able to maintain life only by the awful 
expedient of feeding on the flesh of the first vic- 
tims of their sad plight. 

Arrived at their winter headquarters, the hun- 
ters set out their line of traps, — deadfalls or steel 
traps, or both, as the case may be, — and thereafter 
spend the short winter days in visiting the long 
line, sometimes many miles in length, rebaiting 
them when necessary and securing the catch that 
any of them may happen to contain. The bear and 
the beaver make luxurious prizes, for, in addition 
to the value of their skins, the carcasses mean a 
bountiful supply of delicious food. Even the musk- 
rat is not despised as an article of diet. 

Sometimes a successful hunter makes enough 
money out of a season's trapping to pay off all his 
debts to the company and have a good balance to 
his credit. It more often happens, however, that 
the Indian is always indebted to the company or 
trader who outfits him, and to whom he must bring 
his catch of furs in payment of a part of the goods 
which he purchased during the last summer he was 
out at the coast, and of the clothing, ammunition 
and provisions which he took with him into the 
woods on the approach of the hunting-season. At 
times, too, the hunt completely fails, or a carcajou 
(wolverine), well called the Indian devil, falls on 
the hunter's line of traps, after which he may just 
as well give up the hunt altogether, unless he has 
the exceptional good luck of entrapping the cun- 
ning beast, which, with almost devilish ingenuity, 
has the knack of springing the traps and safely 
extracting the baits, or will immediately devour 
any other animal that he may find entrapped. When 
the hunting-grounds are only a few days' journey 
from the coast or a settlement, the hunter will 
often come out of the woods for the midwinter 
holiday, and take in more fresh provisions with him 
on his return. In the majority of cases this is 
impossible, however. In the woods he has enough 
to do to keep him busy. There is game to be hunted 
for food and wood to be cut for fires. There are the 
traps to attend and to keep set, and when the hunt 
is good there is the preservation of the skins to be 
attended to. When these have been stripped from 
the bodies of their first wearers, they are stretched 
on hoops or other frames to dry, it being very 
necessary that they should be preserved from de- 
cay. Very valuable are some of the otter, marten 
and mink furs secured in these northern wilds, and 
sometimes a cross or even a black or silver fox may 
be taken, the skin of which may easily exceed in 
value that of the hunter's combined catch of other 
furs. 

Hunting sea-otter and seal. 

Sea-otter. — The story of the sea-otter (Enhydra 
or Latax marina) reads like a romance. In the 
days when this furred sea-dog of the Pacific ocean 
was plentiful, it could be shot by still-hunting in 
calm weather as it came to the surface of the water 
to breathe. Now it must be hunted in the teeth of 



398 



FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 



FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 



the wildest Alaskan gale. "The native Aleutian," 
writes Miss Laut, " rides out in his skin-skiff, with 
oiled-skin wrapping his body tight round the little 
manhole where he sits in the skin covering, so that 
the boat can take no water. Double-bladed paddle 
plying from side to side, the hunter mounts the 
seething waves and rides in on the back of the 
storm to the reefiest coasts of the Aleutians. Here 
the sea-otters have been driven by the storm, and 
hide with their heads buried in the tossing, wave- 
washed seaweed. Beaching his boat, the hunter 
runs from rock to rock, slippery as glass, beaten 
by the wind, sometimes caught by the waves and 
hurled to death. A single blow of his gaff-pole, and 
he has killed the sea-otter that supplies a fur more 
valued today than any other in the world." 

The sea-otter is in shape very much like a large 
dog. Its food consists of fish, and it is particularly 
partial to lobsters and other crustaceans. Its fur 
was first introduced into commerce in 1725 from 
the Aleutian and Kurile islands, and is exceedingly 
fine, soft and close, jet-black in winter, with a 
silken gloss. The fur of the young animal is of a 
beautiful brown color. It was formerly met with 
in great abundance in Bering's island, Kamchatka, 
Aleutian and Fox islands, as well as along the 
Pacific coast of North America. In 1780, furs had 
become so scarce in Siberia that the supply was 
insufficient for the Asiatic demand. It was at this 
time that the sea-otter was introduced into the 
markets for China. The skins brought such almost 
incredible prices as to originate several American 
and British expeditions to the northern islands of 
the Pacific, to Nootka Sound and to the north- 
western coast of America ; and from that time has 
been the rapid decrease in the supply. Off parts of 
the coasts of Alaska, and especially at Belkovsky 
bay and vicinity, and at St. Paul, Kadiac island, 
sea-otter-hunting still furnishes employment to 
many native hunters. Here the animals are taken 
by means of bows and arrows, rifles and gill-nets. 
The nets are fourteen to twenty fathoms long, and 
twelve fathoms deep, with a ten-inch mesh. They 
are made by the Indian women, and are declared 
to be very destructive. At St. Paul, besides the 
Indians, there are some twelve or fifteen white men 
of various nationalities who engage in sea-otter- 
hunting throughout the year. The white hunters 
have small schooners of about twenty-five tons 
burden, in which they make long voyages. Some of 
these hunters are very skillful, and several thou- 
sand dollars have been earned by a single indi- 
vidual in a season. Captain Anderson, one of the 
most successful hunters of St. Paul, and, in fact, of 
Alaska, landed fifty sea-otter skins as the result of 
one trip a few seasons ago, receiving for them one 
hundred dollars each, which is very far below their 
present value. 

Seal. — No set of fur-hunters enjoy more thrilling 
adventures or run such deadly perils as the sealers 
of Newfoundland and the gulf of St. Lawrence. 
Many are the sealing schooners and still more 
numerous the men who have gone out to the seal 
hunt in the spring of the year and never returned. 
The risks that they run are illustrated by the loss 



of the sealing steamer Greenland, in the ice, in the 
month of March, 1907. The disabled vessel had 
eighty-nine men on board, who abandoned the ship 
after she had been crushed in the heavy pack ice, 
against which she had been driven by a blizzard, 
and were fortunately rescued by other sealers. 
Only men of iron can successfully face and endure 
such dangers. They are so accustomed to the sea 
and the ice-floes that they seem to have an absolute 
contempt for their terrors. They leap fearlessly 
from pan to pan, and think little of passing the 
night on the ice far from the steamer, going off as 
far as four or five miles in their eagerness to slay. 
Should a fog or snow-storm set in, there is great 
risk of losing their way and perishing miserably in 
these ice-deserts, or of falling through the open- 
ings that are covered with the snow as it falls and 
freezes. Sometimes the field-ice on which they 
are at work separates into fragments without a 
moment's warning, and they are floated off, to per- 
ish by cold and hunger, unless rescued by a passing 
vessel. 

Sealers' luck is just as uncertain as that of the 
average fisherman. One or more crews may be 
exposed to the perils of the ice for weeks without 
securing a single seal, while, under favorable 
conditions, five or six hundred carcasses may be 
secured in a couple of hours, by a crew of eight or 
nine men. This is when the schooners are fortunate 
enough to approach, unobserved, a large field of 
ice containing a herd of unsuspecting seals. The 
herds often include several thousands of seals. The 
ice is always approached from the side which is 
nearest to open water, so as to cut off the animals' 
only chance of escape. Then, at a given signal, the 
hunters leap on the ice and approach as closely to 
the seals as possible, without creating any alarm, 
sometimes even crawling a considerable distance 
on their hands and knees. As soon as they are 
observed, and can reach the nearest of the herd, 
the slaughter begins. Each man is armed with a 
stout stick, six to ten feet long, which not only 
assists him to leap, when necessary, from floe to 
floe of the floating ice, but with which he effects 
the slaughter of the defenceless animals. One blow 
over the nose suffices to kill, or at least to stun a 
seal, and as many as possible are disposed of, in 
order to prevent their escape ; the final slaughter 
of the stunned ones beginning only when all the 
animals within reach have either escaped or been 
knocked on the head. The thin skull of the young 
seal is easily fractured by the blow from the stick, 
which may only stun the full-grown animal, and, in 
the majority of cases, the little one feels no more 
pain, death being instantaneous. In a moment the 
knife is at work. The skin and the adhering fat 
are rapidly detached from the carcass, which is 
left on the ice, except when the animal is killed 
close to the shore. 

The catch of seals varies considerably with the 
season. Sometimes it exceeds half a million seals. 
At others it is only a quarter as good. Sometimes 
a steamer returns home at the end of the season 
perfectly "clean." The Neptune, on the other 
hand, after an absence of only eighteen days, came 



FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 



FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 



399 



into port in the spring of 1894, loaded down to the 
water's edge, with 42,000 seals, valued at $105,- 
000. 

These loups-marins, or sea-wolves, of the gulf of 
St. Lawrence, as the French-Canadians call them, 
must not be confounded with the fur seals of Alaska 
(Callorhinus Alaseanus, Fig. 406), whose soft coat 




Fig. 406. The Alaska fur seal [Callorhinus Alaseanus). 

is one of the cherished possessions of the city belle. 
They are commonly known as the Newfoundland or 
hair seals (Phoca Granlandica). Until the last few 
years their skins were used chiefly for the manu- 
facture of a coarse-grained but expensive leather; 
but in the last few winters, the fur has been exten- 
sively dressed in both Newfoundland and Canada, 
and coats and other articles of wearing apparel have 
made their appearance on the streets of Montreal 
and Quebec, made from this dark, rough, dappled- 
gray, or pepper-and-salt colored fur. As it is far 
from unsightly, and is uninjured by rain, it is 
altogether likely, in view of the now almost pro- 
hibitive price of the Alaska seal, that the Atlantic 
seal may rapidly pass into popularity and fashion. 

The story of the fearfully diminished seal-herd 
of Bering's sea is matter of American history. In 
1874, it numbered close on five millions. In less 
than a quarter of a century it had been reduced to 
a single million. In less than another decade, only 
175,000 seals of the herd remained. Ten to twelve 
thousand skins a year are all that can be depended 
on from this source until protection may have con- 
tributed to an increase in the size of the herd. On 
the Pribilof islands, the Alaska seals are slaught- 
ered by hunters with sticks, much as the hair-seal 
is on the ice-floes of the gulf of St. Lawrence. 

The life-history of the seal, whether of the Pacific 
or the Atlantic ocean, is more familiar to the aver- 
age reader than is that of the sea-otter, or of most of 
the fur-bearing animals of the interior of the con- 
tinent. The fur or Alaska seal, formally known 
more generally as the South Sea seal, is the most 
perfectly organized of all the amphibians. It is 
obliged by its nature to secure its living in the 
water, and to reproduce its species on the land ; it 
therefore "hauls up," as it is technically called, at 
a stated period every year on the breeding-grounds 
where it is slaughtered for its fur. Its fore-feet or 
flippers are exceedingly broad and powerful, and 
when it comes out of the water it steps forward 
with considerable rapidity and much grace. It is 
an animal of great intelligence, speedily anticipat- 
ing danger, and at the same time readily under- 
standing when there is a disposition on the part of 



man not to disturb it. The full-grown males or 
bulls are the earliest arrivals at the islands, 
approaching them during the last days of April, 
and sleeping almost without interruption until 
toward the end of May, when they begin to look 
out for the coming of their families. The cows, or 
females, usually recognize their former mates 
and land at their respective rookeries. Owing to 
the great difference between the male and female 
in regard to the age of puberty, which is six years 
for the male, and two for the female, this species 
is necessarily polygamous, and an average family 
numbers ten to fifteen cows to one bull. The female 
gives birth to her pup almost immediately on land- 
ing. By the beginning of August, the breeding is 
nearly over, and the season of coition as well. 
Many young males attempt to land, but all below 
the age of six are quickly driven off by the old 
bulls, and sometimes even killed. The seals that 
are slaughtered for furs are carefully separated 
from the rest by men who walk between them 
before the killing begins. The females are spared, 
and so are the yearling bulls. The best skins are 
secured from two, three and four-year-old bache- 
lors, and from those that arrive first on the islands. 

Fur-bearing animals of the interior. 

The more important of the fur-bearing animals 
of the interior of the continent are the beaver, the 
otter, the marten, the fox of different varieties, 
the bear, the, lynx, the mink, the ermine, the musk- 
rat, the skunk and the raccoon. 

The beaver {Castor fiber, Linn., Fig. 407), which 
was formerly so abundant that its skin was the 
unit of currency for the Hudson Bay Company in 
its dealings with the Indian and half-breed trap- 
pers, has so rapidly disappeared that the yield is 
only half of what it was a few years ago. In the 
shape of its body it bears a close resemblance to a 
large rat, although it is much larger, with the head 
proportionately thicker and broader. It is thick 
and clumsy, gradually enlarging from the head to 
the hips, and then is somewhat abruptly rounded 
off to the root of the tail. This latter is very broad 




Fig. 407. Canadian beaver (Castor fiber). 

and flat, tongue-shaped and covered with angular 
scales. The fur is of two kinds. The upper and 
longer hair is coarse, smooth and glossy; the under 
coat is dense, soft and silky. Its geographical 
range appears at one time to have been co-exten- 
sive with the whole of North America, although 



400 



FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 



FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 



the progress of civilization seems to have extermi- 
nated the animal in nearly all of that part of the 
continent which constitutes the United States and 
the settled parts of Canada. The remarkable dams 
constructed by the patient and industrious little 
animals show wonderful engineering skill. Cart- 
wright found a beaver that weighed forty -five 
pounds, and it is said that they have been taken up 
to sixty pounds weight. The tail and other parts of 
the body are much prized by the Indians as articles 
of food. The animal is easily trapped. 

The muskrat {Fiber zibethicus. Fig. 408) inhabits 
almost every part of the United States north of the 
30th degree, and all British America to the arctic 
seas. It was fully described from personal obser- 
vation, as early in 1725, by Monsieur Sarrasin, a 
correspondent of the French Academy, and then 
King's Physician at Quebec. Its habits are aquatic, 
and it spends the greater part of its time in the 
water, where it secures most of its food. The lat- 
ter consists chiefly of fresh water mollusca, the 
roots of aquatic plants, and such tender grasses as 
may chance to grow at the margin of the stream. 
In addition to trapping them, the Indians sometimes 
take them by spearing them through the walls of 
their houses in winter. The shape of the body is 
almost cylindrical, and the length of head and body 
is about fifteen inches. The head is short, the neck 
very short and indistinct, the legs short, and the 
thighs hid in the body. The color of the animal so 
much resembles that of the muddy banks of the 
stream or lake on which it is often found seated, 
that, when seen from a distance, it is likely to be 
mistaken for a lump or clod of earth. On the upper 
parts of the body the fur is a third longer than 




Fig. 408. Muskrat {Fiber zibethicus). 

beneath, and from the roots to near the extremities 
is bluish gray or lead-color tipped with brown, 
giving the appearance of a general dark-brown 
color when viewed from above. 

The mink (Putorius vison, Fig. 409) is widely 
distributed over the North American continent, 
but the largest, best and darkest specimens are 
found in northern Canada. Sir John Richardson 
met with it as far north as latitude 66°. The popu- 



lar name of Putorius vison is supposed to be a cor- 
ruption of Moeuk, a name given to a closely allied 
species in Sweden. The body is long and vermiform, 
the head small and oval, the neck long, and legs 
short, with five toes on each foot. The color of the 
fur, which is highly esteemed, is a uniform brown 




■"«iiii/||i >r~ 
Fig. 409. Mink (Putorius vison). 

or tawny, with light brownish or yellow fur beneath, 
near the body. Some specimens are much darker 
than others, and there is usually a white spot under 
the throat, and another on the throat. The length 
of the head and body is about thirteen inches, 
and of the tail about seven inches. The mink is 
an expert fisher and hunter. Though largely of an 
aquatic habit, it yet subsists much on birds, mice, 
and other small animals. Fish, flesh and fowl seem 
alike to its taste. It has been known to catch a 
trout of a foot in length, while it is an expert rob- 
ber of the hen-roost. Birds, mice, rats and other 
small animals are amongst its victims. It is no 
uncommon thing for a mink to rob an angler of his 
catch, if he leave it behind him for a time on the 
bank of the stream. In the southern states it feeds 
largely on the marsh-hen. The mink possesses but 
little cunning, and is easily captured in any kind 
of trap. It is taken in both steel and box traps, 
but more generally in what are called deadfalls. 
It is attracted by any kind of fish or flesh, and tr.aps 
are baited with the head of a partridge, duck or 
chicken, or a piece of fish. Like the skunk and the 
ermine, it emits an offensive odor when provoked 
by men or dogs. When taken young it is easily 
tamed, becomes very gentle, and forms a strong 
attachment to those who fondle it in a state of 
domestication. 

Ermine. — The common white weasel or stoat of 
Canada (Putorius erminea) is the true ermine, 
virtually the same species as that of northern 
Europe and Asia, which in the feudal ages yielded 
the fur for the choicest mantles of nobles and kings, 
although the Canadian-produced fur, except in the 
far north, is inferior to that of Europe and Asia. 
Smaller than the mink, but not unlike it in form, 
being but about ten inches long from the snout to 
the root of the tail, the weasel is fiercer and more 
bloodthirsty than Putorius vison, possessing an 
intuitive propensity, says Audubon, to destroy every 
animal and bird within its reach, some of which, 
like the American rabbit, the ruffed grouse and 
domestic fowl, are ten times its own size. A single 
ermine has been known to kill forty well-grown 
fowls in a single night. Notwithstanding its mis- 



FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 



FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 



401 



chievousand destructive habits, the ermine is rather, 
perhaps, a benefactor than an enemy to the farmer, 
ridding his fields and granaries of many depredators 
on the product of his labor, such as the white-footed 
mouse, the pine-mouse, the ground-squirrel, the rat 
and the common house mouse, which would devour 
ten times the value of the poultry and eggs that 
at long and uncertain intervals it may destroy. 
The skin of the little animal had become practi- 
cally so valueless a few years ago that the hunters 
scarcely secured more than five cents each for it. 
Today it is worth twenty-five cents to a dollar each. 
Naturalists do not agree as to whether the apparent 
change of color from summer brown to winter 
white is effected by shedding the old hair, the new 
coat growing another shade, or whether the hair 
actually changes color itself. 

The marten (Mustek, Americana, Fig. 410), also 
called the pine-marten, and American sable, is 
larger than the mink, and almost always lighter in 
color. The body is slender, the head long and 
pointed, legs short and stout, eyes small and black, 
tail bushy and cylindrical. Its coat contains two 
kinds of hair, the outer long and rigid, the inner 
soft and somewhat woolly. The length from point 
of nose to root of tail is about eighteen inches. 
The color varies considerably in different individ- 
uals, but is generally yellowish, shaded more or less 
with black, the throat being yellow. The darkest 
skins are the most valuable. Its food consists of 
birds, mice, squirrels and other small animals, and 
it climbs trees with great facility. It is so easily 
caught in traps that it has been exterminated in 
many parts of Canada and the northern states 
where it was once abundant. Where the Indians 
have properly preserved hunting-grounds, this val- 
uable fur-bearing animal is as carefully preserved 
as is the beaver. It is by no means unusual for a 
good marten to sell for $35. Less than twenty 
years ago martens could be had for $5 or $6 each. 

The fisher or pekan (Mustela Pennauti), also 
known as Pennaut's marten, is a kind of marten, 
about the size of a small fox, of a general dark 
brown or nearly black color. It is sometimes known 
as the blaekeat. It frequents swampy lands, preying 
on fish, frogs, squirrels, mice and other small ani- 
mals. It is found all over the continent as far 
south as the Carolinas, except where it has disap- 
peared before a dense population. It is nocturnal 
in its habits, will rob a line of traps of bait, like 
the carcajou, and has even been known to tear in 
pieces a pine-marten that had been caught in a 
trap. In the early part of the last century, when 
these animals were more common in the state of 
New York, the hunters used to get them by follow- 
ing their tracks in the snow, when they had been 
out in quest of food on the previous night. They 
would thus trace them to the hollow trees in which 
they were concealed, which the hunters chopped 
down. It is said that as the tree was falling, the 
fishers would dart from the hollow, which was often 
fifty feet from the ground, and leap into the snow, 
when the dogs usually seized and killed them, 
although not without a hard struggle, as they are 
much more dangerous to dogs and hounds than 

C 26 



either the gray or the red fox. An ordinary speci- 
men measures twenty-three inches from the point 
of the nose to the root of the tail, and weighs eight 
or nine pounds. 

The otter (Lutra Canadensis) is in appearance a 
magnified mink. Its walk, fur and color bear strong 
resemblance to those of the latter animal, and the 
lightening of the tints of the pelage in old age is 
the same in both. Its fur is short and thick, the 
under part being of a silvery white shade, slightly 
waved and silky, and of similar texture to that of 
the beaver, but not so long. The color of the over- 
lying hairs varies from a rich and glossy brownish 
black to a dark chestnut. In summer the color is a 
rusty brown, and the fur is shorter and thinner. 
Its habits are aquatic. From the shortness of its 
legs, its motions on shore are not so quick as when 
in the water, and as its food is principally fish, it 
resides in winter near some lake or river where it 
keeps a hole open in the ice all the season. During 
this period of the year its migrations on land in 
high latitudes, where the ground is covered with 
snow, are toilsome, and it leaves a deep furrow or 
path in the snow, which, when seen by the trapper 
soon after the animal has passed, invariably leads 
to its destruction. If a trap be set on this road 




Fig. 410. The marten (Mustela Americana). 



the otter is almost certain to be caught, as it has 
a strong objection to opening new paths through 
the deep snow. In firing at an otter in the water, 
care must be taken not to shoot it in an immedi- 
ately vital part, as the body sinks like a stone 
immediately after death. 

Foxes. — In treating the different varieties of 
foxes, it is extremely difficult to mark the line 
where one ends and another begins, for every shade 
of color from a bright flame tint to a perfectly 
black pelt may occasionally be seen. Vulpes fulvus 
is the common red fox, variety decussatus the 
cross-fox, and variety argentatus the silver fox. 
The appearance of the common red fox is too well 
known to require description. In the cross-fox, the 
legs, the muzzle and the under parts are black, and 
the tail is blacker than that of the common red fox. 
A dark band runs down between the shoulders, 
crossed by another over the shoulders. The silver 
fox is entirely black except on the posterior part 
of the back, where the hairs are annulated with 



402 



FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 



FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 




Fig. 411. Skunk (Mephitis 
■mepkitica). 



gray, although this feature is occasionally wanting. 
The tail is tipped with white. Experiments having 
proved that the offspring of a pair of silver foxes 
are not always colored like their parents ; there 
are those who contend that the silver is not a spe- 
cies but a freak. Whatever be its origin, it is the 
most valuable fur known after that of the sea-otter. 
As a rule, only a few score are taken each year in 
any district. The annual American output does not 
exceed a thousand. An exceptional skin has sold as 
high as $2,500, but the usual price is $250 to 
$1,000. Foxes are 
by no means choice 
about their food. 
Mice, birds, hares, 
fish, carrion, all 
come alike to them, 
and they will even 
make a meal of a 
fellow fox if one 
is found dead in a 
trap. They are 
killed by hunting, 
by s n a r i n g , by 
traps, by unearth- 
ing and by poison- 
ing. 

The skunk (Me- 
phitis mepkitiea, 
Fig. 411) is found 
throughout the 
Dominion of Canada as far as 57 degrees north, 
and ranges south to Kentucky, Carolina and Ala- 
bama. It is about the size of a large cat, has a 
broad, fleshy body, wider at the hips than at the 
shoulders, long coarse fur and short legs. The 
general color is blackish brown, with white longi- 
tudinal stripes on the back. It is carnivorous, its 
prey being small birds, eggs, insects, mice, frogs 
and the like, and it is particularly destructive in 
the poultry yard. In northern regions it hibernates 
in winter. Although, in self-defense, capable of 
emitting an odor perhaps the most offensive in 
nature, the skunk is an exceedingly clean animal ; 
a dozen may sometimes be concealed in a single 
burrow, and yet not the slightest unpleasant smell 
can be detected at the entrance. The flesh is eaten 
by the Indians and pronounced by them superior to 
that of the raccoon or opossum. Its fur is very 
much in demand for dressing and dyeing, for the 
production of what is known as Alaska sable. In 
recent years it has become one of the most impor- 
tant of North American fur-bearing animals. 

Bears. — Of the bear there are several American 
species, chief among which are the very common 
black bear(Z7rsas Americanus, Fig. 412), which some- 
times attains a weight of 600 pounds, the grizzly 
(U. horribilis), the white or Polar bear({7. maritimus) 
and the cinnamon bear. The last-mentioned is a 
native of the Northwest ; the grizzly is found in 
the Rocky mountains; the Polar bear is a native of 
the arctic regions, while the black bear, which is 
most extensively trapped for the sake of its fur 
for commercial purposes, inhabits all the wooded 
parts of North America. It has very stout legs, a 



somewhat bulky but flexible body, and long, soft, 
glossy fur. The general color is black, but it some- 
times varies to brown or yellowish. Its food is 
principally vegetable, consisting of roots, berries, 
nuts, and the like, and it will even catch fish out 
of shallow water for food. It will devour eggs and 
small birds, and will carry off and devour hogs. 
When driven to extremities, the bear will stand on 
its hind-legs and make a terrible battle with its 
powerful paws. The bear is often shot in burnt 
lands and while swimming in lakes, but is more 
often captured in deadfalls. 

The rabbit is too well known to require descrip- 
tion [see article on Pets], and space will permit only 
brief accounts of the raccoon, the wolf and the lynx, 
which supply a number of skins annually in the 
United States and Canada. 

The raccoon (Procyon lotor. Fig. 413) was classed 
by Linnaeus among the bears, under the genus 
JJrsus, its feet being plantigrade with naked soles. 
When it sits, it often brings the whole hind sole to 
the ground, resting in the manner of the bears, 
although it walks on its toes. Its body is rather 
stout, the legs of moderate length, its color on the 
upper part of the body grayish, mixed with black, 
the ears and under part whitish, with a black 
patch across the eye, and its long and bushy tail 
having four or five annulations of black and grey. 
While not intended for great speed, it is capable of 
a tolerably rapid race and is able to climb, and 
although not with the agility of the squirrel, yet 
with greater alacrity than its near relative, the 
bear. In the United States it is found as far south 
as Mexico. In Canada it has been taken as far 
north as Winnipeg. 

The raccoon usually brings forth four to six 
young at a time. It may almost be called omnivor- 
ous. Green corn and oysters, fish and poultry, eggs 
and fresh-water shell-fish, honey and chestnuts are 
all acceptable. Like the bear, the raccoon, in 
northern latitudes, hibernates for some months 
during the winter. 




Fig. 412. American or black bear (Ursus Americanus). 

Wolf. — There are several varieties of the Ameri- 
can wolf, all of about the same size. Sometimes 
they band together in the same pack, black, white, 
grey and red wolves being seen occasionally in the 
same company. The grey wolf (Canis lupus) is the 
variety most common in Canada and the northern 



FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 



FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 



403 



states. It has a thick head, long nose, erect and 
conical ears, and a muzzle elongated and somewhat 
thicker than that of the Pyrenean wolf. The gen- 
eral appearance of the upper surface of the animal 
is dark brindled gray, with an indistinct dorsal 
line, a little darker than the color of the sides. 
The under parts are of a dull white color. The 
wolf is a cruel, savage, cowardly animal, and very 
destructive of deer, which it hunts singly or in 
packs. All the varieties are extremely swift of 
foot, and it is difficult to run them down for the 
purpose of shooting them. They are usually either 
taken in traps or killed with strychnine. In 
winter, when there is no crust on the snow in the 
north for some time, sufficiently strong to carry a 
wolf, many of the animals perish from hunger. 

The American wolf burrows and brings forth 
its young in earths having several outlets. The 
number in a litter varies from four or five to eight 
or nine. The skin of the wolf is used chiefly for 
sleigh or carriage robes and for floor mats and 
rugs. Rough driving coats also are sometimes 
made of it, although the hair on the back is three 
to four inches long. 

Lynx. — There are two distinct varieties of the 
lynx in North America, the Loup Cervier or Cana- 
dian lynx (Lynx Canadensis, Fig. 414) and the 
Bay lynx or wildcat of the United States (Lynx 
rufus). This genus has been separated from the 
old genus Felis because of the tufted ears, shorter 
bodies and tails in proportion to their much larger 
bulk, and also of the slight differences in the 
teeth, the lynx having one tooth less on each side 
of the upper jaw than the tame cats. Although 
both of the American wildcats are found in Canada, 
the so-called Canada lynx is larger than Lynx 
rujus. The latter is of a yellowish or reddish 
brown, while the larger variety is generally grey 




Fig. 413. Raccoon (Proeyon lotor). 



and clouded with irregular darker spots. Although 
the skin of this latter may be seen in the collec- 
tions of almost every extensive fur-dealer in 
Canada, the animal is seldom met with in its wild 



state, unless by those sportsmen or others who 
penetrate into the more retired recesses of the 
forest. The settlements are not often visited by 
this beast of prey, for it can generally find a suffi- 
ciency of food in the woods and is not, therefore, 



^«, 








Fig. 414. Canada lynx (Lynx Canadensis). 

very often compelled by famine to forage in the 
farmyard. Its prey consists largely of such small 
animals as the northern hare, the gray rabbit, 
squirrels, mice, grouse and birds of various kinds, 
although it is thought that the wolf is sometimes 
blamed for carrying off a lamb which has feasted 
the lynx. When it enters a place frequented by 
rabbits, it seldom leaves the locality until it has 
killed them all. From the great size of its claws 
and teeth, and its formidable appearance, the 
Canada lynx has acquired a reputation for ferocity, 
cunning and daring, to which it is not entitled. 
Although strongly built and capable of climbing 
trees with ease, the lynx is timid and even cow- 
ardly at the sight of man, and a very small dog 
will instantly put it to flight. It swims well, breeds 
once a year, having two young at a time, is easily 
taken in traps, and some of the Indians eat its 
flesh. When cornered by dogs it fights like a cat, 
spitting and striking with its sharp claws, with 
which it can inflict severe wounds. Its feet are 
completely covered with long woolly fur, so that 
its tracks on the snow are very large and do not 
show any impressions of the toes. Most of what 
has been said of this variety applies equally to the 
common American wildcat, except that the latter 
has never been known to attack any but animals 
smaller than itself. 

Handling the furs. 

The American furs which find their way to the 
great auction marts of the Old World are received 
and sold in their raw state, much in the same con- 
dition in which they left the hands of the trapper. 
Until comparatively recent times, Germany had the 
monopoly of the dyeing and dressing of certain furs, 
particularly of squirrel skins and of white furs, 
such as the ermine and Polar bear. Almost aJI 
Alaska seal skins are dressed and dyed in London, 



404 



FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 



FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 



not because of a lack of expert workmen in the 
United States, for some seal skins are skillfully 
manufactured in New York, but because of the 
favorable financial arrangements and harmonious 
cooperation existing in London, where the raw furs 
are sold, between fur -brokers, fur-dressers and 
bankers, whereby most of the purchase money may 
be withheld until the skins have been dressed and 
dyed, six or eight months later. In the prin- 
cipal cities of Canada and also in several in the 
United States, there are establishments for the 
dressing, dyeing and manufacture of native furs. 
The great American center of this industry is the 
city of New York, which leads the world as a con- 
sumer of furs, the sales to individuals there exceed- 
ing those of any other city in the world. Many 
firms, long established, with large capital and of 
international reputation, conduct the business. 

Much space might be devoted to an account of 
the interesting processes followed in the prepara- 
tion of dressed furs from the raw skins. The finest 
qualities of furs, with the exception of the Alaska 
seal, are seldom dyed. The process of dressing 
differs for various kinds of fur, but there are many 
features of the industry common to almost all of 
them, such as the removal of grease and dirt, the 
conversion of the pelt or membrane into a sort of 
soft and pliable leather, and a paring down of its 
texture. Some of these operations are necessarily 
very delicate ones. Very greasy skins, as those of 
the mink, are first of all scraped, and then, like 
others, are soaked in water over night for soften- 
ing and opening the texture preparatory to. the 
unhairing and leathering processes. Heavy pelts, 
as those of the beaver and otter, are then "beamed," 
for the purpose of breaking up the texture of the 
membrane and softening it. If the overhairs are to 
be removed, that process is next in order, except in 
the dressing of muskrat skins, when it is usually 
postponed until after the dressing. After plucking, 
heavy skins are shaved to a thin, even surface, with 
a "skiving" knife. Next comes the leathering. The 
pelt side is dampened over night with cold salt- 
water, and the following day, butter, or other ani- 
mal fat, is rubbed on the membrane. This greasing 
is omitted in dressing mink or other very oily skins. 

Then follows the tubbing, one of the most curious 
processes of the trade. In order thoroughly to 
soften or "leather" the pelt, a number of skins are 
placed in large tubs with mahogany sawdust, each 
tub being occupied by a workman, who for two or 
three hours is engaged in tramping the skins with 
bare feet. The skins are subsequently placed in 
revolving cylinders with clean sawdust, this in 
order to extract all the grease, which adheres to 
the sawdust. After this the sawdust is beaten out, 
and the combing of the furs completes the opera- 
tion of dressing. The process is subject to many 
variations for different kinds of furs. 

Fur-farming. 

Many experiments in fur-farming have been 
attempted from time to time, but few, if any, have 
proved a success. A skunk-farm, which has been in 
operation for a number of years in Ontario on a 



small scale, has given some fair results, many of 
the animals having become partially tamed. Similar 
farms have been established on a large scale in some 
of the western states, but are still in the experimental 
stage. The proposition has been more than once 
made to stock Hudson bay with the Alaska seal. 
The conditions as to food, temperature, and the like, 
are declared to be favorable, and different varieties 
of the hair-seal thrive admirably under similar 
conditions. The project in question, which involved 
the purchase and transfer to the bay of one hun- 
dred cow seals and fifteen bulls, was submitted to 
the Dominion government some time ago, but 
nothing came of it. It may be revived later. 

An extensive system of otter-farming in the 
swamps of Florida was seriously proposed some 
years ago. Beaver-farming, as attempted in a 
restricted area on the north of Lake Superior, 
proved a failure. There is no reason, however, why 
the introduction of beaver from the Yellowstone 
National Park into parts of the Adirondacks, 
where they were once plentiful, should not be fol- 
lowed by good results, if the animals are protected 
from molestation ; for no effort has been made to 
confine them within unnatural limitations. It is 
the change from natural conditions, accompanying 
almost every attempt at fur-farming, that dooms 
it to failure. Beavers and foxes, as well as big 
game, liberated by Mr. Menier on his island of 
Anticosti, are apparently multiplying and doing 
well. Fur-bearing animals of all kinds, on the 
other hand, kept in close captivity, have deterior- 
ated in the quality of their fur, often pining away 
and dying. A few silver foxes are reported to have 
been raised successfully in captivity by a trader on 
the Labrador coast, but the experiment was not 
repeated successfully through a second generation, 
and the furs were of an inferior and bedraggled 
character. They come to their greatest excellence, 
as a matter of fact, only when the animal enjoys 
that wide ranging of its natural state which 
ensures robust health. 

Literature. 

The literature of the fur trade is very exhaus- 
tive. On North American fur-bearing animals see : 
Sir John Richardson, Fauna Boreali-Americana ; 
George Cartwright, Journal during a residence of 
nearly sixteen years on the coasts of Labrador ; 
The Canadian Naturalist for 1857 and following 
years ; H. de Puyjalon, Histoire Naturelle a l'usage 
des Chasseurs Canadiens, et des eleveurs d'animaux 
a fourrure ; The Fur Seal and Other Fisheries 
of Alaska, published by the House of Representa- 
tives, Washington (1889); Florida Fur Farming, in 
the Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission 
(1897); various articles on the wild animals of the 
United States in the annual reports of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Washington ; The Seal Hunt 
of the Gulf, E. T. D. Chambers in East and West, 
Toronto, May, 1907 ; descriptions of the Newfound- 
land seal hunts in books on Newfoundland, by 
Judge Prowse and Rev. Moses Harvey ; A. P. Low, 
Trail and Camp-fire. On the Indian fur-hunters, 
the trapping of furs and the fur industry in gen- 



GOAT 



GOAT 



405 



eral, consult histories of the Northwest and of the 
Hudson Bay Company ; Miss Laut, Story of the 
Trapper, and Fur Trade of the World, in the 
World's Work of May, 1907 ; Geo. Bird Grinnell, 
Story of the Indian ; Hind, Labrador ; E. T. D. 
Chambers, The Montagnais Indians and Their Folk- 
lore ; H. de Puyjalon, Petit Guide du Chasseur de 
Pelleterie ; Horace T. Martin, Castorologia, or the 
History and Traditions of the Canadian Beaver ; 
Charles H. Stevenson, Utilization of the Skins of 
Aquatic Animals, in the report of the United States 
Commission of Fish and Fisheries (1902). 

GOAT. Capra spp. Bovidce. Figs. 415-419. 

The goat is a genus of quadrupeds, very closely 
allied to the sheep. It seems probable that the do- 
mestic goat is descended from the Persian pasang 
{Capra agagrus), which is the most characteristic 
species of the wild goats. The types of domestic 
goats that have been developed under their long 
period of domestication are very numerous, but 
comparatively few are of economic value in 
America. Perhaps the Angora (Capra angorensis) 
is the best known in this country, although the 
interest in milch goats is increasing. The zoologi- 
cal origin of the Angora goat is not known. The 
prevailing opinion seems to be that the foundation 
stock is some derivative of Capra agagrus, perhaps 
with crosses from the markhor {C. falconeri) or 
other wild Asian species. The goat has never been 
held in high esteem in America, but this condition 
may change. 

Mention should be made of the Cashmere or Shawl 
goat of India, which is valued for its fine, silk-like 
under-wool, much prized in shawls. "Mountain 
goat " is mentioned under Sheep. 

Angora Goat. Figs. 415, 416. 

By E. L. Shaw. 

The Angora is raised primarily for its mohair 
and meat. The male goat is called a buck, the 
female a doe, the castrated male a wether, and 
the young a kid. 

Description. 

The Angora goat was formerly described as a 
small animal, but, owing to favorable conditions, 
its size has been greatly increased. It is smaller 
than the common goat, weighing sixty to one hun- 
dred pounds, although specimens are frequently 
found that weigh considerably more. Both males 
and females have horns and beards, but in rare 
instances an animal without horns may be seen. 
The horns of the male grow to a length of fifteen 
to twenty inches and turn upward and outward 
with a backward twist, while those of the female, 
which grow to a length of eight to fen inches, grow 
upward and point backward, with only a slight 
inclination to twist. The horns are grayish in color, 
never black. The body should be round, the back 
straight, with shoulders and hips of equal height. 
The chest should be broad ; legs short and strong ; 
head broad, with a wide muzzle and bright eyes ; 



ears either partially upright or distinctly pendent, 
and six to eight inches long. The fleece should be 
pure white, covering all parts of the body, as dense 
on the belly and neck as on the back and sides, and 
it should extend to the ears and the jaw. Many 
Angoras have mohair on the forehead, face and legs. 
The mohair should make an annual growth of not 
less than eight to ten inches, and weigh three to 
five pounds per fleece. It should hang in well-formed 



Wtflif 



wMKittM 




Fig. 415. Angora goats. 

ringlets from all parts of the body, and should be 
fine, soft, lustrous and strong. The fleece should be 
free from kemp. The fibers become coarser, thin- 
ner and straighter as the animal grows older. The 
best mohair grows on goats of the best blood ; and 
among these, that on the kids, yearling wethers 
and does is superior in the order named. 

The offensive odor from the bucks of the com- 
mon goat is entirely absent in the Angora breed, 
except at the rutting season, and then it is notice- 
able only in a slight degree. The odor in a fleece 
of mohair is milder than that in a fleece of wool. 

History. 

The Angora goat derives its name from the vilayet 
of Angora, in Asia Minor. The city of Angora is 
the capital of the vilayet of Angora, and is located 
about two hundred miles sputh-by-southeast from 
Constantinople. The province is mountainous to a 
considerable extent and furrowed by deep valleys. 
The climate is extreme. Some writers have ven- 
tured to say that the Angora goat originated in 
this district over 2,400 years ago. 

It is said that the pure Angora goat was nearly 
bred out in 1863. The reason for this was the 
extensive crossing with the common Kurd goat. 

In America. — The first importation of Angora 
goats to America was made in 1849. During the 
administration of President Polk, says Colonel 
Richard Peters, the Sultan of Turkey requested 
that a suitable person be sent to that country to 
conduct some experiments in the culture of cotton. 
Dr. James B. Davis, of South Carolina, was dele- 
gated. On his return to the United States in 1849, 
the Sultan presented to him nine choice Angoras. 
These animals were imported as Cashmeres, and 
were so regarded until after they were purchased 
by Colonel Richard Peters in 1853. This importa- 
tion was frequently exhibited at fairs, and always 



406 



GOAT 



GOAT 



attracted much attention. Colonel Peters is gen- 
erally regarded as the real founder of the Angora 
goat industry in America. 

There have been, from time to time, various other 
importations of Angoras from Turkey and South 
Africa. These are widely disseminated, and the 
blood of most of them has been beneficial to the 
industry in this country. The Civil war was dis- 
astrous in its effects on the industry, and the 
Angora goats in the southern and eastern sections 
of the country were practically exterminated. The 
western men who adopted the industry, and finally 
saved it, were William M. Landrum, C. P. Bailey 
and John S. Harris. 

Distribution. 

Angora goats are widely distributed throughout 
America. They are found in almost every state and 
territory in the Union, the largest numbers being 
in Texas, New Mexico, California, Arizona, Oregon 
and Montana. They are found in large numbers in 
Cape Colony. The census report for April, 1904, 
gives the number in Cape Colony as 2,775,927. It 
is estimated that in 1894, there were over 1,230,- 
000 Angoras in Asia Minor. [See page 409.] 

Types. 

Some strains of Angoras have fox-like ears, but 
those with the pendent ears are preferred. In this 
country, care must always be exercised to cull the 
off-colored kids from the flock. These may be the 
result of atavism, from a cross made on a common 
goat, either red or black. It is reported that dif- 
ferent colors are found in the province of Angora 
among what were supposed to be pure-bred animals. 
Some Angoras have very little or no mohair on the 
forehead and legs, while others have a tuft on the 
forehead, and the legs are well covered down to 
the feet. 

Breeding. 

Goats of both sexes will sometimes breed when 
they are five or six months old, but from the fact 
that at this age they are but a month or two from 
weaning time, and are not fully grown, it is obvious 
that they should not be permitted to breed. They 
reach maturity when about sixteen or eighteen 
months old, and they should not be bred before 
this time. If bred earlier, the kids will not be so 
strong, nor so well developed. The goats are in 
their prime when two to six years old. Does should 
not be kept until they are very old, unless they 
produce kids of exceptional merit, for their mohair 
becomes coarser and less valuable as they mature. 
The average life of goats is about twelve years. 

Bucks usually come in heat about the middle of 
July, and continue so about six months. Does do 
not usually come in heat until the latter part of 
August or the first of September. The period of 
gestation is 147 to 155 days. The kids should not 
come before the warm days of spring, or when 
vegetation begins to put out vigorously. The only 
objection to early kidding is the extra care required 
to preserve the life of the kids, for they are deli- 
cate for the first few days. 



A buck should be in the best possible condition 
when put to service, and should be fed some grain 
during the breeding season. For the best results, 
about forty or fifty does should be allowed to a 
buck. The pure-bred Angora does not often drop 
more than one kid at a time, while the common 
goat nearly always drops two. The kidding season 
is the most important in the life of the goats. For 
several days after the kids are dropped, they natu- 
rally demand good care. After a few weeks they are 
able to care for themselves, and can follow the 
flock. 

A few days before a doe is due to kid, she should 
be separated from the flock. Some breeders would 
put her alone in a pen, while others would put as 
many as twenty in one pen. If the facilities are at 
hand, a small pen for each doe is better, for the 
reason that the doe will own the kid sooner, and 
there will be less danger of injury. If kids are 
dropped on the range or in the pasture, they must 
be carried home and special care given to see that 
the does are made to own them, for many times 
they will refuse, especially if they have no milk. 

There are in use two methods of handling the 
does and kids at kidding time, namely, the corral 
method and the staking method. Each of these 
methods has its advantages. 

(1) The corral method may be used with any 
number of goats. When a large number of does 
are expected to kid, it is necessary to have one or 
two large corrals and several smaller ones. The 
does expected to kid, or those that have kidded, are 
put in the small corrals, and after a day or so are 
removed to one of the larger ones. This procedure 
is repeated until all the does have kidded. 

(2) The other, the Mexican or "staking method," 
is used largely in Texas and New Mexico. When a 
kid is born, it is taken to a convenient place to 
"stake" and the mother is coaxed to follow, and the 
kid is "staked" or "toggled" with a string about 
twelve inches long. This string is tied to one leg, 
being changed occasionally from one leg to another 
to avoid lameness. The string should have a swivel 
in it to prevent twisting. Kids are usually staked 
for a week to ten days. 

Kids should not be weaned until they are about 
four months old. The buck kids, not intended for 
breeding purposes, should be castrated when about 
two weeks old. The earlier it is done, the better 
will be the meat and mohair. 

No amount of cold will prove injurious to goats 
if they are kept dry. A shed of easy access is one 
of the essentials of goat-raising. Angoras are able 
to withstand both extreme heat and extreme cold 
if proper shelter and feed be provided. They requir j 
a large amount of fresh air and exercise. 

Feeding. 

The browsing habit of goats is an important fac- 
tor in their feeding. In some sections, they secure 
browse all through the winter season, as in the 
Southwest, where there is an abundance of live-oak. 
Corn fodder, cowpea hay, clover hay, and alfalfa 
are all excellent coarse feeds. Oats, corn and bran 
are valuable winter rations. Goats require more 



GOAT 



GOAT 



407 



salt than do sheep, owing to the more astringent 
character of their feed. A running stream in a 
pasture is valuable, but if it is not present, good, 
fresh water should be supplied. 

Marking. 

Several devices for marking goats are in use, 
but the metal tag in the ear is probably best 
known. A practice which appears to give satisfac- 
tion is to tattoo the numbers into the ear, using 
indelible ink. It is found that the metal is some- 
times pulled out by brush. 

Shearing. 

In Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and sometimes in 
California, shearing is done twice a year, usually 
in the months of March and April, and in Septem- 
ber or October. The reason for this practice is 
that, owing to the warm climate, the fleece will 
often shed in the fall if not clipped. In other parts 
of the country, shearing is done but once a year, 
and that in the months of March, April and May. 
The shearing machines, largely employed among 
sheep-raisers, are coming into general use among 
goat-breeders. 

Goats are not so gentle in the hands of the 
shearer as sheep, and many men, especially among 
beginners in the industry, desire to know how best 
to handle them during the operation of shearing. 
For this purpose, a simple combination trough and 
table (Fig. 416) was devised by F. W. Ludlow, of 
Lake Valley, New Mexico. This table is first used 
in the shape of a trough. The goat is placed in it 
on its back and held down by means of a strap 
across its throat. While in this position all the 
underparts, sides and legs may be worked on. In 
machine shearing, it is a good practice to start at 
the brisket and shear all the belly as far back as 
possible ; then shear the front legs and neck ; then 
start at the hocks and shear up the hind-legs and 
along the sides to the point of beginning. After 
shearing one of the sides allowed by the trough, 
the goat is tied — "hog tied," to use a western 
expression — that is, all four feet are tied together. 
The sides of the trough are now dropped, forming 
a table on which to finish the operation. There is 
now free access from the tail to the head, and the 
goat remains helpless. The proper course is to 
leave all the fleece on the table until the goat is 
liberated, and then roll it up inside out. 

Mr. Ludlow's description of this table is given 
herewith : "The table is simple in construction. It 
is about 22 inches high, 2 feet 10 inches long, and 
21 inches wide. The top is composed of two 9-inch 
sides, which are hinged to the 3-inch centerpiece. 
On the lower side of these movable flaps is a 
narrow piece 8 inches long, which catches on the 
framework of the table when the sides are lifted 
and holds them stationary. When, the sides are 
elevated, the top of the table forms a trough 3 
inches wide at the bottom and possibly a foot wide 
at the top. Into this trough the goat to be shorn is 
thrown, feet up. A small strap, which hangs from 
the end of one of the sides, is run over the goat's 
neck .and fastened to the other side. The goat's 



strap prevents it getting free. The belly and legs 
are then shorn. The legs of the goat are then tied 
together, the strap removed from the neck, and the 
sides of the table dropped, so that one has a plane 
surface on which to shear the rest of the animal. 
An untrained man can shear 100 goats a day with a 
shearing machine and such a table." 

Few breeders wash their goats before shearing, 
and if the animal has been properly cared for dur- 
ing the winter and early spring, washing is not 
necessary. Breeders find it to their advantage to 
ship the mohair in as clean a condition as possible. 
Colored fleeces, tag locks, mohair that is clotted 
and that which is dirty, should be packed separately. 
As kid hair is usually the finest, it should be packed 
by itself ; the doe hair and that from the wethers 
may be placed together. Fleeces should not be tied 




Fig. 416. A shearing trough and table combined. 

with twine, as parts of it are likely to adhere to 
the fleece, and can be removed only by great care 
and effort. Fleeces from Turkey and Cape Colony 
are not tied at all, but are simply rolled up inside 
out ; this is the condition in which the mills desire 
to receive them. 

Uses. 

The Angora goat is considered one of the most 
useful of the domestic animals, and has been so 
held from remote times. This usefulness is mani- 
fested in many ways. 

The mohair. — The fleece, called ' 'mohair," is used 
extensively in the manufacture of plushes. It is 
not generally known that practically all of the 
plushes used in railway passenger coaches and 
street cars are made of mohair. Besides these 
plushes, which are usually plain, large quantities 
of frieze and crush plushes are used in upholstering 
furniture. The designs for the frieze plushes are 
limited only by the ingenuity of man. The carriage 
robes, couch covers, sofa-pillow covers, and rugs 
are distinguished by their high pile and rich color- 
ing. Most of the so-called astrachan now in use is 
made of mohair. 

Besides plushes, which form the principal item, 
there may be mentioned dress goods of various 
designs, coats and coat-linings, table covers, knit 
mits, mittens and gloves, made from mohair. 

In addition to the mohair, there grows on the 
Angora goat coarse, chalky white, stiff, straight 
hair, varying in length from half an inch to four 
inches, technically known as " kemp." It is gener- 
ally thought that kemp is a relic of the common 
geat blood in the Angora, as it is a matter of his- 



408 



GOAT 



GOAT 



tory that the Angora flocks of America, as well as 
those of Asia Minor and South Africa, have been 
largely increased by crossing does of common blood. 
It is objectionable. 

The skins. — The skins of the Angoras, if taken 
when the hair is about four inches long, make very 
handsome rugs. The hair retain its original luster, 
and may be used in the natural white, or dyed any 
color desired. Carriage-robes are frequently manu- 
factured from the skins. The smaller skins of the 
does, wethers and kids find a use as robes for baby- 
carriages, and are extremely attractive. The skins 
are also used in the manufacture of children's 
muffs, and as trimmings for coats and capes. The 
finest kid fleeces adorn the collar and border of 
some of the ladies' opera cloaks. 

To clear brush land. — Goats are browsers by 
nature, and there is no vegetation they will eat in 
preference to leaves and twigs of bushes. The 
Angora has been used in many parts of the country 
for clearing land covered with brushwood. In 
localities where valuable land is completely over- 
grown with brushwood, the goats are considered of 
more value for clearing it than for their mohair or 
meat. 

The milk. — The Angora is not primarily a milch 
goat, and is not often employed for that purpose. 
Information at hand shows that the quantity of 
milk given by an Angora doe is uncertain, and in 
exceptional cases only does it approach in quantity 
that produced by the established breeds of milch 
goats, such as the Toggenburg, Saanen, Maltese 
and Nubian. 

The meat. — The flesh of Angora goats is exceed- 
ingly nutritious and palatable. When properly fat- 
tened, they produce a meat so nearly like the best 
lamb that it takes an expert to detect the differ- 
ence. A large number of Angoras are slaughtered 
annually in Texas, Arizona, New Mexico and Cali- 
fornia. In Cape Colony, it is said that old does are 
slaughtered to furnish meat for farm hands, and 
young wethers are sold to butchers in the towns. 

Kansas City is the leading goat market, over 
sixty thousand head having been sold in this one 
market in 1907. 

Protection for sheep. — There is very little com- 
plaint heard from breeders of Angora goats con- 
cerning the ravages of dogs. Bucks can be trained 
to fight dogs and thus be a protection to sheep. A 
few goats will stay with a flock of sheep, but if 
there are many of them they will be likely to 
separate. 

Pets. — As pets for children, Angora goats are 
popular. They are remarkably intelligent and are 
easily trained. They are often harnessed to carts. 

Organizations and records. 

The American Angora Goat Breeders' Associa- 
tion, organized in 1900, maintains the only record 
of pure-bred Angora goats in America. This or- 
ganization has a membership of over five hun- 
dred breeders, representing nearly every state 
and territory in the Union. Over sixty-five thou- 
sand animals are recorded in the Angora Goat 
Record. 



Literature. 

George Fayette Thompson, Angora Goat Raising 
and Milch Goats ; William L. Black, A New Indus- 
try ; C. P. Bailey, Practical Angora Goat Raising ; 
Gustav A. Hoerle, The Angora Goat : Its Habits 
and Culture ; John L. Hayes, The Angora Goat : 
Its Origin, Culture and Products ; S. C. Cronwright 
Schreiner, The Angora Goat; George Edward Allen, 
Angora Goats, the Wealth of the Wilderness ; C. 
P. Bailey, California Angoras ; E. H. Jobson, 
Angora Goat Raising ; George Fayette Thompson, 
Information concerning the Angora Goat, Bulletin 
No. 27, Bureau of Animal Industry, United States 
Department of Agriculture; George Fayette Thomp- 
son, The Angora Goat, Farmers' Bulletin No. 137, 
United States Department of Agriculture. This 
article is largely adapted from the bulletins on 
Angora goats prepared by the late George Fayette 
Thompson. [See also page 411.] 

Milch Goats. Capra hircus, Linn. Figs. 417-419. 

By William C. Clos. 

The breeding of goats for the production of milk 
is a growing industry in some parts of America. 
In the development of the dairy type, numerous 
breeds and varieties of goats have been produced, 
adapted to meet different conditions. 

Description. 

According to the best authorities, the following 
general points and qualities are applicable to all 
types of milch goats. They must possess good forms, 
indicating constitutional strength and high produc- 
tiveness. The head must be light (dry), eyes fresh 
and lively, horns (in all horned breeds) small, neck 
broad, breast wide, ribs well sprung, back long and 
straight, hips broad and strong, legs sinewy and 
straight. Healthy claws, a fine, thin skin and a 
well-developed, but not too pendent udder and good 
teeth are also necessary requisites. 

History. 

Goats are among the oldest domestic animals, 
and have contributed their share to the subsistence 
of mankind as far back as historic evidences reach. 
Rutimeier discovered their remains among the 
ruined piles of the ancient lake-dwellers in Switzer- 
land. Goats and their products are mentioned fre- 
quently in the Bible, and by Herodotus and Homer, 
and have maintained their popularity, especially 
among oriental nations, to this day. 

The question of their origin is still in dispute. 
According to Julmy, a majority of zoologists main- 
tain that the European goat is descended from the 
Persian pasang or Bezoar goat (Capra mgagrus), 
while others seem to trace it to the Alpine ibex 
(Capra ibex). 

Whatever may have been their origin, they have 
exerted a strong influence on the economic welfare 
of the peoples among whom they have been found. 
Their growth in numbers, outside of America, has 
been noteworthy ; and in this country their popu- 
larity may be said to be increasing. The following 



GOAT 



GOAT 



409 



statistics indicate their popularity. G. F. Thompson 
states, in his "Information Concerning Common 
Goats," published in 1903, that there were 1,871,- 
252 goats of all kinds kept on farms in the United 
States, as reported in the census for 1900, repre- 
senting a total value of $3,266,080. Besides these, 
there were 78,353 goats reported for cities and vil- 
lages, which would bring the total up to 1,949,605 
head. He estimates the number of Angoras at 
700,000, and the remainder, he says, "are all sorts 
of animals except recognized breeds of milch goats, 
of which there are so few as not to affect the total 
materially." This is indeed a small number, but it 
indicates the need as well as the possibilities of 
improvement. 

European statistics give far more satisfactory 
results. Germany had (in 1883), according to Dett- 
weiler, 2,639,904 milch goats ; Switzerland (in 
1896) possessed 416,323 head (Stebler). Pegler, in 
his work (The Book of the Goat), gives the follow- 
ing figures : France, 1,794,837 ; Russia, 1,700,000; 
Austria, 979,104 ; Spain, 4,531,228 ; Italy, 1,690,- 
478, and the grand total for continental Europe as 
17,198,587 head. The Yearbook of the United 
States Department of Agriculture for 1906, in its 
statistical columns, gives the total number of goats 
for South American countries as 5,662,239 ; North 
and Central America, 6,296,192 ; Africa, 17,557,- 
590; Asia, 40,557,402, while Australia (total 
Oceanica) is marked down to a total of only 114,- 
865 head. 

In America. — As has been said, little effort has 
been put forth to improve the common goat of 
America, and no important milking strains or 
families have been produced. It is only under the 
stimulus of recent importations of some of the best 
European types that interest in goats for milk- 
production has sprung up. The first importation 
was that of W. A. Shafor, of Ohio, who brought 
over four Toggenburg goats in 1893. The next 
important importation was made by F. S. Peer, of 
Ithaca, New York, in the spring of 1904, when he 
brought over a large number of Toggenburg and 
White Saanen goats for individuals in Massachu- 
setts, New York, New Jersey and Maryland. In 
1905, the United States Department of Agriculture 
became interested, and through G. F. Thompson 
imported sixty-eight maltese goats for experimen- 
tation in America. The results of this experiment 
were not satisfactory. 

Distribution. 

At the present time goats are distributed over a 
large part of the globe, but it is to be regretted 
that statistics furnish but very meager informa- 
tion in regard to their dissemination. Such statis- 
tics as are available indicate that they are found in 
larger or smaller numbers in nearly every inhabited 
land. In America they are widely scattered. An 
idea of their geographic distribution will be gained 
by reference to the statistics given above. 

Breeds and types. 

Following are brief notes on the most promi- 
nent breeds and types. 



The Nubian milch goat is a long-legged goat, 
with generally a polled head, sunken nostrils, pro- 
jecting lower jaw, long, hanging ears in most speci- 
mens, large, well -shaped udder and teats. The 
color is brown or black. The hair varies in length. 
It is native in Nubia, northern Egypt and Abys- 
sinia. Huart du Plessis and Pegler recommend 
this breed very highly because of its large size and 
unsurpassed milking qualities, giving four to twelve 
quarts per day. However, it is very sensitive to 
cold and for that reason is not adapted for northern 
climates. Its ameliorative value, however, is not 
to be lost sight of in cross-breeding experiments, 
especially with southern varieties, as the New 
Mexican. 

The Maltese goat. — According to Thompson, this 
type is about two feet and six inches in height and 
will often weigh 100 pounds. It is usually hornless, 
and the predominating color is white, although there 
are many other colors, as red, brown and black. The 
ears are moderately long and horizontal. The body 
is low and stocky. It is said that the milking quality 
of the breed has been so perfectly developed that 




Fig. 417. Milch goats, with udders too pendant. Owned 
by J. F. Zion, Phoenix, Arizona. 

nearly every doe kid becomes a good milker. The 
udder is large and is carried low, and yields two to 
four quarts of milk daily. In Malta it is asserted 
that Maltese goats never do well when exported. 

The New Mexican goat. — By this somewhat arbi- 
trary name is distinguished the only real American 
breed of goats known. They are common in New 
Mexico, Texas and the Southwest, where large 
numbers of them are kept by the Spanish-speaking 
populace. They are not uniform in color and size, 
but have the reputation of being fairly good 
milkers. 

The Spanish-Maltese goat. — B. H. Van Raub, of 
Van Raub, Texas, is the most prominent breeder of 
this type, and his efforts in improving and develop- 
ing this variety are said to have given to the 
United States the first pure-blooded breed of milch 
goats of its own. Mr. Thompson indicates that 
these Spanish-Maltese represent several varieties. 

The Toggenburg milch goats (Fig. 418) are one of 
the oldest and best known of the numerous breeds 
of milch goats in Switzerland. They are hardy and 



410 



GOAT 



GOAT 



hornless, and their slender bodies are covered with 
silky hair of a peculiar brown color that varies much 
in length. The males carry a heavy, coarse beard. 
The legs and ears are white, the latter of medium 
length and well carried. The breed is further dis- 
tinguished by two white stripes on their heads, 
running parallel on each side of the face from the 




"•°-'-i*i 



Fig. 418. Toggenburg milch goat. 

ears to the mouth, and also by two peculiar small 
cartilaginous appendages or "wattles" on the side 
of the neck, called zoetteli. These "wattles" are not 
peculiar to Toggenburgs, but are found in nearly 
all breeds of goats. They are very common in Mal- 
tese breeds. They are splendid milkers, yielding four 
to six quarts daily, and carry the well-developed 
udders rather high. They bear confinement well, a 
fact that should not be underestimated in consider- 
ing this breed. 

The White Appenzeller goat may be regarded as a 
white variety of the Toggenburg breed, and is 
native in the Toggenburg valley in Switzerland. 
Like the latter, it is large, hardy and productive. 

The White Saanen goat (Pig. 419) is another very 
popular Swiss breed. It is generally hornless and 
of large size. It is a good milker, and has been 
exported extensively from Switzerland for amelior- 
ative purposes. 

The Black-necked Valaisan goat is a very pretty 
and attractive variety covered with long, silky 
hair, black on the head, neck, breast and front legs, 
and snow-white on the entire middle and rear parts 
of the body. It is a fairly good milker, has a splendid 
constitution, but does not thrive under continuous 
confinement. 

Management and feeding. 

Milch goats are very prolific, much more so than 
Angoras or sheep. They usually drop twins and 
often triplets, and as their period of gestation is 
only about five months, they increase very rapidly, 
because they will breed shortly after kidding, and 
yearling does are fit for reproduction. Bucks should 
be chosen carefully ; only those descended from 
good milking dams should be used, and then only 
when they are of good form and constitutional 
vigor. Because of their repulsive smell, bucks 



should be kept entirely separate, and as far away 
from the does as possible. 

Milk from rutting does should not be used for 
domestic purposes. Observance of this rule will 
effectually prevent the complaints that goat's milk 
has a bad taste. Breeding should be so managed 
that does will kid three times within two years, and 
if several animals are kept, their lactation periods 
may be easily arranged so as to provide a steady 
and even supply of milk for their owners. The lac- 
tation period is about five or six months in the 
milking families. 

Cleanliness is absolutely necessary when goats 
are confined in stables. These animals are sensitive 
to cold and damp and therefore should be kept in 
warm but light stables, with always dry bedding. 
They like variety in their feed, and this peculiarity 
should not be overlooked. They should be given 
clean, sweet hay, and the good vegetable trimmings 
from the kitchen. A handful of oats or a little 
bran is a very good addition to the ration, especi- 
ally during the period of heavy lactation. They 
must have salt regularly, and as much clean water 
as they will drink. In the winter they should have 
provided for them occasionally, if possible, some 
hazel-brush, birch, maple, box-elder, or similar twigs. 
They like to nibble such things and will pay for the 
trouble. Willow, oak, or any other bitter or acid 
barks should not be used for this purpose, because 
they impart unpleasant tastes to the milk. In the 
summer a good pasture having a variety of forage 
and fresh water is a splendid place for them. If 
these directions are observed, goats will give good 
wholesome milk plentifully. If the milk has an 
uncommon flavor, the cause is usually in the feed, 
unless the animals are sick. 

If pasturage is not available, then they should be 
let out into a clean yard daily, for they must have 
exercise, as in their natural environments they like 
to romp and play. Fences must be tight, otherwise 




Fig. 419. White Saanen goat. • 

the goats will get out even in places where it would 
seem almost impossible for them to crawl. All 
braces should be on the outside, and no boards 
should be allowed to lean against the fence, other- 
wise the goats will climb over. Breechy goats should 
be provided with so-called "puzzles" or frames. 



GOAT 



GOAT 



411 



Kids should be separated from their mothers and 
fed from a nursing-bottle, because their mother's 
teats are usually too large for them. They should be 
weaned gradually, and, when they are accustomed 
to eat well, they will readily take care of them- 
selves, as long as they have plenty before them to 
eat. Young bucks that are not needed as repro- 
ducers should be castrated early and butchered 
when a few months old. Their meat is then even 
more of a delicacy than lamb. 

Uses. 

Contrary to common opinion, goats have decided 
virtues and capabilities that will eventually gain 
for them a prominent place in the estimation of the 
people, especially among the working classes in the 
suburbs of large cities, and it is not at all improb- 
able that they may win favor even with the rich. 

For milk. — The principal value of the milch goat 
is its eminent milk-producing quality. While it has 
thus far been of relative unimportance in this coun- 
try for its milk, this is not true in many other lands. 
In Switzerland, milch goats are commonly called 
the "poor man's cows," and well they may, as 
they take the place of cows not only because of 
their cheapness and the comparatively low cost 
of their keep, but also because they enable poor 
persons to enjoy the advantages usually derived by 
the better situated classes from their cattle, under 
conditions absolutely prohibitive to the successful 
maintenance of milch cows. In that mountainous 
land, three or four well-kept milch goats of good 
breeding are commonly rated equal in milk-produc- 
ing qualities to an average cow, and six to eight 
goats may be kept on the quantity of feed required 
for one cow. It should also be borne in mind that 
two or three goats properly managed will provide 
a steady supply of milk the year round, while the 
single cow does not. Goats also are not nearly so 
susceptible to the diseases that have proved to be 
such dangerous enemies to mankind, from the fact 
that they can be transmitted by cow's milk. It is 
generally held that goat's milk is much more whole- 
some than cow's milk. Goat's milk may be used fresh 
or cooked, just as cow's milk, and is recommended 
as preferable for infants and invalids by the best 
medical authorities. Milch goats are most pro- 
ductive at four to eight years of age, and may live 
to be twelve or more years old. 

Dr. Kohlschmidt's experiments on the milk-yield 
of goats, conducted with twenty-four animals in 
Saxony, demonstrated an average yearly quantity 
of 725.7 litres per head. The highest yield ascer- 
tained by him was 1,077.5 litres ; the lowest, 612.37 
litres ; the average per cent of butter-fat obtained 
was 3.43 per cent (maximum 4.41 per cent). Huart 
du Plessis cites the example of a pure-bred Nubian 
goat giving an average of 4.5 litres per day, with 
8.5 per cent butter-fat. This author estimates the 
capacity of a good milch goat at two litres per day 
for 270 days each year. Professor Anderegg says 
that there are four breeds of Swiss goats capable 
of a daily yield of four litres per head. Stebler 
states, on the authority of a Swiss farmer, that the 
total yearly expense for keeping a common goat, 



exclusive of summer pasturage, is a trifle over $2 
in American money, against a yearly income of 
above $5, or a profit of over $3 per year on an 
investment of about $7. 

For butter. — Butter may be made from goat's 
milk, but, owing to the irregular size of the fat 
globules, the cream is very slow to rise. The milk 
should be carefully and very slowly heated on the 
back of a stove until a wrinkled scum forms, and 
then be removed to the pantry for further rising. 
The longer time it takes to heat, the more cream is 
secured. In churning, coloring must be added, or 
else the product will be as white as lard, owing to 
the whiteness of the milk. Perfect cleanliness and 
special care are necessary or the butter will develop 
a bitter taste. 

For cheese. — Goat's milk makes most excellent 
cheese, as all who have ever been treated to "tome 
de chevre" or "Geisskaes" in Europe will admit. 
The milk of goats is an ingredient that enters 
largely into the manufacture of very expensive 
kinds of cheese, as the famous Roquefort, Mont d' 
Or, Levroux, Sassenage and others. Goat cheese 
has the disadvantage that it will usually not keep 
well unless extra care and pains are taken in its 
manufacture and cure. For ordinary use, however, 
the process is as simple as that employed in the 
making of any common home-made curd cheese. 

For meat. — As their name indicates, milch goats 
are not intended as meat-producers. The flesh of 
older animals, therefore, is of minor quality, 
although capable of great improvement by proper 
fattening. The flesh of well-fattened older goats 
may be rendered very toothsome by smoking and 
drying. Kid meat is esteemed as a popular delicacy 
in Europe and elsewhere. 

For skins. — The skins of milch goats are impor- 
tant articles of commerce, furnishing, as they 
do, the raw material for the finest leather (kid, 
morocco, saffian, and the like). At present, most of 
the hides used for this purpose are imported. This 
may very readily be made an important source of 
income wherever goats are kept in numbers. It is a 
means of profit that has been underestimated in 
this country. 

Organizations and records. 

In November, 1903, The American Milk Goat 
Record Association was organized to care for the 
interests of milch goats in America, and to pro- 
mote the importation of good types. A registry is 
maintained, entrance being based on milk-pro- 
duction and satisfactory ancestry and individual 
qualities. 

Literature. 

Prof. Anderegg, Die Schweizer Ziegen, Bern 
(1887); Fr. Dettweiler, Die Bedeutung der Ziegen- 
zucht, etc., Bremen (1892); Huart Du Plessis, La 
Chevre, Paris, 4me edition ; Felix Hilpert, Anleit- 
ung zur Ziegenzucht und Ziegenhaltung, Berlin 
(1901); Bryan Hook, Milch Goats and Their Man- 
agement, London (1896); N. Julmy, Les races de 
Chevres de la Suisse, Bern (1900) ; Dr. Kohlschmidt, 
Untersuchungen ueber die Milchergiebigkeit des 



412 



HARE 



im oestl, Erzgebirge verbreiteten Ziegenschlages in 
Landw. Jahrbuecher Bd. XXVI; S. Holmes Pegler, 
The Book of the Goat, London (1886); Dr. F. G. 
Stebler, Ziegenweiden und Ziegenhaltung in Alp 
und Weidewirtschaft, Berlin (1903); G. F. Thomp- 
son, Angora Goat Raising and Milch Goats, Chicago 
(1903); G. F. Thompson, Information Concerning 
Common Goats, Circular No. 42, Bureau of Animal 
Industry, United States Department of Agriculture 
(1903); G. F. Thompson, Information Concerning 
the Milch Goats, Bulletin No. 68, Bureau of Animal 
Industry, United States Department of Agriculture 
(1905). 

HARE, BELGIAN. Lepus spp. Leporidm. Fig. 
420. 

By U. G. Conover. 

In America the names hare and rabbit are used 
somewhat indiscriminately for various species of 
rodents of the family Leporidse. Hare is the gen- 
eric term, while rabbit is applied properly to a short- 
legged species of essentially burrowing habits, 
whose naked, blind and helpless young are nurtured 
in underground nests. The so-called Belgian hare 
is not a hare at all, but is a true rabbit. It derives 
its name from the fact that breeders imitate closely 
the shape and habit of the hare. From an economic 
standpoint, the Belgian hare is the most important 
of the rabbit family, as it has become very popular 
with the fanciers, as well as with utility breeders 
who raise it principally for meat purposes. It is 
thoroughly domesticated, responds quickly to kind 
treatment, and is a very profitable animal to the 
raiser. [Other species and varieties of rabbits are 
discussed under Pets.] 

Description. 

The body of the Belgian hare is long and slim. 
The fore-feet and legs are small, the hind-feet and 
legs large and powerful. These characteristics, 
together with the long head and fine ears, give the 
Belgian hare a very racy appearance. The color is 
described as " rufus-red," and is rather a fox-color 
or deep golden tan. It is not distributed equally, 
but is richest on the shoulders and top of the neck. 
The hair is tipped with black, which is called 
ticking. The proper distribution of ticking adds 
greatly to the beauty of the animal. It should be 
confined largely to the back and flanks. The weight 
of the standard-bred Belgian hare is about eight 
pounds. There is the so-called heavy-weight Bel- 
gian, which is of a much grayer color, and often 
attains a weight as great as sixteen pounds. This 
heavy-weight type is supposed to have been crossed 
with the Flemish Giant rabbit, which is of a dark 
gray color and weighs as much as eighteen pounds. 
[See Pets.] 

The following American standard of excellence 
for the Belgian hare shows what is desired : 

Disqualifications. — (1) Lopped or fallen ear; (2) 
white front feet or white bar or bars on same ; (3) 
decidedly wry front feet ; (4) wry tail. A specimen should 
have the benefit of any doubt. 



HARE 

Perfect 
Score 

1. Color. — Rich rufus-red (not dark, smudgy color), 

carried well down sides and hind-quarters, and 
as little white under the jaws as possible . . 20 

2. Ticking. — Rather wavy appearance and plenti- 

ful on body 15 

3. Shape. — Body long, thin, well tucked-up flank 

and well ribbed up ; back slightly arched ; 
loins well rounded, not choppy ; head rather 
lengthy ; muscular chest ; tail straight, not 
screwed; and altogether of a racy appear- 
ance 20 

4. Ears. — About five inches, thin, well laced up on 

tips, and as far down outside edges as possible; 
good color inside and outside, and well set on . 10 

5. Eyes. — Hazel color, large, round, bright and 

bold 10 

6. Legs and feet. — Fore -feet and legs long, 

straight, slender, well colored and free from 
white bars ; hind-feet as well colored as pos- 
sible 10 

7. Size. — About eight pounds 5 

8. Condition. — Not fat, but flesh firm as that of a 

race horse, and good quality of fur 5 

Without dewlap 5 

Perfection 100 

Scale op Points for the Belgian Hare Perfect 

Score 

1. Stray hairs 4 

2. Color of body 4 

3. Color of sides 4 

4. Color of hind-quarters 4 

5. Color of jaws 4 

6. Ticking 15 

7. Symmetry of body 4 

8. Symmetry of flank and rib 4 

9. Symmetry of back . . . , , 4 

10. Symmetry of loins 4 

11. Symmetry of head 4 

12. Lacing of ears 2 

13. Size of ears 2 

14. Shape of ears 2 

15. Color of ears 2 

16. Quality of ears 2 

17. Size of eyes 2£ 

18. Shape of eyes 2J 

19. Color of eyes 2J 

20. Quality of eyes 2J 

21. Size of fore-legs and feet 2 

22. Shape of fore-legs and feet 2 

23. Color of fore-legs and feet 2 

24. Quality of fore-legs and feet 2 

25. Color of hind-feet 2 

26. Size of specimen 5 

27. Condition of flesh 2J 

28. Condition of fur 2i 

29. Shape of neck 5 

Perfection 100 

History. 

The Belgian hare is said to have originated in 
Belgium, probably about the beginning of the nine- 
teenth century, where it is now found, small in size, 
but perfect in form, color and markings. The 
modern Belgian hare, an animal of singular charm 
and great utility, combining the beauty and tooth- 
someness of the old domestic hare with the grace 
and fecundity of the wild rabbit, is the result of 
a process of breeding that has been practiced 



HARE 



HARE 



413 



for the past fifty years or more. Belgian hares 
were introduced into England about 1850. When 
they first came into England, there was no recog- 
nized standard to which to breed, and there soon 
came to be two classes of breeders, one class trying 
to produce size for meat stock, with little regard to 
other points, and the other breeding for points 
according to their own ideas as to what constituted 
an ideal animal. About 1882, the differences be- 
came so great between the two classes of breeders 
that it became necessary for them to get together 
and devise and adopt a standard for their guidance. 
The first standard required the animal to be some- 
what racy in appearance and evenly ticked from 
toe to tail. The lacing was a dense black block 
on the outside of the ear near the point. In 
1889, the standard was revised, and the new 
standard confined the lacing to near the edge 
of the ear, discarded the ticking from the 
breast, ears, shoulders and front feet, and re- 
quired a very racy appearance. 

In America. — The Belgian hare was intro- J* 
duced into this country probably early in A 
1860, but its merits were then little known, 
as it was by no means the perfect animal 
that we find in the hutches of American breed- 
ers and fanciers today. It is only in the past 
few years that its value as a fur- and meat- 
producing animal has become generally known, 
and in this short time it has made for itself 
such a record in this respect that the raising of 
Belgian hares for the market and for the fancy is 
recognized today as a distinct industry. There is 
demand by good hotels for the hares. 

Distribution. 

The Belgian hare is raised in many parts of the 
United States and Canada, as well as in Belgium, 
England, Germany and Mexico. 

Breeding. 

Belgian hares will usually breed at the age of 
six months, but this is not advisable. When they 
are bred so young, their offsping, as a rule, will not 
be so large and strong as when one waits until the 
doe is about eight months old before breeding. The 
buck should be at least eight months old, and if he 
is good he can be used for two or three years. 

Every stud buck is able to serve a dozen does if 
the services are not too close together. Every 
breeder should keep two stud bucks, so as to fur- 
nish stock not related. Some authorities assert 
that an old buck and a young doe beget the largest 
and best young. It should be remembered that 
the buck is half of the herd or flock, and no one 
should try to get along with a poor one. In breed- 
ing, we look to the doe for size and shape and to 
the buck for color. Prom a good doe, properly 
mated, one will be certain to get good youngsters. 

The doe should always be put in the buck's hutch, 
and not vice versa. If she is not in heat she will 
make a plaintive little noise and run from him. 
After waiting a few moments, remove the doe to 
her own hutch if she is still unwilling, and try her 
again the next day, and so on until she is served. 



Better results follow one good service than several. 
When the doe is bred, she should be placed in the 
hutch where she is expected to raise her family. 
The little ones may be expected in thirty days 
from date of service. A nest-box should be placed 
in the remotest corner of the hutch, in as secluded 
a spot as possible. This box can be about eighteen 
inches long by twelve inches high, with a cover so 
that the top can be removed and the youngsters 
examined after the doe has littered ; and should 
any dead ones be found they should be removed 
and the rest disturbed as little as possible. After 
kindling, and for that matter all through preg- 
nancy, the doe should be kept as quiet as possible. 




Fig. 420. Belgian hares. 

As the period of gestation is only thirty days, 
and with an early return of the sexual passion in 
the rabbit family, many breeders are led to breed 
their does too frequently. In order to secure the 
best results, the writer would not advise breeding 
the does until the young are two months old, and 
in this way raise four litters a year and keep the 
doe in good shape. Too frequent breeding will 
have a tendency to impoverish the doe, thereby 
causing the young to lack vigor and strength, 
which otherwise she would have been able to give 
them. 

A doe supporting a large litter of young, must 
give forth a large amount of the food she con- 
sumes to her young, and it seems almost impossible 
that a doe can support a litter of a dozen young 
and make them all grow as fast as they do. Bel- 
gian hares will double in size in a very short time, 
and this rapid growth continues until they are six 
to seven months old, when they grow less rapidly. 
They mature in ten to twelve months. 

Fecundity. — In point of fecundity, no other domes- 
tic animal can compete with Belgian hares. One 
doe and her offspring, if allowed to breed at will, 
may raise in one year about one-hundred and thirty- 
six. To allow them to breed at will is not advisable, 
but this serves to show that they are very prolific 
and may be very profitable. 

Caring for the young. — Many persons who are 
not acquainted with Belgian hares, may think that 
the care of the young is difficult, perhaps. This is 
not so. The mother doe takes nearly all the care of 
the young, so that very little responsibility rests 
on the owner. All that is needed is to give the doe 
an extra allowance of feed, for she will eat con- 



414 



HARE 



HARE 



siderable more at that time ; and her food should 
be of a milk-producing kind, so that she will provide 
plenty of nourishment for her young. If it can be 
afforded, feed the young as soon as they come out 
of the nest-box ; bread and milk (not sloppy) and 
other food, such as oats and clover-hay, should be 
given at the same time. 

The little ones make their appearance about three 
weeks after birth, and are very timid at first. 
When they are six weeks or two months old, they 
should be weaned from their mother. After a few 
days rest the doe can be bred again. The mortality 
among hares is very slight. 

Feeding and care. 

This is an important part of raising the Belgian 
hare, and on this, together with housing and breed- 
ing, hinge most of the successes and failures of 
the Belgian-hare business. Belgian hares should be 
fed just as regularly as the best horse or cow, 
with the exception that two meals be given instead 
of three. This gives the hares ample time to 
digest their food, and, if in good condition, they 
will be hungry and ready for each meal if they 
are not over-fed. The attendant should never 
give more grain than they will eat up clean within 
a half hour after feeding. When feeding clover hay, 
enough can be put in to last a couple of days. It is 
best to feed about the same hour morning and 
evening. 

Hares eat anything that sheep will. In the sum- 
mer one can feed many different things in green 
food, such as clover hay, corn blades, sorghum, 
together with most kinds of weeds that grow except 
the poisonous ones. In grains, one may choose from 
oats, corn, wheat and rye ; in vegetables, either 
cabbage, carrots, parsnips, turnips, or potatoes. 
A variety of food is relished by them both win- 
ter and summer, but their main food should be 
clover hay nicely cured, and good sweet oats that 
have not become musty or damaged in any way. 
Hares are rather dainty eaters, and they desire 
everything clean. In fact, their eating is almost 
identical with that of a sheep. For the winter, it 
is well to provide for them in advance with regard 
to the vegetables it is expected to feed. Winter 
turnips can be raised after the early potatoes have 
been dug, or a small plot of stock-beets can be 
planted in the spring. The turnips or beets with 
the regular grain-feed make an ideal ration for the 
winter months, and are greatly relished by the hares. 
The hares should be watered every day. A large 
lump of rock-salt should be placed in each hutch. 
Each hare has an individual disposition, and the 
breeder should study their habits and likes and dis- 
likes, and try to give them what they desire. Some 
eat more hay than others, while some want more 
grain. For breeding does and their young, nothing 
is so good as bread and milk. The bread should not 
be musty, and the milk should be sweet. This 
makes the youngsters grow fast and the doe gives 
more milk. 

Housing the hares. — No special building is re- 
quired. A barn, stable, or shed, reasonably warm 
in winter and permitting thorough ventilation, but 



free from draughts, is all the shelter that is neces- 
sary. Almost any building can be fitted very 
quickly by one who is handy with tools. The writer 
has erected a special building for housing his hares, 
after the following general plan : The building is 
40 feet long and 8 feet wide. It is 9 feet high in 
front and 8 feet high on the back. This building is 
placed on sewer tile, 10 inches in diameter, which 
is filled with portland cement and placed in the 
ground about 12 inches, on a. cement foundation 
below the freezing-point. There are eight of the 
tile, filled with the cement, placed at proper dis- 
tances for the building proper to rest on. The 
purpose of having the building about eighteen 
inches from the ground is to make it rat-proof. 
Old rats are very destructive to young Belgian 
hares when they have access to them. The writer 
has known rats to destroy a whole litter in one 
night. 

This building is divided into twenty separate 
rooms or hutches by a "double-deck" arrangement, 
each hutch being eight feet long by four feet wide. 
The lower tier of hutches is three feet in height 
from the ground floor to the floor of the upper tier. 
In the lower tier all the partitions are made of 
lumber. The writer has found oak lumber to be 
the most satisfactory for the entire construction. 
This does not make so attractive a house as would 
pine, but it will be remembered that Belgian hares 
seldom, if ever, gnaw oak lumber, which is not the 
case with pine or softer woods. The partitions in 
the upper hutches are made with lumber for about 
three feet from the floor ; then the upper part is 
made with poultry netting, which is cheaper than 
lumber, and gives the top hutches better ventilation. 

The roofing of this building is of galvanized iron, 
which seems to be better and more economical than 
shingles. The doors in the hutches are three feet 
long (the long way of the building) and two feet 
high. The frame is made of oak, and the remainder 
of one-inch poultry netting. The doors are hung 
with six-inch hinges, and hasps are used to fasten 
them. The building faces the south. Several trees 
are so planted as to give it shade in the hot days 
of summer. The building is enclosed in a yard as 
described below. 

Yards and parks. — A suitable site for a yard or 
park for Belgian hares should be slightly sloping, 
so as to secure good drainage when heavy rains 
come. There should be a tree of some kind for each 
separate enclosure, to give the necessary shade in 
the hot summer days. The writer does not recom- 
mend fruit trees for this purpose, as when the fruit 
falls the hares may eat too much and get sick or 
die. Apples and pears are not harmful to them if 
fed in small quantities. The writer has what he 
considers an ideal park for the raising of Belgian 
hares, made, in general, as follows : The park is 
laid off fifteen rods long by five rods wide. The 
outside is made of six-foot Page poultry-fence, so 
as to keep out all dogs and other animals that 
would be likely to harm the hares. The inside par- 
titions may be poultry-netting, four feet high. The 
park is divided into fifteen different yards, making 
each yard nearly five rods long by one rod wide. 



HARE 



HORSE 



415 



There is an eight-foot aisle running the long way 
of the park, so as to make feeding easy for all the 
yards. Before erecting the fence and netting, a 
furrow should be plowed in each place the netting 
is to be stretched and also for the outside fence. 
After the fence and netting have been properly 
stretched, the dirt should be filled in again around 
the netting and fence. The burying of the fence 
and netting is to keep the hares from digging out, 
and anything else from digging into the park. 

Uses. ■ ■ 

For meat. — The principal value of the Belgian 
hare is for its meat. The little care required 
in its raising makes it a source of profit even 
to the person who raises only enough for his 
own use. The meat is white like the breast of 
chicken. The Belgian hare will dress a pound for 
every month of its age up to six months, and it will 
furnish food for the table any time after two 
months old. The most profitable age to kill for 
market is about the fifth month. All the flesh is 
edible, so there is practically no waste if the ani- 
mal has been properly dressed. It has been esti- 
mated that one breeding doe will produce over 300 
pounds of meat in one year. 

For fur. — Mention should be made of the fact 
that Belgian hares are valued to some extent for 
their fur. This comprises much of their interest to 
fanciers. 

Diseases. 

When proper attention is given to feeding and 
housing, and cleanliness of the hutches made a 
matter of first importance, and a good disinfectant 
intelligently used, no trouble will be experienced 
in keeping Belgian hares in good health and condi- 
tion. Cold and catarrh are troublesome, and should 
be treated with human remedies in proportion to 
weight. Indigestion is best cured by proper feed- 
ing — by the addition of pepsin or other remedy to 
food that is easily digested. 

The most common disease, and perhaps the worst 
to which the Belgian hare is subject, is snuf- 
fles. The treatment of this disease is to build up 
the system. Food that is extra nourishing, and 
a little tincture of iron in the drinking water, may 
be all that the animal will need to be able to throw 
off the disease. If a mash is fed, about a spoonful 
of flaxseed may be put in it, and if it is simply a 
case of sneezing and discharge from the nose 
resulting from a slight cold, nothing more in the 
way of treatment will be required. It will be well 
to spray the nose with lukewarm water, to which 
a little salt has been added ; after spraying, wipe 
dry. 

Organizations and records. 

At present, the American Fur Fanciers' Associa- 
tion, with headquarters at Great Neck, New York, 
is the only organization devoted to the Belgian hare 
industry in America. A few years ago, when the 
raising of Belgian hares was a fad, there existed 
the National Belgian Hare Club of America, with 
headquarters in Denver, Colo., and the American 



Belgian Hare Association. Both of these have dis- 
continued. 

Literature. 

Books treating on the Belgian hare : Eph. Ruth, 
American Belgian Hare Culture ; Eph. Ruth, Bel- 
gian Hare Breeding and Management ; P. E. Crab- 
tree, Belgian Hare Course of Instruction ; Jacob 
Biggie, Biggie Pet Book, illustrated ; U. G. Conover, 
The Belgian Hare for Pleasure and Profit ; The 
Belgian Hare Guide, illustrated ; Cuniculus, The 
Practical Rabbit Keeper ; W. N. Richardson, The 
Rabbit : How to Select, Breed and Manage, sixth 
edition. 

HORSE. Equus caballus, Linn. Equidoz. Figs. 
421-495. 

As a domestic animal, the horse has had an aris- 
tocratic history. In the earliest historic times he 
was used chiefly for purposes of war, and literature 
abounds in allusions to this fact. He was the 
animal of emperors and of persons of noble birth, 
associated with chariots and with great occasions. 
With certain nomadic peoples, he early became the 
agent of speed. Gradually, he was pressed into the 
common work of the world and became one of the 
beasts of burden, gradually supplanting the ox. 
Today, with the cow, the horse is one of the in- 
dispensable agents of the agriculture of the western 
nations. 

The horse is now bred chiefly for five types of 
uses : (1) For speed, as in the tr,otters, pacers and 
runners ; (2) for sport, fancy and fashion ; (3) for 
family driving ; (4) for draft purposes, largely in 
cities and towns ; (5) for general farm uses. 

It is in the last of these uses that the horse is of 
greatest real value to man, and yet it in this very 
respect that he has received the least definite in- 
telligent breeding. There is no real farm horse in 
this country, except as animals of mixed and mis- 
cellaneous breeding, or of no breeding, are used for 
general farm purposes. Of course, the farm pur- 
poses are not single or uniform, for in some farm 
business heavy draft animals may be needed and in 
other business light roadsters may be needed ; but 
it is nevertheless a fact that when the farmer 
breeds definitely to race-type or breed-type, he is 
thinking of horses to sell to men in other business 
rather than to sell to farmers or to produce the best 
type for his own farm uses. Practically all the 
farm-work horses are mongrels, with no such care 
having been devoted to their parentage and pedi- 
gree as is devoted to dairy cows, beef cattle, bacon 
hogs or egg-laying fowls. The books usually con- 
sider the horse least of all from the farm-utility 
point of view. The sportsman, fancier and city 
trucker have thus far had the greatest influence in 
the breeding of types of horses. All this must 
change if agriculture is to reach its highest 
efficiency ; for the horse is to remain an indispen- 
sable factor in country life, despite all that is said 
and done about automobiles and mechanical power. 
Heavier horses are needed for the better and deeper 
fitting of the land ; much of our agriculture has 



416 



HORSE 



HORSE 



been weak because there has been insufficient horse 
power properly to fit the land. But the general 
farm horse, particularly on hilly farms, must be 
not merely a heavy draft animal : he must have 
ease and alacrity of motion and not such size and 
weight as will make him clumsy. It is not likely 
that a distinct registered breed of special farm 
horses will arise ; but it is eminently desirable that 
ideals be formed and that they be related to farm 
necessities and the animals bred definitely for such 
uses. 

Aside from the dog and cat, the horse is more 
closely associated with man on the personal side 
than any other domestic animal of temperate coun- 
tries. He becomes an object of personal regard on 
the part of members of the household ; and he has 
been provided with better quarters and given greater 
care than any other animal. He is the only farm 
animal of this country with whom human beings 
share living quarters under the same roof ; it is 
common for care-takers to live over stables, and 
some of the most artistic of suburban and farm 
buildings are devoted to such dual purpose. (Fig. 
421.) The attention given to horse-stable construc- 
tion and to harness and other equipage, as well as 
to breeding for personal purposes, has resulted in a 
large special literature on the horse. 

The number of horses in the United States and 
Canada is practically equivalent to the number of 






T3 

Hoy Chute 
Hau Mow I5'*24' 



Man's Room I86M9' 



Box |0 a 16' 



Carnage Room 16/16' 



eJ 



dairy cows. According to the Yearbook for 1906. 
United States Department of Agriculture, the 
number of horses in America was as follows : 





Year 


Total 


United States : 
Contiguous — 


1907 
1900 

1900 
1900 
1899 

1905 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1901 


19,747,000 


Non-contiguous — 

Porto Rico 

Total United States (except 

Canada : 

New Brunswick 


2,936,881 

5 
12,982 
58,664 

22,755,532 

62,000 

688,147 




215,819 


Other 


240,566 
226,534 

531,249 








1,964,315 



The same Yearbook gives the number and farm 
value of horses in the United States : 



January i, 1867 
January 1,1907 



5,401,263 
19,746,583 



Price 
per head 



$59 05 
93 51 



$318,924,085 
1,846,578,412 




Fig. 421. Plan and elevation of horse barn, with hostler's quarters 



The Canada Yearbook for 1905, gives the value 
of horses in Canada in 1901, as $118,279,419. The 
namber of horses over three years of age in Canada 
in 1871, is given as 643,171, and in 1901, as 
1,304,910 ; the number of horses under three years 
of age in 1871, is given as 193,572, and in 1901, 
as 272,583. 

Literature. 

The literature relating to horses is more abundant, 
perhaps, than is the case with the other classes of 
farm live-stock. Yet there are few monographs ; 
some of those that have appeared are mentioned in 
connection with the discussions of the breed or type 
to which they refer. Plumb, 
Types and Breeds of Farm 
Animals, Ginn & Co. (1906); 
Roberts, The Horse, Mac- 
millan Company (1906); 
Wallace, Farm Live-Stuck 
of Great Britain, Orange 
Judd Company (1908); 
Craig, Judging Live-Stock, 
The Author (1902): Youatt, 
The Horse, Philadelphia 
(1848); Walsh, The Horse 
in the Stable and in the 
Field, London(l 871): Speed, 
The Horse in America, New 



HORSE 



HORSE 



41?- 




C27 



418 



HORSE 



York (1905); Sidney, The Book of the Horse, New 
York; Sanders, Horse Breeding, Chicago (1893); 
Anderson and Collier, Riding and Driving, New 
York (1905); Blew, Light Horses: Breeds and 
Management, London (1894); Busby, The Trotting 
and Pacing Horse in America, New York (1904); 
Day, The Horse, London (1890), and The Race Horse 
in Training, London (1892); Gilbey, Riding and 
Driving Horses, London (1901); Fowler, The Horse, 
London (1891); Hayes, Points of the Horse, London 
(1897); Helm, American Roadsters and Trotting 
Horses, Chicago (1878); Dimon, American Horses 
and Horse Breeding, Hartford (1895); Herbert, 
Frank Forester's Horse and Horsemanship of the 
United States, 2 volumes, New York (1871); Heavy 
Horses : Breeds and Management, London (1895). 



HORSE 

Paee 
Cleveland Bay and Yorkshire Coach Horse .... 453 

Clydesdale Horse 455 

French Coach Horse 458 

French Draft Horse 460 

German Coach Horse 462 

Hackney Horse 464 

Hunter Horse 468 

Steeple-chaser 470 

Military Horse 470 

Orloff Trotting Horse 474 

Pacing Horse, Standardbred 476 

Percheron Horse 478 

Ponies 481 

Saddle Horse, American 489 

Shire Horse 493 

Suffolk or Suffolk Punch Horse 494 

Thoroughbred Horse 496 

Trotting and Pacing Horse, American Standardbred . 500 



Index to Horse Articles Origin of the Domestic Horse. Figs. 422-428. 

Origin of the Domestic Horse ^fl B Y Frederick B. Mumford. 

The Education, Harnessing and Gaits of the Horse . 421 T n a zoological sense, the horse is a vertebrate 

Practical Horse-training and Handling 424 animal belonging to the class Mammalia, the family 

Feeding the Horse . 428 Equid£e and the „ enus Eqvms . In a broad sen se, the 

Determining the Age of Horses 4.33 j l ?■ n i. * n r -i 

Common Ailments of Horses 436 *' ord , hoi ' se , aPPlw* to . ?} 1 members of the f ami y 

Arab Horse 446 Squids, and all the existing members ot this family 

Barb and Turk Horses 449 are included by Linmeus in the genus Equus. The 

Belgian Draft Horse 451 representatives of this class are distinguished by a 

_ =wv .v> single hoof, a simple stomach, long, muscular 

legs and a very high order of intelligence. 
They all have hair on the neck, forming a 
w\ mane, and the tail terminates with or is cov- 
ered with long coarse hair. The voice is loud 
and often harsh, the ears are movable and the 
hearing very acute. Most members of the horse 
family are gregarious. 

Prehistoric horse. — The evolution of the horse 
through various lower forms to the present useful 
and universally admired form is one of great inter- 
I // ^\l est to all students of the progressive development 

of animals. From fossil remains scattered over 
widely separated regions of the earth, we know 
that the extinct horse became world-wide (except- 
ing Australia) in its geographical distribution. 
Although the modern form of the horse did not 
exist on the American continent, many fossil 
remains of the prehistoric horse have been discov- 
ered in New Jersey, Nebraska, South Dakota and, 
notably, Wyoming. The gradual modification from 
the various prehistoric forms to the modern horse 
has occupied millions of years. The more important 
links in the chain of descent have been described 
both as to period of existence and general form by 
H. F. Osborn (Century Magazine, November, 1904), 
c whose researches, partly following the early studies 

of Leidy and Marsh, have been drawn on for the 
facts given below. 
■ \ The earliest prehistoric horse existed in the 
Lower Eocene period, ranging from Mexico north- 
ward, and inhabiting parts of continental Europe 
and Great Britain. (Figs. 422, 423.) This early 
B - & horse was no larger than a small dog, which it 

Fig vt 23 V I , 1Iustrat i? E the , i , nc , re ? se in |! z e of the horse, a, resembled. The color was probably dun, with incon- 

The Euhipiius, the smallest Lower Eocene horse known; . , . L „ (. ' „, ,, 

B, the Orohippu*, the Middle Eocene horse; C, the Meso- SpiCUOUS Spots Or stripes, the LohippilS (Marsh) Or 

wJft'lV, 16 f»°77 v <" ig ",''™ e h01 '? e ; four and , I on , e :5r lf "dawn horse," as this form was called, possessed 

hands high; I), the 11 ypohtppus or forest horse. " (After » I, , , ., ,, , T. , - . 

o»bom.) four toes on the front-, and three on the hind-foot. 




HORSE 



HORSE 



419 



In the next higher form, the Orohippus (Marsh), 
of the Middle Eocene period, the splints have disap- 
peared, leaving four toes. The animal is still small, 
being about fourteen inches high. This form was 
discovered in the Big Horn mountains of Wyoming 
in 1880. There appeared later in point of develop- 
ment the Mesohippus, from the Oligocene period, 
which exhibited unmistakable evidences of rapid 
progression toward the modern horse. This form 
was eighteen inches in height, and had virtu- 
ally lost all but three toes. The middle toe is 




Fig. 424. Prejvalsky horse (Equus Prejvalskii). 
After Osboru. 

enlarged, and bears more of the weight of the 
animal, although the two remaining toes still touch 
the ground. 

An important side line was discovered in the 
Hypohippus (Leidy) or "forest horse," in eastern 
Colorado, in 1901. This form was forty inches high, 
provided with large lateral toes which supported 
the animal on the soft marshes of that period. 
During the same year, the explorers, working with 
the aid of the Whitney fund, discovered the re- 
mains of several three-toed horses, some of which 
were widely different from the " forest horses." 
This form, called the Hipparion (Neohipparion), 
was distinguished by a remarkable deer-like con- 
formation which indicated the development of 
great speed. Osborn says, "Neohipparion was pro- 
portioned like the Virginia deer, delicate and 
extremely fleet-footed, surpassing the most highly 
bred modern- race horse in its speed, and with a 
frame fashioned to outstrip any type of modern 
hunting horse, if not of the Thoroughbred." These 
somewhat extreme developments of structure soon 
became extinct, while the Protohippus of interme- 
diate form became the direct progenitor of the 
modern horse. 

In this type we find but one toe touching the 
ground, with two lateral and rudimentary toes 
corresponding to the splints in the modern horse. 

The last stage in the development is represented 
by Equus, the modern horse, which is characterized 
by graceful limbs, terminating in a dense hoof cov- 
ering the single middle toe. The remaining toes 
have disappeared, but vestiges of two toes are to 
be found in the splints on both fore- and hind-legs. 



The present horse is much larger than any of the 
prehistoric forms. The gradual development of the 
giant draft horse of today, from the early Eohip- 
pus, a small dog-like animal no larger than the fox 
terrier, is a most interesting phenomenon. 

Connecting and side branches of the modern 
horse and the prehistoric forms described above 
are probably to be found in the zebra, the wild ass, 
and an interesting form of the wild horse called 
Prejvalsky horse. (Fig. 424.) The latter was dis- 
covered on the Dzungaria desert in western Mon- 
golia, in 1881, by Poliakoff. This horse very much 
resembles the drawings found in the French caves, 
along with other relics of the stone age. 

Modern Equidce. — The present living forms of 
the Equidaa include three types : Equus cabal- 
lus, the horse proper ; E. asinus, or the wild ass, 
and the E. zebra, related to the various striped 
forms of zebras and quaggas. 

The E. caballus is distinguished by long hair 
growing thickly on all parts of the tail, a callosity 
on the inside and below the hock and knee, mane 
long and flowing, ears short, limbs long, feet broad 
and head small. The wild horse is dun colored and 
sometimes faintly striped. Wild horses are at 
present found in but a very few remote localities. 
Feral horses, called Tarpans (Fig. 425), are found 
on the steppes north of the sea of Azoff, between 
the Dneiper river and Caspian sea. 

The E. asinus, or wild ass (Fig. 306), is charac- 
terized by long ears, narrow hoofs, rather sharp 
back, an absence of callosities on the inside of 
legs, and a tail "tuft." In a wild state, the ass is 
very alert, vigilant and fleet. There exists no 
authentic record of the time when this animal was 
first used by man as a beast of burden, but the 




Fig. 425. Tarpan (Equus tarpan). 

domestication of the ass antedated that of the 
horse. 

The zebra (Fig. 426) and quagga (Fig. 427) are 
much like the ass but are beautifully striped with 
black on a dun- or drab-colored foundation. They 
breed successfully with the horse, and the progeny, 
called a zebroid (Fig. 428), resembles the mule and 
is sterile. The zebra, which was long considered 
untameable, has been successfully broken to har- 
ness. The zebroid, zebrule, or zebra mule, has 
recently claimed much attention because of the 



420 



HORSE 



HORSE 



success attained in breeding it by Professor Ewart, 
of Pencuik, Midlothian, Scotland. The zebroid is 
strong and can be broken to harness and to saddle. 
The domesticated horse. — The value of the horse 
as a powerful aid to man in his conquest of the 




Fig. 426. Zebra (Ei/itus zebra). 



earth did not at first appeal to primitive man. It 
appears that the horse was first used for food. He 
was later driven, then ridden, and lastly employed 
as a beast of burden. 

The first authentic evidence of the use of the 
horse by man was discovered in the cave of La 
Mouthe in France. In this cave, among the inter- 
esting relics of the stone age are drawings which 
represent the horse as varying somewhat in size 
and character but resembling closely the present 
wild forms. From other sources it seems certain 
that there existed a larger type in the south of 
Europe and a much smaller form in the north. 

The progenitors of our present horse can not 
always be clearly traced. According to Ewart, 
Ridgeway, Osborn and others there may have been 
several distinct wild forms directly preceding 
the modern horse. Ewart has described the Celtic 
pony, a small dun-colored horse found in the 




Fig. 427. Quagga {Equus quagga). 



islands of the Hebrides and in Connemara, Ireland. 
This hardy animal resembles closely some of the 
illustrations found in the cave of LaMouthe and 
may have been the progenitor of the numerous 



pony breeds. A second form is much larger, ovet 
fourteen hands high, also of a dun color, with large 
coarse head and thick limbs. This form is widely 
distributed over Europe and Asia. The most ancient 
horses of the Assyrians, Persians, Greeks and 
ancient Britons were of this type. It is also prob- 
able that the horses of the ancient Chinese 
resembled very closely this unimproved horse. 

Still another distinct type seems to have existed 
in the south and later became the foundation stock 
of the beautiful horses of Persia, Arabia and the 
Barbary states in northern Africa. It now seems 
probable that it is principally to this form that 
we must look for the original stock of the modern 
Thoroughbred trotting horse, saddle horse and 
other races of speed horses. 

This ancient stock, so fruitful in ultimate results 
as exhibited by these highly improved blood horses, 
probably had its origin in the dry desert regions 
of northern Africa. The more modern representa- 
tive of this race is called the "Barb," and it is the 
horse that was principally employed in the im- 
provement of the English Thoroughbred, — a breed 
of such remarkable endurance, great speed and 
beautiful symmetry that it has been imported into 




Fig. 428. Zebrul or zebroid. Cross of a Burchell zebra 
on Irish mare. (After Wallace.) 

every civilized country in the world, and has con- 
tributed to the founding of every important breed 
of light or speed horses in existence. 

A great variety of domesticated races, called 
breeds, have been developed from the wild forms 
described above. These various types may be 
classified as draft, coach, roadster, speed and saddle 
horses and ponies. The principal draft breeds in 
America are the Percheron, Clydesdale, Shire, Bel- 
gian and Suffolk. The coach-horse type is repre- 
sented by the Hackney, French coach, German 
coach, Cleveland bay and some strains of the Amer- 
ican trotter. The roadster is a light driving horse, 
developed from the American trotter. The speed 
horses are the American trotter or pacer, the Orloff 
trotter, and the Thoroughbred or English running 
horse. The saddle horses are the American or Ken- 
tucky saddle horse, the hunter and the cavalry 
horse. The pony breeds are the Shetland, Welch, 
Exmoor, Mustang, Indian pony, and others. Mora 
recently the effort has been made to develop a par- 
ticular carriage type of the American trotter, and 



HORSE 



HORSE 



421 



it is suggested that this new type of sub-breed be 
called the American carriage horse. In addition to 
the breeds named above, of special interest to Ameri- 
can readers will be the mention of the old Conestoga 
draft horse, which originated on the banks of the 
Conestoga river in southeastern Pennsylvania. This 
horse was of medium size, of rugged constitution, 
pleasing conformation and of great endurance. 

The word "type" used above is a generic term, 
employed to designate a group composed of breeds 
or races of similar size, conformation and utility. 
The word "breed" is a specific term and applies to 
smaller groups of animals more closely resembling 
one another, and usually taking their name from 
the locality in which they originated. "Grade" is 
a term widely used to apply to animals having a 
preponderance of the blood of a well-recognized 
improved breed. A "cross-bred" is an animal result- 
ing from the mating of animals of distinct breeds. 

The Education, Harnessing and Gaits of the 
Horse. Figs. 429-435. 

By Thomas F. Hunt. 

The education, harnessing and gaits of the horse, 
in their practical aspects, involve many problems 
and much detail that cannot be given here. A few 
of these practical problems are indicated in the 
succeeding article by M. W. Harper. The referen- 
ces to literature at the end of this article will aid 
the reader in finding some of the most valuable 
published information on horse -training. In the 
great mass of literature relating to this subject, 
one needs to choose carefully between what is 
really worth while and what is largely sentiment. 

Education. 

It is not the purpose to discuss the education of 
the horse in detail nor to give methods by which 
it may be accomplished, but rather to state briefly 
some general principles that must underlie any 
successful training. For methods of training 
horses, as well as for the proper manner of riding, 
see Anderson's " Modern Horsemanship " and Hayes 
" Illustrated Horse Breaking." 

It is necessary to understand the mental pro- 
cesses of the horse in order to train him ration- 
ally. His mental processes can be determined only 
by inference ; and it may seem unjust, but if the 
matter is considered candidly and without senti- 
ment, it must be concluded that the horse is a rather 
stupid animal. He appears, also, to have little 
affection for other species of animals, man included, 
and, so far as man is concerned, has little love of 
admiration. The dog, for example, will do many 
things to please because he loves to be admired. It 
is doubtful, therefore, whether any system of pet- 
ting or cajoling as a method of horse-training is 
of much avail. 

Apparently, the horse has but limited reason 
(using the word for whatever mental processes are 
present with the horse), much more limited than 
that of the elephant or the dog. On the other 
hand, the horse seems to have an excellent, per- 
haps rather extraordinary, memory. If a horse is 



conquered by means of properly arranged straps 
and ropes, he does not seem 'to be able to reason 
that when the straps and ropes are taken off he 
could run away if he chose. While he seems 
always to remember that the pulling on the bit, 
which was done at the same time his front feet 
were pulled up, was intended to make him stop, he 
does not seem to be able to reason that it was the 
pulling his feet off the ground and not the pulling 
on the bit that stopped him during his first lesson. 

Both because of his most excellent memory and 
poor reasoning power, it is very important that 
every stage in the process of training should be 
successful. The spirit of bravado should not permit 
the undertaking of a step which cannot be accom- 
plished with certainty. If a horse throws one off 
he is not likely to forget it, and is just as likely to 
do it again as to do any other thing that he has 
been trained to do. If he learns that certain things 
will not hurt him he will generally remain gentle 
to their influences. 

As in the child, the vividness with which impres- 
sions are made on the horse's mind determines, to 
some extent, the accuracy and certainty with which 
they are remembered. Herein often lies the value 
of those horse-breaking methods that induce the 
horse to resist, and that at the same time contrive 
effectually to overcome this resistance. The im- 
pression made during the fight is so indelibly im- 
pressed on the horse's mind that he rarely forgets 
it. Habit is also an important factor, and hence 
the repetition of lessons is essential to the thorough 
education of the horse. 

During lessons, the trainer should receive the 
undivided attention of the horse. It is desirable, 
therefore, to train him in a comparatively small 
enclosure, say seventy-five to one hundred feet in 
diameter, and containing no other person or objects 
which may attract the horse's attention, except 
the trainer, and an assistant, if needed. For the 
same reason, a single lesson should not be too long, 
since when the horse becomes tired his attention 
can not be secured. 

The ultimate purpose of training is to make the 
horse understand and obey signals. Signals may be 
made with the voice, the whip or the lines. In any 
case, they should be made clearly, and a given 
signal should be made for a single purpose. Per- 
haps the greatest fault with persons in handling 
horses is that they do not use their signals consist- 
ently, and do not insist on the horse obeying them. 
If "whoa" is used as a signal for a horse to stop, 
it should not be used when it is desired merely that 
the horse should go slower, but some other signal 
should be used, as for example, "steady." The rea- 
son more confusion is not experienced in the use of 
the signal "whoa" is from the fact that the user 
consciously or unconsciously modifies the volume of 
the voice, and the horse depends on this emphasis 
for his signal. Obviously, a change both in the 
word used and the volume of the voice would be 
more desirable. 

Manifestly, the command to stop should precede 
and not succeed a pull on the bit. One would 
hardly think of whipping a child before telling him 



422 



HORSE 



HORSE 



to shut the door in order to make sure of his com- 
mand being obeyed. One should not pull on the bit 
both to make a horse stop and to make him go 
faster. The horses that ran away when pressure 
was put on the bit and ran faster the more the 
pressure was exerted, but stopped immediately 
when the driver slackened the lines, were not 
vicious horses. They were simply obeying the sig- 
nals their former driver had unwittingly taught 
them. 

Punishment, whether by pressure on the bit or 
otherwise, should cease the moment the horse does 
what is desired of him. Punishment may be 
inflicted to induce a horse to perform an act or to 
refrain from the performance of an act, but must 
never be inflicted after the act is performed, no 
matter how undesirable the act may be. One may 
properly punish horses to cause them to pass an 
automobile, but to inflict pain after they have 
passed it will only give them just cause for fear 
the next time they meet one. 

A bit or the arrangement of the bit that con- 
stantly hurts the horse gives him no idea of what 
is wanted of him. Almost any horse will do as 
directed to avoid pain, provided he understands 
his directions and provided doing it actually 
relieves him from the pain. The horse or the child 
that is punished whether he does right or wrong, 
is just as likely to do the wrong thing as the right 
thing. 

The use of the martingale is a good example of 
the proper and improper application of punish- 
ment. The standing martingale is attached 
directly to the snaffle-bit, while the rings of the 
ordinary kind slide on the rein. The martingale is 
used with the saddle horse to prevent him carry- 
ing his head too high or too nearly horizontal, or 
to prevent him hitting the rider with his head. 
With the standing martingale, every time the 
horse throws his head too high the punishment is 
inflicted, and the moment he holds his head prop- 
erly he gets immediate relief. With the ordinary 
martingale, a rider is about as likely to pull on 
the bits whether the head is high or low. 

This principle of punishment only for the pur- 
pose of securing obedience to properly conveyed 
and properly understood signals, and the immedi- 
ate cessation when a signal is obeyed, is the key- 
note of successful horse-training. 

Harness. 

When the harness with which a horse is dressed 
comes to be examined critically, certain parts will 
be found to serve essential purposes, while other 
parts may be found to be like the buttons on the 
back of a gentleman's coat, remnants of former 
customs or conditions. Obviously, harness may 
serve three main purposes ; viz., to enable the 
horse to move the vehicle, to enable the driver to 
guide the animal or regulate his speed, and to 
improve the appearance of the animal or add to 
the impressiveness of the equipage as a whole. 

The collar, hames, tugs, breeching and neck- 
yoke strap are concerned chiefly in the movement 
of the vehicle. The back-band may serve a variety 



of purposes. In some instances it supports the 
shafts, while in others, it, in connection with the 
belly-band, gives anchorage for the neck-yoke 
strap. In connection with the coupler it also 
serves as an attachment for the check-rein. When 
breeching is used, the back -band is sometimes 
omitted, the check-rein, if present, being supported 
by the hames. 

Since practically all the force of propulsion is 
conveyed through the collar, this becomes the 
most important single item of harness in the draft 
horse. It is essential that the collar should be the 
proper size and shape and the hames properly 
adjusted. Obviously, the aim should be to dis- 
tribute the pressure of the collar as widely and 
evenly on the shoulders as possible. If the tugs 
are adjusted too low, there is danger of too much 
pressure on the point of the shoulder, causing col- 
lar boils ; if too high, there may be too much pres- 
sure on the neck, causing soreness there. The 
point of attachment may need to be modified for 
the same horse, depending on the direction of the 
tug. Wheeled vehicles permit of a more nearly 
horizontal line of draft than do plows, harrows 
and similar tools. 

The bridle and lines form a means by which 
signals are conveyed by the driver to the horse. 
While there are a multiplicity of bits intended to 
convey varying degrees of pressure or pain, in 
general the simpler the form and the less the pain 
inflicted the easier the horse is controlled. In fast 
driving or riding, more pressure on the bit is desir- 
able than at the slower gaits, because of the more 
constant and delicate guidance required. With 
regard to the use of bits, it is necessary to remem- 
ber that the horse is a sentient being having indi- 
viduality which may amount to idiosyncrasy, and 
that, therefore, the bit which gives the best result 
with one horse may not be best for another. 

In order to understand fully the uses of bits, it 
is necessary to distinguish between the different 
purposes for which horses are employed. For work 
horses, both the lines and the check-rein are 
attached to an ordinary snaffle-bit. The side 
check-rein is used, the chief purpose of which is to 
prevent the horse getting his head to the ground 
and thus getting into mischief when left standing. 
Since a horse can pull most advantageously when 
his head is low and well forward, the check-rein 
should permit a reasonable movement of the head. 
In the case of driving horses or coach horses, draft 
is less essential, while speed or action becomes the 
important consideration. Speed is increased by 
raising the center of gravity and thrusting it for- 
ward. Action is increased at the expense of speed 
by raising the center of gravity and thrusting it 
backward. Since, in the horse, the center of gravity 
is modified by the movement of the head, it is pos- 
sible to modify speed or action by changing the 
position of the head. In driving horses, therefore, 
a snaffle-bit is used for the lines, while a straight 
bit attached to an overdraw check is used to raise 
the head and cause it to assume a somewhat hori- 
zontal position, thus throwing the center of gravity 
of the horse forward and upward. 



HORSE 

In coach horses, action is demanded, but great 
speed is not required. In other words, the coach 
horse is expected to raise his feet as high as may 
be with relatively small forward movement. This 
is facilitated by bringing the horse's head into a 
comparatively vertical position at the same time 
that it is raised. To bring this about, a curb-bit is 
used, the lines being attached to the longer arms 
of the lever, and the curb forming the resistance 
to the shorter arm. Side-reins are used to keep the 
head up. These are sometimes attached to the cen- 
ter rings of the curb-bit, but, to secure the best 
results, the check-rein should be attached to a 
separate snaffle-bit, for reasons given in explaining 
the use of the martingale. 

The horse may be ridden with either the snaffle- 
or the curb-bit, but for high-class work, both should 
be employed. The curb-bit ' is used at the gallop 
and the single-foot, while the snaffle-bit is used at 
the walk and trot. The two bits add to the safety 
of the rider and increase the distinctness with 
which signals can be conveyed. 

Many trotting horses are transformed into coach 
horses by substituting curb-bits and side-reins for 
snaffle-bit and overdraw check, replacing the breast- 
collar with the ordinary collar, and by docking the 
tail. Sometimes heavier shoes are also put on, to 
make the horse lift his. feet higher, and not reach 
so far forward. Driving-horses with breast-collars 
should have bridles, rings, and other metal parts as 
inconspicuous as possible. Coach horses may have 
hames, buckles, rings and other metal trimmings 
made prominent by the use of nickel, brass, silver 
or gold, according to the taste and means of the 
owner. 

Gaits. 

There are four distinct gaits or types of locomo- 
tion, viz., the amble or pace, the trot, the walk and 
the gallop. There are also several intermediate 
gaits. Thus, the so-called gaited saddle horse may 
go the last three of these distinct gaits and two 
intermediate gaits, the rack and the running- 
walk. In place of the running-walk, other inter- 
mediate gaits are permitted, but the true amble 
or pace is not allowed as a saddle gait. There 
is great difficulty in distinguishing and classifying 
the intermediate gaits because there may be all 
sorts of gradations between the distinct types. 
This will be clear if these gaits are represented 
diagrammatically. Let the shaded areas represent 
the right feet and the solid black areas the left feet. 
In the diagrams (Figs. 429^35) let the upper line 
represent the front feet and the lower line the hind- 
feet. The three gaits may then be represented as 
shown in Figs. 429-431. It will be readily seen 



HORSE 




Fig. 429. The pace or amble. 



that in the pace or amble (Fig. 429) the lateral 
bipeds strike the ground simultaneously and make 
two beats for one step ; that in the trot (Fig. 430) 



423 



Fig. 430. The trot. 

the diagonal bipeds strike the ground together 
and thus again make two beats for one whole step ; 
while in the walk (Fig. 431) there is a condition 





Fig. 431. The walk. 



just half-way between the pace and the trot, con- 
sequently each foot strikes the ground separately, 
making four equally spaced beats. It is perfectly 
evident that there may be all sorts of gradations 
between the pace and the walk or between the 
walk and the trot. If a horse went a gait that was 
just half-way between a pace and a walk, it would 
be represented as in Fig. 432. It will be seen that 




Fig. 432. The rack. 



in this case each foot strikes the ground separately;- 
but instead of being equally spaced there are four 
unequally spaced beats, giving the familiar sound 
of the single-footer : peck-a-peck, half-a-peck. It is 
probable that the single-foot is not just half-way 
between the walk and the pace, but that it is 
nearer the pace than the walk. 

A gait half-way between the walk and the trot 
would be represented as in Fig. 433. In this case 




Fig. 433. The running- walk. 

each foot strikes the ground separately and in un- 
equally spaced beats, but instead of the lateral 
bipeds being closely associated it is the diagonal 
bipeds that are associated. 

In the gaits that have just been described there 
are either two or four beats to a complete step. In 
the gallop, however, there may be but three beats. 
In this gait, assuming the horse to be off the 
ground, he strikes the ground first with one hind- 
foot, say the right, then simultaneously with the 
left hind-foot and right fore-foot and then with the 
left fore-foot. Sometimes, although less frequently, 
the horse strikes the ground with, say, the right 
hind-foot, then with both left feet and then with 
the right fore-foot. This is known as the lateral 
or disunited gallop (Fig. 434), while the former 
and more 
usual gallop 
is known as 
the diagonal 




Fig. 434. Lateral or 



lop(Fig.435). disunited gallop 



Fig. 435. Diagonal or 
united gallop. 



424 



HORSE 



HORSE 



The horse in the gallop is said to lead with the 
foot that strikes the ground last. Inasmuch as the 
horse strikes the ground first with one hind-foot 
and leaves it from' the diagonal fore-foot, while 
the other diagonal biped receives the concussion 
at the intermediate beat, it is evident that it is 
desirable for saddle horses to be able to change 
the lead in order to rest themselves and in order 
that the diagonal biped shall not be prematurely- 
worn out. When a horse gallops in a circle, the 
center of gravity is thrown in to overcome centrif- 
ugal force. As the horse is in danger of falling 
inward under these circumstances he should and 
generally will lead with his inner fore-foot. Ad- 
vantage can be taken of this fact to teach a horse 
to change his lead from one to the other fore-foot. 
If a horse is ridden in a small circle to the right, 
the rider throwing his own weight inward and 
turning the horse's head slightly outward at the 
start, it will tend to make the horse lead with the 
inner fore-foot. The lead may be reversed by rid- 
ing to the left. After the horse will take the lead 
readily by riding either to the right or to the left, 
he may be ridden in the figure eight, in which case 
he should change the lead as he changes from one 
circle to the other. When a horse is thus trained 
he may be induced to lead with the right foot when 
moving in a straight line by turning the head 
slightly to the left while the rider throws his own 
weight to the right. To lead on the left foot, 
reverse the operation. 

For the purpose of simplicity, only the order 
and association of beats have been represented in 
the diagrams. As a matter of fact, at the walk a 
horse has at certain times three feet on the 
ground, while in the fast trot there are times 
when all the feet are off the ground. In the run- 
ning-walk and in the broken amble or rack, at 
times the horse has three feet on the ground, but 
not for so large a proportion of the time as in the 
walk. 

Literature. 

Goubaux and Barrier, The Exterior of the 
Horse, translated by Simon J. J. Harger, J. B. 
Lippincott Company (1892) ; Anderson and Collier, 
Riding and Driving, New York (1905) ; Herbert, 
Frank Forester's Horse and Horsemanship of the 
United States, 2 Vols., New York (1871) ; Marvin, 
Training the Trotting Horse, New York (1892) ; 
Anderson, Modern Horsemanship ; Hayes, Illus- 
trated Horse Breaking ; Roberts, The Horse, the 
Macmillan Company (1905). [For further refer- 
ences, see page 416.] 

Practical Horse-training and Handling. Figs. 
436, 437. 

By Merritt W. Harper. 

Not every person is fitted by nature for the 
training and care of horses, as the large number of 
vicious and spoiled horses indicates. Many of the 
ailments of horses are due, not so much to bad 
breeding, as to faulty training and ignorant, 
brutal driving. When the horse has been well 



trained, he may be depended on, especially if this 
training is given in his early years. He will never 
forget these early lessons. In the training of the 
horse, it is of very little use to try to lay down 
set rules. The man who trains colts finds new 
situations to deal with in every individual he 
undertakes to educate. 

In training the horse, there are a few things 
that should always be kept in mind. A horse 
should never be trusted more than is necessary. A 
good horseman never runs a risk when it can be 
avoided. Many distressing accidents occur from 
trusting old family horses. The harness and other 
equipment should be of good quality and in good 
repair. Children, women or incompetent men 
should never be left in charge of horses unless the 
animals are thoroughly acquainted with them. 
Horses should be tied about the neck by a strong 
rope or strap, the latter passed through the ring of 
the bit and then to the hitching-post. 

Training colts. 

There is far too much fuss made about training 
young horses. If the training is made a gradual 
process, it will be accomplished much as a matter 
of course. If, however, colts are allowed to run 
practically wild until three or four years old, and 
are then suddenly caught and an attempt made to 
force them into use quickly, there is likely to be 
more or less trouble. In training colts, often the 
mistake is made of trying to teach them too much 
at one time. The colt should understand his first 
lesson and have it thoroughly learned before 
another is attempted. 

Perhaps the first lesson should be to "halter, 
break" the young animal. A strong, well-fitting 
halter, not a new one, but one that has recently 
been used and therefore familiar to his sense of 
smell, should be placed on him, and he should be 
tied short near to his dam and in such a position 
that he cannot pull back too far or throw and 
choke himself. He must be tied securely so that 
there is no danger of his breaking loose, for if he 
breaks loose once he is likely to try it again. Colts 
should be treated gently but firmly. It is well to 
avoid making great pets of them, as petted animals 
are usually difficult to train. 

After becoming familiar with the halter so that he 
will stand tied, he may be taught to lead (Fig. 436). 
If the method indicated is unavailable, the trainer 
may take a fairly long lead strap, get behind him 
and make him go ahead. The trainer should not stand 
in front and pull on the colt's head, for he will wall 
his eyes, shake his head and step back. It is a good 
practice to allow the colt to accompany his mother 
by tying the lead strap to her hame or collar ; thus 
he becomes used to walking and trotting beside 
another horse. 

Training to bit and harness. — It is perhaps best 
to train horses to the use of the bit and harness 
when they are about two years of age. With rare 
exceptions, the colt is made usable if for a few 
hours each day for a week he is subjected to the 
restraint of a bitting harness in an open paddock- 
This harness consists of an open bridle with a large, 



HORSE 



HORSE 



425 



smooth bit and check-rein, a surcingle and crupper, 
and two side-lines running from the hit to buckles 
on either side of the surcingle. (Fig. 437.) The 
check- and side-reins should be left slack at first. 




Fig. 436. A colt harnessed to be taught to lead. 

Gradually, from day to day, the reins should be 
shortened, care being taken that they are never 
made so short as to place the head in an uncom- 
fortable position, or draw the bit so tightly as to 
make the corners of the mouth sore. Real lines may 
now be substituted for the side-rein, and the colt 
driven around until he will respond to the rein, 
stop at the word " whoa " and step forward at the 
• command " get up." 

After the colt has become used to the bitting 
apparatus and to understand such simple com- 
mands as " whoa," " get up " and " steady," he may 
be harnessed. The colt should be trained to stand 
absolutely still when being harnessed, saddled, or 
when.it is desired that he should do so. A horse 
that is continually stepping around while he is 
being harnessed, is but half broken at best. The 
attendant should be gentle about all these things 
at first, but should go through with everything 
that is undertaken. New harness should not be 
used, but that which has been in constant use, 
preferably by some horse that the colt knows. 

After having been driven with the bitting appa- 
ratus for a time, and when the colt is rather tired, 
he should be put in his stall and the collar brought 
to him ; he may smell of it if he likes, and then 
it should be put right on as if he were an old 
horse. The harness should be placed gently over 
his back. The attendant should not stand off as if 
the horse were a kicking cow ; he should walk 
behind him, put the crupper strap on, then step to 
the side and fasten the bands. The horse is then 
ready to hitch to a vehicle. 

Hitching double. — A well-trained, gentle but active 
horse should be taken if the colt is active, for it is 
a mistake to hitch a quick, active colt with a slow, 
lazy horse. The vehicle to which they are attached 
should be provided with a good brake. The colt 
should be attached to the "off-side," and they 



should be driven at first in a closed field until the 
colt learns what is wanted of him. When hitching 
the colt up double for the first time, it is a good 
practice to keep a pair of single lines on the colt's 
bridle, which can be handled by an assistant. 

Hitching single. — When the colt is desired for 
single use, it is often advisable to train him to go 
single from the first. This may be done after he has 
become familiar with the bit, harness and use of the 
lines. A training cart for hitching colts single 
should be substantial, with long, heavy thills, and 
the seat arranged behind so that the driver can get 
off and on quickly. The colt should be hitched well 
forward. A strap, commonly called a kick-strap, 
attached to each thill and passed over the colt's 
croup, should always be used until the colt is accus- 
tomed to the thills. When the colt is first hitched 
up, an attendant should hold him until the driver 
is ready, then he should be allowed to go. As soon 
as he becomes familiar with the vehicle, he should be 
compelled to stand still until he is wanted to start. 

Training to mount. — In training a colt to mount, 
one must be very careful that the colt does not 
succeed in throwing the trainer, for if he once gets 
the rider off, it is impossible to convince him that 
he cannot do it again. The best time to take the colt 
is after he has been exercised rather vigorously 
and while tired. The best place is on soft ground, 
where he can neither hurt himself nor the rider. 
The saddle is put on with the same confidence as 
the harness, and it is fastened securely. An assist- 
ant should hold the colt's head while the rider 
mounts. The horse may rear, bound forward, buck 
or lie down. In any event, the rider must stay on, 
remembering that the colt is already tired and on 
soft ground. It is often an endurance trial, and 
this is the reason why one must have the colt tired 
to begin with, for otherwise he may be able to 




Fig. 437. The fittings of a colt to familiarize Mm witi 
harness and bit. 

bound and buck until the rider is so exhausted that 
he can no longer hold to the saddle. 

Training vicious horses. 

In training or handling vicious horses, it is 
most important to impress them very firmly that 



426 



HORSE 



HORSE 



the trainer has complete control over them and 
that they must obey him. The best way to 
impress this on the animal is to "rarey" him. 
The harness used for this consists of two short 
straps fitted with D-shaped rings, a surcingle and 
a long rope. The straps are buckled around the 
front pasterns, and the surcingle around the body. 
One end of the long rope is tied into the ring in 
the strap that goes around the pastern of the 
" near " front foot. The free end is then passed 
through a ring on the under side of the surcingle 
and then down through the ring at the other pas- 
tern. Then the rope end is brought up and passed 
through a ring, tied about half way down the 
"off" side of the surcingle. If the animal becomes 
unruly, all that is needed is to pull on the rope ; 
this brings the front feet up to the chest and the 
animal comes down on his knees and nose. A few 
hard falls usually are sufficient for the most incor- 
rigible. This is a very dangerous practice and 
should be undertaken only as a last resort. It 
sometimes happens that horses permanently injure 
their knees, or even break their necks as a result 
of a fall. 

Balking. 

Balking is the refusal on the part of the horse 
to do the work required when he fully understands 
what is wanted of him. It is often caused by 
improper handling, although sometimes by a vicious 
disposition. Balking is usually associated with ner- 
vous temperament, and all influences that tend to 
irritate the horse should be removed when possible. 
It is essential that the trainer be quiet and not lose 
his temper, as shouting, jerking and whipping only 
make matters worse. Often if the horse is allowed 
to stand quietly until the nervousness passes away, 
he will start of his own accord. Attracting his 
attention by adjusting the harness, giving him an 
apple, a bit of sugar, or by lifting the foot and 
gently pounding the shoe, will often overcome the 
difficulty. 

Halter-pulling. 

All horses that have this habit should be securely 
tied by a stout neck-strap or rope. Often they can 
be broken of the habit by placing a small rope, say 
one-quarter inch, around the body just back of the 
fore-legs, passing the rope between the fore-legs, 
then through the ring of the halter, and tie to the 
post. When the horse pulls back, the rope draws 
down on his back and he will usually cease. Another 
method is to tie one end of the small rope around 
the tail in the form of a crupper, the other end being 
passed along the back, through the halter-ring and 
to the post. When he pulls back, the force is exerted 
on the tail, and he soon stops. 

Harnessing. 

Good harness is one of the best advertisements 
a horseman can have. It is economical to buy 
good leather and then keep it in good condition. 
Harness oils and dressing are cheap and it does not 
take long to fix up a double set of harnesses. The 
metal parts should be kept bright and clean. There 



is considerable art in harnessing a horse just right. 
The harness, from the bridle to the crupper, should 
fit ; that is, it should be neither too loose nor too 
tight. In harnessing, saddling or handling a horse, 
the work should be done from the left side of the 
animal, and the equipment fastened and unfastened 
from that side. In putting on the harness it should 
be gently but firmly placed on the animal. One 
should see that all loose flapping straps are 
avoided. 

The collar is, perhaps, the most important part 
of the harness to be looked after. If the colt's 
shoulders are tender they are rather likely to show 
abrasions. In this case, the collar must be kept 
scrupulously clean and the shoulders may be 
bathed at morning, noon and night with cold salt 
water. If one is working a colt or a fleshy horse, 
he must be on guard to see that it does not lose 
flesh and the collar become too large. Breast-col- 
lars are admissable when the load is light. They 
must not be adjusted so high as to choke the horse 
or so low as to interfere with the action of his 
limbs. 

Perhaps the bridle is the next important item. 
The length of the head-stall must be so adjusted as 
to bring the bit in mild contact with the bars of 
the mouth, so that the animal will respond quickly 
to the slightest pressure on the lines. If the head- 
stall of the bridle is too short, the bars and corners 
of the mouth soon become sore and the animal 
finally becomes unresponsive ; on the other hand, 
if too long, the horse becomes careless of the 
driver's wishes. As to the advisability of using 
blinds, there is a great diversity of opinion. If the 
horse works better with an open bridle, it should , 
be used ; if better with a blind bridle, the blind 
should be used. 

The check -rein should be properly adjusted. 
There are two kinds of check-reins, the over-draw 
and the side-rein. The over-draw, if worn tight, is 
nothing short of cruel ; it makes the horse hold 
his head in an uncomfortable and unsightly posi- 
tion. If no check-rein is used, most horses become 
slovenly and careless in their habits. The crupper 
needs careful attention. It should fit and be kept 
clean, lest it abrade the tail and produce a vicious 
horse. 

Driving. 

Driving is an art that does not lend itself well 
to instruction by the medium of words. The inde- 
scribable qualities which, rightly commingled, make 
the good driver, cannot be acquired from bi 
but must, in a large measure, be born in the horse- 
man. Study, observation and especially practice, 
will add to his ability, but all that may be writti n 
will not make one adept. The understanding be- 
tween horse and driver is so keen that the horse 
is inspired with courage and obedience by the 
slightest touch on the reins or by the cheery voice 
of the driver. On the other hand, careless and 
lazy drivers are the source of far more disobedient 
horses than is generally supposed. Just as surely 
as the driver is shiftless, the horse will soon 
become so. 



HORSE 



HORSE 



427 



Position of the reins in driving. — The most con- 
venient way to hold the lines when driving is to 
take them in the left hand, the left rein coming 
into the hand over the first finger, the right com- 
ing into the hand between the second and third 
fingers. The guiding is to be done with the right 
hand which manipulates the lines. The left arm 
should hang naturally, with the forearm at a right 
angle, and the elbow close to the body. This posi- 
tion gives the driver the best control over the 
lines, and at the same time is very comfortable. 

Rides of the road. — There are a few common rules 
in practice that should be observed by every one 
when riding or driving on the highways. In general, 
when two vehicles meet, they should each turn to 
the right, each yielding more than one-half of the 
road. This rule applies, no matter where the vehicle 
may be. If, however, one of the vehicles is heavy 
laden and cannot yield one-half of the road, it must 
stop and let the lighter rig go around. It is the 
rule for the driver of the heavy laden vehicle to 
aid the driver of the lighter one to get around 
when such aid is needed. In some states, a pedes- 
trian or a man on horse-back is entitled to half the 
road, the same as if he were in a carriage. If be- 
hind a vehicle, and it is desired to drive around, 
the rear vehicle should drive to the left. As a rule, 
the driver of the small moving vehicle will bear 
off to the right if signalled. However, he is under 
no obligations to do so in most states. When there 
are two worn tracks, or on the city streets, each 
driver is supposed to keep to the right track or 
curb, as the case may be. 

Training saddle horses. 

Classes of saddle horses. — In a discussion of the 
education of the saddle horse, it is well, perhaps, 
to mention briefly the different classes of saddle 
horses. There are four distinct classes : The plain- 
gaited, usually called the walk-trot-canter horse ; 
the gaited saddle horse ; the hunter ; and the high- 
school horse. The plain-gailed horse is required to 
walk, trot and canter only, but he must do these 
few gaits very well or he is of little value as a 
saddler. The gaited saddle horse is required to go 
five gaits. He must walk, trot, canter and rack ; 
and for the fifth he may choose any one of the three 
slow gaits, running-walk, slow pace and fox-trot. 
It often happens that he is able to go all three of 
these, which, in addition to the four that he must 
go, makes seven distinct and unmixed gaits. The 
hunter must go the walk, trot and canter, and in 
general, is similar to the plain-gaited saddler. How- 
ever, in addition to the plain gaits, he must be 
able to hurdle — jump hurdles, fences, ditches and 
the like. The high-school horse is required to go the 
gaits of the gaited saddler and many others, some 
thirty-four in all. 

The training of a saddle horse is an art that can- 
not be learned from books, but must, in a sense, 
be born in the man, or be learned at the school of 
practice and experience. 

Walk. — We will start with the horse at the walk, 
as that is the foundation of all saddle gaits. The 
horse should be provided with a double-rein bridle 



with both curb- and snaffle-bits. When ready to 
start, the rider pulls up lightly on the snaffle-bit 
and urges him to the top of his speed at the fiat- 
foot walk. The horse is held steady, and if he is a 
good walker, he should go four to five miles per 
hour. 

Running-walk, fox-trot or slow pace. — The next 
step is the running-walk, fox-trot or slow pace. 
The snaffle-rein is loosened, the curb-reins are lightly 
drawn up and the animal is urged just out of a 
walk. These gaits are faster than the walk but 
slower than the rack. When well performed, they 
are delightful riding. Whichever of the three gaits 
the horse strikes, when urged out of the walk, he 
he should be held steady, and not allowed to forge 
ahead into a rack or trot, or fall back into a walk. 

Rack. — The rack may be tried next. For this, a 
smooth, hard road is desirable, as it is a hard gait 
on the horse and if the road is soft or rough it will 
fatigue him. The rider increases the pressure on 
the curb-rein, grips the horse with the knees so 
that he will feel the clasp, and at the same time 
gently uses the spurs. A horse is taught to rack 
by spurring him forward and curbing him back. 
The rider must hold him steady and not let him fall 
into a side-wheel pace. If he falters, the spur is 
used lightly. The curb-reins are then slackened, 
the horse taught to slow down at the command 
" steady " and allowed to come to a walk. 

Trot. — After the rack, the 1 trot may be under- 
taken. The snaffle-reins are drawn up, letting the 
curb-reins hang free ; some horsemen, however, 
prefer to execute the trot on the curb-reins rather 
than the snaffle-reins. The horse is urged forward, 
and as he starts off, the rider rises in the saddle. 
The horse should take the trot at once. If he does 
not, he is brought to the walk and again started. 
At the start some trainers reach forward and grasp 
the animal by the mane, well up the neck. What- 
ever signals are employed, the same signals should 
always be used for a given gait. When the horse 
strikes a square trot, he is held to it steady. 

Canter. — The canter, the most graceful and 
enjoyable gait when perfectly performed, may next 
be tried. The horse is taken in hand, and pulled 
together until his legs are under him ; the curb- 
rein is taken in lightly, the rider leans forward, 
urging him to move off quickly, and at the same 
time saluting him by raising the right hand so that 
he may see it. He should take the canter at once. 
If he does not, he is brought to a walk and again 
started. The moment he does strike the canter, he 
is held steady until the lesson is complete. 

This code of signals is in ordinary use in the 
South, where riding is a popular pastime. All 
horses will not respond to these signals. The indi- 
viduality of each animal must be worked out, and 
the trainer govern himself accordingly. 

Position for riding. — Each of the saddle gaits 
requires a special position of the rider. All men are 
not of the same build and each must take a position 
to suit him. For these reasons and others, no specific 
rules can be laid down for the position of the rider. 
Only general directions can be given. The rider 
should sit in the middle of the saddle, resting his 



428 



HORSE 



HORSE 



weight on his buttocks ; he should hold his body 
and head erect ; shoulders well back ; chest thrown 
slightly forward ; left fore-arm horizontal, elbow 
close to body; right hand hanging naturally; thighs 
nearly parallel to the horse's shoulders, and in 
close contact with the horse's body, the lower part 
of the legs hanging naturally. The ball of the 
foot should rest on the tread of the stirrup, and 
the heels should be a little lower than the toe. 
The stirrup straps should both be of the same 
length and not so long as to render the tread 
insecure, or so short as to cramp the leg. 

Position of reins when riding. — The most con- 
venient way to hold the reins when riding is to take 
them in the left hand, the left curb-rein coming into 
the hand around the little finger, the right curb- 
rein between the first and second fingers ; the left 
snaffle between the third and little fingers, and the 
right snaffle between the second and third fingers. 
Practical horsemen differ as to whether the curb- 
reins or the snaffle-reins should be on the inside. 
The guiding is to be done with the right hand, which 
manipulates the reins. The left arm should hang 
naturally, with the forearm at a right angle and 
the elbow close to the body. In this position one 
has the reins separate and under good control. 

Literature. 

For references, see pages 416 and 424. 

Feeding the Horse. 

By Merritt IV. Harper. 

One who studies the practices of successful 
horsemanship will become strongly impressed with 
the fact that there are many ways of securing the 
desired end, high finish and fine action, in the 
horse. If in any locality we study the rations in 
most common use, we will find them usually com- 
posed of only one or two kinds of grain and the 
same limited number of coarse dry fodders, the 
feeder insisting that this is the most practical and 
economical ration he can feed with safety. One 
need not travel far to find the list more or less 
changed, sometimes entirely so, yet with the same 
claim to superiority or necessity as before. In the 
northern states, the most common feeds for the 
horse are corn or oats for the grain, and clover or 
timothy hay for the roughage ; in the West, 
crushed barley is the common grain, while the hay 
comes largely from the wild oat and barley plants ; 
in the South, corn serves mainly for the concen- 
trates, with dry corn leaves for the roughage. 
Thus it seems that each section is rather limited 
in the variety of foods composing the ration. 

Horsemen in the northern states often state that, 
with plenty of sound oats and good timothy hay at 
hand, they care nothing for other food articles. 
While it is true that a horse can be maintained on 
this ration, and many race horses are fed no other 
food during their severe campaigns, yet it seems 
reasonable that equally good or better results 
might be obtained, and the cost of the ration often 
lessened, by feeding a ration containing more 
variety, especially for other types of horses than 



those of the race-course. If energy and spirited 
action were the only qualities desired in the horse, 
then, perhaps, oats and timothy hay might suffice ; 
but when we take into account the number and 
complexity of the various organs in the 'body, we 
can well understand that these might be better 
nourished by several grains and forage plants than 
by a few. A ration is ordinarily considered well 
varied if it furnishes four different materials. The 
food should come from different plants ; if possible, 
from different natural orders. A ration that is 
composed entirely of grasses and cereals would not 
afford the same variety to the animal as one in 
which leguminous foods were given in part. 

The feeding system. 

Whatever feeding-stuffs are employed in the 
ration, the horse should be fed regularly and uni- 
formly at all times. He anticipates the feeding 
hour, and becomes nervous if it is delayed. His 
digestive system, his entire organism, becomes 
accustomed to a certain order which must obtain 
if one is to be successful. The digestive apparatus 
of the horse is not nearly so large relatively as 
that of the cow or sheep ; he has no rumen, no 
place to store his food to be masticated at will ; 
hence, when at work he must be fed regularly and 
often. 

Successful horse-feeding differs much from that 
of most other domestic animals. Cattle, sheep and 
pigs are fed to produce gain in weight or, in the 
case of the milch cow and sheep, to produce body 
secretions in the form of milk and wool, whereas 
horses are fed almost exclusively as beasts of bur- 
den, whether the work consists in carrying a rider 
or in drawing a load. In late years, a new indus- 
try has sprung into existence, that of fattening 
horses for the market. This has become as much a 
regular business as feeding steers. 

Because of the small size of the horse's stomach, 
the order of administering grain, hay and water 
assumes much importance. Colim's investigations 
on the stomach of the horse show that this organ 
must fill and empty itself two or three times for 
each feed given. From this experiment, it appears 
that during the fore part of the meal, the material 
is pushed, almost as soon as it enters the stomach, 
into the intestines by the food that follows; while 
toward the end of the meal, the passage is slow, 
and the digestion in the stomach is more perfect. 

Marlot, conductingexperiments in France, showed 
that if a horse is fed his grain first and then watered, 
much of the food is carried by the water into the 
intestines. Since the grain of the ration is rich in 
protein, it should stay in the stomach as long as 
possible, as the digestion of this nutrient is more 
complete there. Thus it would seem that the horse 
should be given water first, and that it should be 
followed by hay, the grain being withheld until at 
least a part of the hay has been consumed. There 
are, however, very serious objections to this prac- 
tice, as the horse is unsatisfied and very nervous 
until fed his grain, and we should not make him 
wait for the grain until he has consumed the hay 
allowance. A middle ground may be taken by 



HORSE 



HORSE 



429 



watering first, feeding the grain, sprinkled with 
a small allowance of moistened chaffed hay, and 
watering again after the ration has been consumed. 
If this practice is followed, it will satisfy the desire 
of the horse by supplying the most palatable part 
of his food early, and yet insure the retention of 
tne grain in the stomach for a considerable period. 

Sanborn, studying the effects of watering before 
and after eating, reports in bulletin No. 9, Utah 
Agricultural Experiment Station, as follows : (1) 
Horses watered before feeding grain retained their 
weight better than when watered after feeding 
grain ; (2) horses watered before feeding had the 
better appetites or ate the most ; (3) horses watered 
after feeding grain, in ration of food eaten, seemed 
to digest it as well as those watered before feed- 
ing ; (4) it seems advisable to water both before 
and after feeding. 

When horses are taxed to the limit of their 
endurance, the preparation of the food should 
receive much attention. In this case all grains 
should be ground and sprinkled with moist chaffed 
hay when fed. Food thus prepared is more thor- 
oughly and rapidly masticated. Long hay, of course, 
should be supplied the animal, to be consumed at 
leisure. As hay is always more or less dusty, it 
should be administered in such manner as to cause 
the horse the least annoyance. Moistening or 
sprinkling the hay with water is the simplest way 
to reduce this trouble to a minimum. Dusty hay 
should be avoided whenever possible. 

Salt in limited quantities should be kept before 
the horse at all times. While little is known from 
investigation on this subject, it is evident from the 
extreme fondness of the horse for salt that it 
should be regularly supplied him. It is best not to 
place too much before him at a time, as some 
horses will eat it to excess. 

The successful horseman will study each indi- 
vidual and modify the ration according to the 
needs of each : one horse should have a little more 
than the regular allowance, and the next possibly 
a little less, because some horses are more difficult 
to keep in condition than others doing the same 
work and under similar conditions. 

In handling horses, we should remember that 
they are very sensitive animals and that we can- 
not be too quiet in our treatment of them. Strik- 
ing them or shouting commands is a contemptible 
practice ; it causes the animals to lose confidence 
in their master, thereby rendering them less teach- 
able, and destroying nervous energy, making them 
less economical producers than if they were pro- 
tected at all times from these nervous shocks. 

Feeding the work horse. 

The work horse has a hearty appetite, a vigor- 
ous digestion, and responds as does no other animal 
to intelligent care. He should be fed liberally and 
frequently, the amount given being regulated by 
the size of the animal as well as by the amount 
and kind of work he is required to do. In general, 
the horse should be supplied with something over 
two pounds of provender daily for each hundred 
pounds of weight. Of this, about two-thirds— the 



exact amount depending on the severity of the 
labor — should be grain in some form. If the work 
is exceedingly heavy, the grain in the ration should 
be increased and the hay diminished ; if the work 
is light, the grain should be diminished and the 
hay increased. The morning meal should be com- 
paratively light, and consist mostly of grain. It 
should not possess much bulk. In many of the 
larger stables, the midday meal is omitted. But 
most horsemen hold that some grain should be 
given at noon. In any case, the midday ration 
should not be large. The heavy feeding should 
come at night, after the day's work is over and 
when the animal has time to masticate and digest 
his food. 

A very good practice is as follows : For the 
morning ration, feed one-fourth of the daily allow- 
ance at least one hour before going to work. It 
should be in condition to be consumed easily and 
rapidly, so as to be well out of the way when the 
animal is led from the stable. After being watered, 
he is ready for his morning's task. If the work is 
exhaustive and exacting, he should be fed after 
five hours of labor. When he comes to the stable 
at midday, he should have a drink of fresh, cool 
water, care being taken that he does not drink too 
rapidly or gorge himself if very warm. At this 
time give him another quarter of his daily allow- 
ance. No greater service can be rendered the 
horse at this time than removing the harness so 
that he can eat his meal in quiet and comfort, and 
gain a few moments of much needed rest. If pos- 
sible, he should have one hour to consume his meal. 
He should be watered again before going to work. 
When the horse comes to the stable in the even- 
ing, tired and warm, he should be allowed, first of 
all, a fresh, cool drink, care being taken as before 
that he does not drink too rapidly. He is now 
ready for the remainder of his day's allowance. 
Unharness at once, and, when the sweat has dried, 
give him a thorough brushing. If, for some reason, 
the horse is forced to stand idle in the stable for a 
few days, the ration should be decreased. Other- 
wise he will become stocky, with his legs swollen 
and stiff. 

In cold weather, a more carbonaceous ration 
may be used. When more food goes to furnish heat 
for the body, a horse needs a large proportion of 
heat-making food. Equal parts of corn and oats by 
weight would be more satisfactory and ordinarily 
much cheaper than a larger proportion of oats. 
Most farmers have much less work for the horse in 
winter than in summer. It is an excellent practice 
and much more economical to rough through the 
winter those not needed for work. Those reserved 
for work should have good care and be fed accord- 
ing to the amount and kind of work performed. 

In providing a ration, whether for summer or 
winter use, due consideration should be given to 
cost. Roughage is ordinarily much cheaper than 
grain, but a horse at work is unable economically 
to dispose of a large quantity of bulky food. If 
considerable time and energy must be expended in 
masticating rough feed, the usefulness of the horse 
for work is lessened thereby. The more concen- 



430 



HORSE 



HORSE 



trated the food, within proper limits, the less 
energy will be needed to make it available. The 
proportion of grain to roughness depends on the 
amount and kind of work to be performed. A horse 
at hard work should never be expected to consume 
more roughage than grain by weight. 

Feeding the driving horse. 

The driving or carriage horse is more difficult to 
keep in condition than the work horse. The periods 
of enforced idleness, occasioned by lack of busi- 
ness engagements of his master, or because of 
inclement weather, are often followed by long 
drives and hours of over-exertion. This irregular 
work weakens the constitution of the driving 
horse, which generally has but a brief career. 
When daily driving cannot be practiced, under- 
feeding is considered the safest course. 

In feeding this class of horses, the same general 
system that has been suggested for the work horse 
should be followed. When the horse is not taken 
from the stable during the day, the concentrates, 
or grain part of the ration, should at once be 
reduced by one-third, and the normal allowance 
should not again be given until work is resumed. 
Carriage horses are usually overfed, because of 
the desire of the owner to keep them in the pink 
of condition. This over-feeding and irregular exer- 
cise- is the cause of most of the ills of driving 
horses. Oats easily lead among the grains ; when 
these are fed, the horse exhibits mettle as from no 
other food. If at any time the animal should seem 
constipated, a bran mash should be given. While 
a certain amount of roughness must be fed to give 
bulk or volume to the ration in order that the 
digestive functions may be maintained properly, 
yet we must remember that a large abdomen can- 
not be tolerated in the carriage horse. Again, the 
feeder of this class of horses must ever be on his 
guard against laxative foods, such as clover or 
alfalfa hay, or bran in too large quantities, for 
when the horse is put on the road and warmed up, 
it will prove very draining on his system as well as 
disagreeable to the driver. Style and action are 
generally considered prerequisites, while economy 
in feeding, and often the health of the animal, are 
but secondary. 

Feeding the trotter. 

In feeding the trotting horse, all must give way 
to the single requisite of speed. Every pound of 
useless weight, whether body weight or extra food, 
must be worked off, otherwise it will become a 
serious matter in the management of the trotting 
horse. More important than this, however, is the 
effect of the food on the character of the muscle 
formed from it, and especially on the nerve and 
mettle of the horse. As in the case of the driving 
horse, economy in the cost of the ration is not to 
be considered. Everything yields to speed. 

When the campaign has closed, and the animal 
is taken into winter-quarters, the feed should be 
reduced by at least one-half. Good sound oats and 
clean, sweet timothy hay should constitute the 
bulk of the ration. At this time a few carrots may 



be given and a bran mash occasionally, for these 
are cooling in their nature, and have a tendency 
to reduce any feverish or inflammatory symptoms. 
Horses turned out to the field should be fed oats 
twice a day, as oats will keep the muscles hard and 
the mettle up. In the spring, when shedding, bran 
mash may be given more frequently to keep the 
bowels open. Flaxseed and linseed should seldom 
be given, as they are thought to be too laxative 
and cause too severe a shock on the system. 

When the horse goes into training, the strength 
of the food must be increased, although but slowly 
at first. As the oats are increased, the horse will 
want less hay, but may at first have all he will 
consume. Later it may be necessary to limit the 
hay, in such case one should see that he does not 
eat the bedding. No carrots should be given now. 
The bran mash may be continued once or twice a 
week if there is any tendency to constipation ; 
otherwise, it may be best to dispense with the 
mash altogether. During the last days of training, 
or just before the coming trial, he should be put 
on his largest allowance of strong food. The vari- 
ous individuals differ so very much that no defi- 
nite amount can be stated. It is at this time, 
when all eyes are centered on the trotter, that the 
skill of the feeder is appreciated. 

Wintering idle horses. 

On the average farm, most of the work comes 
during the growing season. We think it more eco- 
nomical and perhaps advisable that the idle horse 
be turned to a lot, if it affords some protection, to 
be roughed through the winter rather than to be 
confined closely in the barn. As winter comes on, 
these horses grow a heavy coat of hair, which 
affords them excellent protection. Such horses 
may be maintained wholly, or nearly so, on hay, 
straw or corn fodder, fed uncut, as they have time 
for masticating food, and their systems not being 
taxed by labor, they are able to subsist on food 
containing a large percentage of inert matter. 
We think it better to have the digestive tract of 
the idle horse well distended with coarse material 
rather than concentrated, as would be the case if 
grains possessing only the requisite nutrients were 
supplied. If the protected area is kept dry and 
well bedded, horses can be wintered comfortably 
in this way at much less expense than by stabling. 
Light grain-feeding, together with some work, 
should begin six weeks before the spring work 
starts, to put the horses in condition for the 
spring work. 

Feeding the brood mare. 

Many farmers are situated so that they may raise 
a team of colts each year, without seriously inter- 
fering with farm operations. This is a very good 
practice, as there is a great demand for good 
horses for both city and farm purposes. A team of 
mares in foal can be worked until the day of foal- 
ing, if the work is not too severe and the driver 
careful. In fact, moderate exercise is necessary 
for the mare in foal. Idleness is the bane of horse- 
rearing and should be avoided whenever possible. 



HORSE 



HORSE 



431 



The Arabs have a saying, " rest and fat are the 
greatest enemies of the horse." 

Mares in foal should be fed much as suggested 
for the work horse, with perhaps the addition of 
more protein foods, as bran and oil-meal, as such 
foods, rich in protein and mineral matter, are valu- 
able for mares carrying foals. If the mare is con- 
stipated, bran mash may be given occasionally. 
Through the use of proper food, the bowels should 
be kept in good condition, and should be a little 
loose rather than otherwise at the time of parturi- 
tion. While the mare may be worked up to the 
time of foaling, she should be given several days of 
rest after foaling to enable her to gain her strength 
and give the foal the proper start. For the first 
few days of recuperation, a hot bran mash fed once 
a day has both a cooling and a laxative effect on 
the mare, which is very beneficial. If all has gone 
well with the mare and foal, the mare may be put 
to work at the end of one week from the time of 
parturition. 

Some dams, especially those with their first foals, 
fail to supply the proper amount of milk, and the 
young fail to make satisfactory growth, in which 
case the mare should be provided with food that 
stimulates the milk flow; good pasture grass is best, 
of course, but oats or wheat bran, with an equal 
weight of corn-and-cob meal, will often prove very 
beneficial. If there is an oversupply of milk, or 
if the milk is too rich, the food supply may be 
restricted. 

Feeding the foal. 

Very soon after birth, the foal should take a 
good draft of the colostrum, or first milk of the 
dam. Colostrum milk possesses purgative qualities 
which tend to discharge from the alimentary 
tract the fecal matters collected therein during 
fetal life. If this result is not accomplished, a 
small dose of castor-oil should be given the foal. 
With the bowels clean, the foal is ready to begin 
his career, and his treatment the first year will go 
far towards determining whether for good or bad. 
If the foal is obtaining an oversupply of milk, he 
will have an attack of diarrhea. In such case, 
some of the dam's milk should be drawn, remember- 
ing always that the last milk carries the most fat, 
which is usually the cause of the trouble. Diar- 
rhea, whatever its cause, should be checked at 
once. Parched flour, rice-meal gruel, boiled milk 
and whites of raw eggs, are all excellent for this 
ailment. If the food is constipative, relief may be 
had by the use of castor-oil and by injections of 
warm water to which soap has been added. 

Some farmers make a practice of permitting the 
foal to go to the fields with the team, while others 
prefer to keep the foal in the stable. During the 
first few weeks, the foal should be fed oftener than 
three times per day. For this reason it is better in 
the field with the dam if no inconvenience is caused. 
When older, however, the colt may be kept in the 
barn and given nourishment when the dam comes 
from work. If this method is practiced, the driver 
should be careful about letting the colt to the dam 
when the latter is very tired and warm. 



It is well to encourage colts to take nourishment 
other than that supplied by the dam. This supple- 
mentary feeding may begin when the colt is about 
two months old. By placing the feed -box from 
which the dam eats her grain, a little raised from 
the ground, the colt will early begin to nibble from 
the mother's supply, and soon acquire a taste for 
grain. In this way the colt may be taught to eat, 
with the result that, when taken away from the 
dam at weaning time, it does not miss its mother 
so much. If eating well at the age of five or six 
months, the colt may be weaned without as much 
shrinkage as when unaccustomed to eating grain. 

Growing colts should have more protein than is 
required for the work horse. No definite rules can 
be given that will apply to all colts. Oats, shorts, 
peas and perhaps some corn, may constitute the 
grain. Alfalfa, clover and mixed hays, which should 
be sweet and clean, may constitute the roughness. 
Colts suffer at times from teething, and to subsist 
wholly on hard, dry food, may cause them to run 
down in flesh. At this time, if one can steam the 
crushed oats or bran, they will prove appetizing 
and very nourishing. The first winter after wean- 
ing is the most severe on the colt, and he should 
receive much attention. The "big-belly," which is 
often noticed at this period, is nothing to its harm, 
for it is important that the digestive tract be 
developed to a moderate extent by distention with 
coarse feed, that it may serve its purpose when the 
animal is grown. At this period, the colt must have 
an abundance of outdoor exercise. There is no 
more certain way of ruining a colt than by liberal 
feeding and close confinement. 

Occasionally something happens to the dam and 
the foal must be reared by hand or perish. Cow's 
milk, if modified with at least one-fourth its volume 
of water, together with some sugar, makes a fair 
substitute for the mare's milk, but should be given 
at about the same temperature as the dam's milk. 
Gruels made by boiling beans or peas, and removing 
the skins by pressing the pulp through a sieve, or 
oil-meal and shorts made into a jelly by boiling, 
are excellent for the motherless colt. 

Henry says that a fair grain allowance for the 
colt, measured in oats, is as follows : Up to one 
year of age, two to three pounds ; one to two years 
of age, four to five pounds ; two to three years o f 
age, seven to eight pounds. 

Feeding the stallion. 

The object in the management of a stallion is so 
to feed, groom and exercise him as to keep the 
horse up to the very highest possible strength and 
vigor. Very many owners endeavor to have the 
stallion in fine show condition by the time the sea- 
son opens. The horse is not given sufficient exer- 
cise, is kept closely blanketed and fed various drugs, 
nostrums and condimental stock-foods ; he is loaded 
with fat ; his muscles becomes soft and flabby, and 
although he may seem to be in the very pink of 
condition, he is in reality not nearly so well fitted 
for service in the stud as he would have been i? he 
had been fed on plain food, and given an abundance 
of exercise each day. 



432 



HORSE 



HORSE 



During the breeding season, the grain ration 
should consist mainly of good, sound oats ; but this 
should be varied from time to time by a ration of 
corn, corn-and-cob meal, or perhaps barley. Wheat- 
bran is a valuable adjunct to the ration, and 
should never be dispensed with. It is rich in pro- 
tein, — an especially important element of nutrition 
for the stud, — and is the cheapest, safest and best 
of all regulators for the bowels. The roughness 
should consist of sweet clean hay, such as timothy 
or timothy and clover mixed. 

No specific directions as to quantity of food can 
be given. Some horses will require twice as much 
as others. As a rule, it will be safe to feed as 
much as the horse will eat with apparent relish ; 
and if he be given plenty of exercise he will not 
become too fat. The fact should be kept in mind 
that anything that adds to the health, strength and 
vigor of the horse will increase his reproductive 
powers, simply because the sexual organs will par- 
take of the general tone of the system ; and what- 
ever tends to impair the health and vigor will have its 
effect on the sexual organs as well. A horse in good 
condition needs nothing but sweet sound food admin- 
istered regularly, pure air and plenty of exercise. 

After the close of the season, the stallion should 
receive no mares ; if permitted to 
serve a mare occasionally he will 
be nervous and anxious, requiring 
the same attention as in the height 
of the season. When possible, he 
should be turned into a small pasture 
lot, securely fenced, adjoining his 
stall, and the door left open at all 
times except in extremely cold or 
stormy weather. If the lot affords 
sufficient grass, no other food need 
be given. At the approach of win- 
ter, when the grass begins to fail, 
he may be given a limited feed of 
grain each day, and all of the hay 
or corn stover that he will clean up 
nicely. In this way a stallion can be 
brought through the winter in an 
economicaland satisfactory manner. 



large firm is now feeding twice daily of mixed 
feed, — bran, shorts and oats, — and once of corn, with 
good clover hay. The general rule stated in the 
fore part of this article, that a horse should be 
provided with something over two pounds of prov- 
ender, of which one-half to two-thirds should be 
grain, for each hundred pounds of weight, and that 
the animal should have plenty of exercise, fails com- 
pletely in this method of feeding, as the animals are 
fed all they will consume and kept closely stabled 
and blanketed, with frequently no exercise what- 
ever. As a substitute for exercise, in order to keep 
the blood in good order, thus preventing stock-legs, 
glauber salts are often used. If mixed with oats or 
bran, the horse consumes them readily. These salts 
are fed once or twice a week. It is said that the 
salts aid in fattening and that they give the skin 
a soft, mellow touch. The average feeding period 
is ninety to one hundred days, and an average gain 
of three pounds per day is satisfactory. 

Feeding rations. 

Henry, in his "Feeds and Feeding," gives the 
following rations, from various sources, as a guide 
in determining the amount of feed that should be 
allowed the horse under various conditions: 



Character of animal and 
work required 



Trotting horse. — (Woodruff.; 

Colt, weaning time . . . 

Colt, one year old .... 

Colt, two years old . . . 

Colt, two years old, in 
training 

Colt, three years old, in 

training 

Trotting horse. — (Splan.) 

Horse on circuit .... 

Horse on circuit .... 



Concentrates 



Feeding horses for market. 

In certain parts of the country, 
feeding horses for the market has 
become as much a regular business 
as feeding steers. As in beef cat- 
tle, quality and fat go together in 
determining the price of the horse. 
Provided the horse is sound, it is 
hardly possible to get him so fat 
that buyers will object for that 
reason. We have said that exces- 
sive fattening, with little exercise, 
lessens the future usefulness of the 
horse. But the shrewd business 
man proposes to meet the demands 
of the market. 

The methods practiced in vari- 
ous parts of the country differ 
widely, as do the foods used. One 



Horse variously used. — 
(Stonehenge.) 

Race horse 

Hack 



Horse variously used. — 
(Fleming.) 
Pony 

Hunter, small 

Hunter, large 

Carriage, light work . . 
The draft horse. — (Sidney.) 

Heavy, hard work . . . 

Farm horse. — (Settegast.) 
Light work 



Medium work 
Heavy work . 



2 pounds oats 
4 pounds oats 
6 pounds oats 

8 pounds oats 

8-12 pounds oats 

10 pounds oats 
'15 pounds oats,"| 
in exceptional I 
cases (as with J 






Rarus) 



15 pounds oats 
8 pounds oats 



4 pounds oats 

12 pounds oats 
16 pounds oats 
10 pounds oats 

| 13 pounds oats 
■\ 6 pounds beans 
( 3 pounds corn 

6-10 pounds oats 
10 pounds oats 

13 pounds oats 



Roughage 



Hay ad lib. 
Hay ad lib. 
Hay ad lib. 

Hay, allowance limited 
Hay, allowance limited 
Hay, fair amount 
Hay, fair amount 



6-8 pounds hay 
12 pounds hay 



/ Hay, moderate allow- 
1 ance 

12 pounds hay 

10 pounds hay 

12 pounds hay 

15 pounds chaffed 
clover hay 

( 6-9 pounds hay 
) 3 pounds straw 
f 10 pounds hay 
X 3 pounds straw 
f 12 pounds hay 
\ 3 pounds straw 



HORSE 



HORSE 



433 



Literature. 

Literature consulted in the preparation of this 
article was as follows: Hayes, Stable Management; 
Henry, Feeds and Feeding ; Smith, Profitable Stock 
Feeding ; Sanders, Horse Breeding ; Woodruif, Trot- 
ting Horses in America; Report of the Kansas 
State Board of Agriculture, 1S99; Principles of 
Horse Feeding, Farmers' Bulletin No. 170, United 
States Department of Agriculture ; Feeding Farm 
Horses and Mules, Bulletin No. 189, North Carolina 
Agricultural Experiment Station; Feeding Horses 
and Mules, Bulletin No. 72, Florida Agricultural 
Experiment Station; Feeding Colts, Bulletin No. 
18, Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station ; Horse 
Feeding, Bulletin No. 92, New Jersey Agricultural 
Experiment Station ; Experiment Station Record. 

Determining the Age of Horses. Figs. 438-449. 

By H. H. Wing. 

The age of the horse is an important factor in 
determining his present and prospective value. 
Familiarity with the characters that most certainly 
indicate age are, therefore, often extremely useful. 
A knowledge of these characters is not difficult to 
secure, but skill in their application depends much 
on familiarity and continued practice. 

General considerations. 

In estimating the age of the horse, the teeth 
furnish the best index, yet there are other general 
considerations that play an important part, especi- 
ally in the case of young and very old animals. In 
very old horses, white hairs make their appearance 
around the temple, the eyes, the nostrils, and else- 
where ; the poll or top of the head becomes more 
pointed, the sides of the face more depressed, the 
supra-orbits hollowed out ; the back-bone becomes 
more prominent and often strongly curved down- 
ward, and the animal does not stand squarely on his 
legs, which show more wear. The lower jaws will 
be found much sharper in old animals than in 
young, because the teeth are so much more deeply 
incased in the alveoli in young animals. Little 
by little the teeth are pushed from their sockets in 
order to compensate for the loss occasioned by the 
friction of mastication, and at the same time the 
two borders of the lower jaw-bone are drawn to- 
ward each other. Another general indication is 
the appearance of knots or nodes on the side of the 
tail. These nodes are nothing more than promi- 
nences formed by the withering away of the flesh, 
thus leaving the transverse processes of the first 
coccygeal vertebra prominent. The first pair of 
these nodes should appear between thirteen and 
fourteen years of age ; the second should make its 
appearance between the sixteenth and seventeenth 
years ; and the third at about twenty-one years of 
age. Bear in mind, these considerations are general 
and to be considered as a whole ; each, alone, is of 
very little or no use. 

Examination of the teeth. 

While differences in the appearance of the teeth 
are considered the most important and the most 

C28 



accurate means of estimating the age of domestic, 
animals, and are the means employed by all horse- 
men, yet these are not absolutely accurate, and 
much depends on conditions as well as on the indi- 
viduality of the animal. The teeth of horses that 
have bones of a somewhat open structure, are likely 
to indicate that the horses are older than they really 
are ; while the teeth of horses whose bones are of 
fine, close texture, may indicate them to be younger 
than they are. Again, a horse fed on soft and suc- 
culent food is likely to show a young mouth, 
whereas one fed on hard, dry food is likely to show 
an older mouth. Thus, it is apparent that the tex- 
ture of the bones, the breeding, the kind of food the 
horse has eaten, and other conditions, have more or 
less influence on the teeth. 

The horse when full grown has forty teeth, 
twenty on either jaw, divided as follows : six inci- 
sors, two canines, one on either side, and twelve 
molars, six on either side. Since only the incisor 
or nipper teeth are inspected in estimating the age, 
they alone will be considered. It is the order in 
which they make their appearance that enables us 
to estimate the age up to five years, and the man- 
ner in which their surface is worn that aids us in 
the estimation from five to eight years of age. 
After the horse has passed the eighth year, it is 
sometimes difficult to determine his true age by 
the teeth. Those who are familiar with the method 
and in practice may come within a year or two of 
it until the horse becomes very old, when he may 
be said to be twelve or fifteen years past, for 
example, but how much past cannot be told with 
any degree of accuracy. 

The colt. — Since one is seldom called on to esti- 
mate the age of a colt under two and one-half or 
three years old, we will hasten over the earlier 
period rapidly by simply pointing out the condition 
of the teeth at one year of age. The colt is pro- 
vided before the end of the first year with a set of 
temporary or milk teeth. The difference in size of 
the jaw-bone between the foal and the grown horse 
makes a change from milk to permanent teeth nec- 
essary. During the first month after the colt is 
foaled, the temporary incisors make their appear- 
ance, the first or middle pair appearing at about 
one week of age ; the second or intermediate pair, 
at one week to two weeks of age, and the third or 
lateral pair appearing at about one month of age. 
When these teeth appear it will be noticed that 
they are long from right to left and have well- 
defined cups. The edges gradually wear down so 
that by the time the colt is at the full age of one 
year, the marks in the central incisors will be 
much shallower and fainter than they were at first. 
All of the incisors will be up and the corner ones 
will be worn level. It requires much care to deter- 
mine accurately the age of a colt after it has 
passed the first year and up to the time the central 
incisors are replaced by the permanent ones, which 
will be when the animal is two and one-half to 
three years of age. 

When the colt is shedding teeth, its mouth should 
be closely watched, and if the milk teeth have not 
disappeared when the permanent ones have pushed 



434 



HORSE 



HORSE 



through, they should be removed, as they only serve 
to irritate the gums and to prevent the animal 
consuming the proper amount of food. At this 
time a little extra food, such as moist cut hay or 
carrots, will greatly benefit the colt. 




Fig. 438. The lower nippers of Fig. 439. Lower nippers at 
the colt at two years old. three years of age. 

Two and one-half to three years old. — At about 
two years and nine months to two years and eleven 
months the central permanent incisors will appear, 
and at full three years of age the outer part of the 
teeth and sometimes the inner, also, will be up and 
in wear. (Fig. 439.) The permanent incisors are 
larger in every way than the temporary or milk 
teeth. By this age, the intermediate temporary 
incisors have worn down and lost all or nearly all 
their cups. There will be a slight black indentation 
that can hardly be called a cup. In the lateral or 
corner teeth, the cups are greatly reduced. If the 
colt be a male, small caps are likely to be present 
or in the process of coming through the skin of the 
jaw. These are called tusks. 

Four years old. — At about three years and nine 
months, the intermediate incisors appear. At four 
years of age, they are fully up and in wear on the 
outside, and sometimes on the inside. (Fig. 440.) 
The central incisors show one year's wear, and the 
cups are not so deep as they were when the colt 
was three years old. The cups have nearly or quite 
disappeared from the lateral or corner temporary 
incisors, often nothing but a slight dark indenta- 
tion being left. The tusks, if any, have enlarged, 
but are still sharp at their points and flatfish on 
the inside. A side view of a four-year old mouth is 
shown in Fig. 441. Note that the crowns of the 
two temporary or milk teeth, one upper and one 
lower, come together closely over their entire sur- 
face, while the two permanent teeth do not meet 
at their posterior 
corners. 




Fig. 440. Lower nippers at four 
years of age. 



Fig. 441. 

Side view of the teeti of 

a four-year-old horse. 



is full five years of age, the outer exterior parts 
of the teeth meet (Fig. 443), although almost one 
year of wear must take place before the lateral or 
corner teeth are worn level over their entire sur- 
face. At five years of age, the horse has a full 
mouth, and the central incisors have two years' 
wear. They have also changed slightly in shape, 
having become rounder on the inside. The inter- 
mediate incisors show one year's wear. The cups 
show in all, but are deepest and freshest in ap- 
pearance in the corner teeth. In about one year 
more they will disappear from the central incisors, 
and in two years from the intermediate incisors. 
The tusks have enlarged, but are not yet blunt. 

Six years old. — At six years old, the cups in the 
lower jaw have disappeared, or nearly so, from the 
central incisors, have become smaller in the inter- 
mediates, and the corner teeth are up and in full 
wear over their entire surface. (Figs. 444, 445.) 
Sometimes, however, a horse has "shelly" teeth, 
in which case the inside corner teeth may not be 
up and in wear; 
in fact, they may 
never come up, 
but always have 
the appearance of 
corner teeth that 
are not fully up. 
The center inci- 
sors have made 
marked changes in 
shape, becoming 
roundish on the 
inside, and the in- 
termediates are 




Fig. 442. Lower nippers of a 
five-year-old horse. 




Fig. 443. 
Side view of the teeth of a 
five-year-old horse. 



Five years old. — At the age of about four years 
and nine months, the permanent corner incisors 
make their appearance. (Fig. 442.) When the horse 



also somewhat modified. 
If the horse's lips are 
parted and the mouth 
viewed from the front, it 
will be noted that the 
central ones will appear 
much darker colored and 
longer than they did at 
three or four. This is due 
to the shrinking or re- 
ceding of the gums. In 
this connection, compare Figs. 439, 440, 442. 

Seven years old. — At seven years of age, the cups 
in the lower jaw have disappeared from the inter- 
mediate incisors, although small dark spots may 
often be seen. The corner teeth still retain their 
cups, although they are rather shallow. It is well 
to bear in mind that, from the time when the teeth 
in the lower jaw are well up and in wear to the 
time the cups have disappeared in the lower jaw, is 
three years. The teeth in the upper jaw retain 
their cups a much longer time, — in fact, just twice 
as long, disappearing in six years from the time 
they made their appearance. 

A side view of a seven-year-old mouth shows 
one marked characteristic. The lower corner teeth 
seldom extend as far backward as the upper ones. 
(Fig. 446.) Only in rare cases do all four corner 
teeth meet accurately. The result is that the face 
of the tooth in the rear recedes, while that part of 



HORSE 



HORSE 



435 



the tooth not in wear projects downward, forming 

more or less of a notch. 

Eight years old. — At eight years of age, the cups 

have disappeared from the teeth in the lower jaw. 
One must not be 
misled by the slight 
dark-colored inden- 




Fig. 444. Lower nippers of a 
six-year-old horse. 



Fig. 445. Side view of the teeth 
of a six-year-old horse. 



tations that are still present, for they are not deep 
enough to be called cups. (Fig. 447.) The shape 
of the teeth has undergone marked changes. (Com- 
pare Fig. 439 with Fig. 447.) In the first place, 
the teeth were thin from outside to inside, and com- 
paratively broad from right to left, while in the 
latter case they are much thicker from inside to 
outside — they have become more triangular in 
shape. If viewed from the side, they will appear 
somewhat longer and will meet at a sharper angle 
than they did when the horse was younger. As 
age advances, the angle of the teeth decreases. 
At three years of age, the upper and the lower 
teeth meet nearly vertical with each other, while 
at twenty they meet at an angle of only 45°. 

Nine years old. — At nine years of age, the cups 
will have disappeared from the upper central inci- 
sors, and be shallow 
in the intermediate, 
and fairly deep in 
the corners. The 
cups are not likely 
to disappear at as 
regular intervals in 
the upper jaw as 
they did in the lower. 
Therefore, it is not 
always possible to 
tell the age of the 
horse within a year or two after he has passed his 
eighth year. Horses with soft bones may show a 
mouth older than they really are, while those with 
hard dense bones may show a mouth younger than 
they are. 

Ten years old. — At ten years of age, the 
cups have disappeared from the upper inter- 
mediates, but are still in the corners, although 
shallow. The teeth are more triangular in 
shape, and those of the upper and lower jaw 
meet at a sharper angle as the age increases. 
Eleven years old. — At eleven years of age, 
the cups have all disappeared from the upper 
jaw. However, because of the fact that some 
animals have denser bones than others, it is 
not uncommon to find shallow cups in the 
upper corner teeth as late as the twelfth or 
the fifteenth year. The shape and angle of the 




Fig. 446. Side view of the nippers 
of a seven-year-old horse. 



incisors will enable a close judge not to be much 
deceived. 

After the horse has passed the twelfth year, the 
matter of two or three years amounts to little. 
Much depends on the individuality of the animal, 
as some animals are worth more at eighteen years 
than others are at fourteen. One's judgment of 
the value of a horse at these ages should be 
formed on general appearances and activi- 
ties, rather than on age, which cannot be 
accurately determined by an examination 
of the teeth. One may distinguish between 
a horse that is moderately old and one that 
is very old, but after the horse has reached 
his eighth year, the teeth do not accu- 
rately indicate his age. 

In old horses, the incisor teeth have be- 
come nearly triangular, and they show long 
wear. The tusks are large, blunt and round ; the 
front ends of the teeth have been broken off, and 
they meet at an acute angle. These differences are 
well illustrated in Figs. 448, 449. The teeth may 
have grown out so 
long as to prevent 
the double teeth 
from meeting, in 
which case the 
horse will spit out 
his food after he 
has masticated a 
part of it. If the 
incisors are rasped 
off on their pos- 
terior edges, the 
grinders will then 
meet and life will 
be somewhat pro- 
longed. 

Irregularities in teeth. — Thus far we have con- 
sidered the teeth as regular. It often happens that 
the teeth are not regular. When these irregulari- 
ties exist, the horse is said to have a false mouth. 
While many of the irregularities are without 
importance, there are certain others which should 
be taken into consideration. They are important in 
their physiological relations as well as in estimating 
age. These irregularities occur in the number : 
there may be more or less than the regular number 
— thirty-six in mares, or forty in horses. Or, the 
irregularities may occur in the form of the incisors 
or through the uniting of two incisors ; they may 
occur because one jaw happens to be longer or 
shorter than the other ; they 
may occur as a result of 




Fig. 447. The lower incisor, or nipper 
teeth, of an eight-year-old horse. 




Fig. 448. The lower incisor 
teeth of an old horse. 



Fig. 449. A side view of the nip- 
pers of an old horse. 



436 



HORSE 



HORSE 



cribbing — some horses have the bad habit of bit- 
ing the stall fixtures or other surrounding objects, 
thus breaking off the free borders of the teeth, 
which make the teeth irregular and which must 
not be confused with normal wear. Such cases can 
usually be recognized by the broken-off particles 
and the roughed surface. Then, again, irregulari- 
ties may result from the employment of fraudulent 
means, the horseman striving to give the mouth 
the characteristics of that period of life in which 
the animals have their greatest value, and endeav- 
oring to make the young appear old and the old 
appear young. It is ordinarily easy to detect a 
mouth that has been tampered with. If the abnor- 
mal wear has been produced by a file, the marks of 
the latter can be seen on the teeth. If, after hav- 
ing made a surface artificially, the latter be pol- 
ished to remove the marks, the fraud can be de- 
tected by the fact that the enamel is just on a 
level with the dentine. 

After the teeth have once been tampered with, 
they no longer serve as an index in estimating age. 
The dental tables, the cups and the like, have in 
most cases been partly or wholly destroyed. A 
person estimating the age of such animals must 
rely on general indications, such as gray hairs 
about the temple, eyes, nostrils ; the pointed poll ; 
the depressed face ; the sunken supra-orbits ; the 
prominent back-bone ; the sway back ; the sharp 
lower jaw ; the nodes in the tail, and the angle at 
which the teeth in the upper and lower jaws meet, 
as well as the shape of the teeth, which, as we 
have pointed out, become more triangular as the 
animal advances in age. 

Literature. 

Much attention and study has been given to the 
question of estimating the ages of horses by their 
dentition, and discussions of the methods will be 
found in many books devoted to the horse. Men- 
tion is made here of two works in which the subject 
is discussed carefully : Gaubaux and Barrier, The 
Exterior of the Horse, translated by S. J. J. Harger, 
J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia ; Roberts, 
The Horse, Macmillan Company, New York. [For 
further references, see page 416.] 

Common Ailments of Horses. Figs. 450-459. 

By John R. Mohler and George H. Hart. 

In this article only the sporadic or non-infectious 
diseases of horses will be discussed, together with 
the best-known methods of treatment. Diseases of 
this class affect only one or two animals in a stable 
at one time, and do not spread through a stable or 
herd from one animal to another. As was noted 
under the ailments of cattle, in many cases it is 
advisable to employ a veterinarian to treat ailing 
animals, as the slightest carelessness or misjudg- 
ment may result fatally. While it is highly desir- 
able for the farmer to be able to diagnose the 
ailments of his stock, and to be able to treat the 
less serious disabilities, he will generally find it to 
his advantage to employ skilled assistance for cases 
which may involve the life of the animal or which 



are liable to produce much suffering. It is well to 
be on the safe side. 

Temperature. 

In order to restore diseased animals to health, it 
is necessary to know the character of the disease 
affecting them. It follows that the ability to make 
a correct diagnosis is the fundamental principle on 
which the treatment of the disease is based. In 
the domesticated animals, we are unable to obtain 
knowledge directly from the patient, as to where 
the trouble is located ; and, therefore, we are com- 
pelled to make a diagnosis, by carefully noting the 
symptoms produced. Among the more important 
symptoms that will be referred to frequently in dis- 
cussing the following diseases, are abnormal tem- 
peratures, pulse rates and respiratory movements. 

In the first place, a knowledge of the tempera- 
ture of an animal assists in making a diagnosis ; 
second, it keeps one posted as to how the case is 
progressing ; third, in some diseases, as influenza, 
swine plague and Texas fever, it is the first symp- 
tom denoting the approach of the disease. The 
normal temperature of the various animals is as 
follows [See also page 21]: 

Horse 99.5° to 101.3° Fahr. 

Ox 100.4° to 102.2° Fahr. 

Sheep 102.2° to 104° Fahr. 

Hog 100.4° to 104° Fahr. 

Dog 99.5° to 102.2° Fahr. 

In order to ascertain the temperature, it is nec- 
essary to be provided with an ordinary clinical 
thermometer. The end to be inserted should be 
covered with vaseline or lard. It is placed in the 
rectum for three to five minutes. Accompanying 
fever there are always chills, an increase in the 
number of heart-beats per minute, loss of appetite 
and general nervous depression. Care should be 
taken not to miscalculate the reading of a high 
temperature in the horse after the animal has been 
doing heavy work on a warm day, or in other 
animals when they become greatly excited during 
the taking of the temperature. In horses, the tem- 
perature, even in most severe diseases, rarely 
passes 107° Fahr., except in cases of heat stroke, 
when it has been known to reach 110° Fahr. The 
highest normal temperatures are always recorded 
in the afternoon, and the lowest in the morning. 

A subnormal temperature is rare in diseases of 
animals. The most striking and constant example 
of this is seen in milk-fever in the cow. Sometimes 
a subnormal temperature is recorded in cases when 
the thermometer has not been inserted far enough, 
or when the passing of feces has taken place just 
prior to the taking of the temperature, both of 
which conditions should be carefully guarded 
against. 

Pulse. 

The average normal pulse frequency in animals 
is as follows [See also page 21]: 

Horse, 28 to 40 Sheep, 70 to 90 

Mule, 45 to 50 Swine, 60 to 100 

Cattle, 40 to 80 Dogs, 60 to 120 



HORSE 



HORSE 



437 



In disease, the character, frequency and regu- 
larity of the pulse may be altered. It is usually 
increased in frequency, although in chronic brain 
troubles a reduction in the number of beats per 
minute may be observed. In all febrile diseases, 
and in severe hemorrhages, the number of beats 
per minute serves to guide one in judging the 
strength of the heart. When the pulse of the horse 
exceeds 100 per minute, the chances of recovery 
are very slight. By the regularity of the pulse is 
meant the following of the beats in regular order 
with the same period of time elapsing between 
them. In an irregular pulse, a beat is dropped now 
and then, or an extra one may be counted in. An 
irregular pulse is seen normally in dogs, and occurs 
also in horses when the pulse is very high during 
the course of febrile diseases. 

Respiration. 

The frequency of respiratory movements per 
minute in animals is as follows [See also page 21]: 



Horse, 8 to 16 
Ox, 10 to 30 
Sheep, 12 to 20 



Swine, 10 to 20 
Dog, 10 to 30 
Goat, 12 to 20 



Normally, respiration is noiseless, although at 
times fat cattle may grunt after feeding ; and 
lively horses and cattle may snort when startled. 
In disease, various sounds may be heard, among 
the more important of which is the wheezing sound 
from the nose, caused by a narrowing of this 
region, due to tumors or enlargements of the bone. 
A rattling sound comes from the region of the 
throat when the vocal cords are relaxed, as is heard 
in sore throat. The most important respiratory 
sound, perhaps, comes from the larynx and gener- 
ally is increased in volume by violent exercise. It 
is heard in horses affected with what is commonly 
known as "roaring," and varies in pitch from a 
whistling to a roaring tone. Groaning is heard 
when expiration is attempted through a partially 
closed voice-box, and also in painful diseases affect- 
ing the chest, as pneumonia and pleurisy. 

Urticaria or hives. 

Urticaria, also called nettle rash or hives, is an 
affection of horses and other animals resulting from 
a number of causes, and characterized by the erup- 
tion of various-sized swellings (wheals) on the skin. 
The disease is most common in young animals in 
good condition. It occurs usually in the spring, 
during rainy, muggy weather, with high humidity. 
Not infrequently cases occur without any ascer- 
tainable cause. 

In the majority of instances, the disease is the 
direct result of some digestive disorders ; and cer- 
tain foods, as buckwheat, new oats, green potatoes, 
are especially liable to produce the eruption. Such 
disorders, however, are followed by urticaria in a 
very small percentage of cases, and consequently 
some co-existing condition is necessary, which is 
thought to be some abnormal irritability of the 
nerves supplying the blood-vessels in the skin. 

The disease is peculiar in the suddenness of its 
onset. The owner's attention is attracted to the 



animal by the swellings on the skin, which spread* 
with great rapidity, and in a few hours may be 
generally scattered over the body. They vary in' 
size from a half-inch to two inches in diameter ; 
and in some cases, several may become confluent 
and the resulting swelling attain the size of a din- 
ner-plate. The edges of the swellings are cut off 
sharply from the surrounding tissues. They are 
supposed to be due to a spasm of the blood-vessel 
walls, with rapid leakage of blood serum therefrom, 
being therefore localized edematous infiltrations of 
the skin; The eruption is also accompanied with 
marked itching, but there is no tendency to rupture 
or to suppuration. 

The disease is usually without fever and of short 
duration, often entirely disappearing after one or 
two days. Such animals, however, are liable to 
subsequent attacks. 

Treatment. — Food should be withheld for twenty- 
four hours, after which bran mashes and small 
quantities of hay may be given. The digestive tract 
should be evacuated by the administration of a 
quart of linseed oil or one and one-half pounds of 
Epsom salts. The local application of alkaline solu- 
tions, as one tablespoonful of sodium bicarbonate 
to a quart of water, or a weak solution of ammonia, 
will relieve the itching. Recovery is rapid, and the 
swelling usually disappears in a few hours to two 



Heat-stroke. 

This is a condition seen principally in horses, 
but also at times affecting cattle and sheep on long 
drives. It is due to excessive heating of the entire 
body, thereby differing from sun-stroke, which is 
due to the direct action of the sun's rays on the 
head and is rare in animals. Heat-stroke is seen 
only in the hot summer months and usually affects 
draft horses. The attack comes on much more 
gradually than in sun -stroke. The animal stops 
sweating, appears droopy in the harness, drags 
along for a short distance, but soon goes down and 
becomes unconscious. The breathing is rapid and 
shallow, the pulse rapid and weak, and the body 
temperature excessively high, sometimes reaching 
110° or 111 Fahr. 

Treatment. — The treatment must be very ener- 
getic and directed toward the immediate reduction 
of bodily temperature, as the animal can stand 
this excessively high temperature only for a very 
short time, if he is to recover. Ice-bags should be 
applied to the head and cold water poured over the 
body from buckets or, better, from a hose. This 
will reduce the temperature of the skin, but at the 
same time, it is essential to stimulate the weak 
heart in order to increase circulation, and especi- 
ally the circulation in the skin where heat-radia- 
tion takes place. For this purpose, one-half pint of 
whiskey should be given immediately, followed by 
tincture of digitalis in one -dram doses by the 
mouth, or one-half-dram doses subcutaneously. In 
the latter method of administration, the action is 
quicker. The cold water should be continued until 
the temperature is reduced to 102° to 103° Fahr., 
when it should be withheld and applied again only 



438 



HORSE 



HORSE 



in case the temperature rises. The limbs should be 
rubbed briskly with straw or the hands. Bleed- 
ing an animal affected with heat-stroke is a 
very bad practice and should always be discour- 
aged. Recovery is gradual and is prolonged over a 
week or two, during which time the animal should 
have general tonic treatment and be returned to 
heavy work gradually. 

Periodic ophthalmia (Moon blindness). 

Moon blindness is an ailment affecting the horse 
alone of all the domestic animals. It is an inflam- 
mation of the interior of the eyeball, usually affect- 
ing only one eye at a time, one attack of which is 
almost sure to be followed by subsequent ones, and 
leading eventually to complete loss of sight. 

The exact cause of this disease is unknown. 
Various parasites have been said to be instrumental 
in its production, but none has been proved to have 
a direct causative effect. However, it is especially 
common in damp, marshy soils and seems to be 
especially prevalent after wet seasons. Heredity is 
also supposed to play some part in its production. 
This, however, is not positive, as foals from affected 
dams or sires, if taken to another locality, where 
the disease does not exist, may not be attacked. 
Animals are subject to the disease at any time of 
life, but the largest percentage of cases occurs in 
horses under six years of age. 

The disease appears very suddenly, sometimes 
over night. There is great irritation in the affected 
eyeball, sensitiveness to light and an excessive 
flow of tears, the eye being kept continuously 
closed, and drawn back into the eye socket. The 
conjunctiva or mucous membrane on the inside of 
the eyelid is very red, swollen, and may protrude 
between the closed lids. The blood-vessels around 
the eyeball are enlarged, and the eyeball is cloudy. 
After this has existed for a few days, healing usu- 
ally begins. The sensitiveness to light diminishes, 
and the excessive secretion of tears lessens. How- 
ever, some signs of the inflammation usually remain. 
In two weeks after the first attack, the eye may 
appear normal, but within varying periods of time 
another attack occurs, each attack producing 
greater and greater change, until finally sight is 
completely lost. Later, in about 25 per cent of the 
cases, the other eye becomes attacked in the same 
way. The outlook for recovery is poor. 

Treatment. — Preventive treatment is most suc- 
cessful. The attendant should remove foals to a 
place where the disease is not prevalent. There is 
no good medicinal treatment for the disease. The 
old methods of bleeding from the eye, setoning and 
blistering, are of no value, and should not be used. 
Treatment consists in keeping the animal in the 
dark, and washing off the eye several times daily 
with a 4 per cent solution of boric acid. A few 
drops of this solution may also be dropped into 
the eye with good results. Ice poultices may be 
used over the eye for the first three or four days, 
after which warmth should be applied by covering 
the eye with cotton soaked in warm water, and 
kept in place by means of a flannel hood placed 
around the head. In recent years, the administra- 



tion of potassium iodid, one to two drams daily, 
has been recommended. 

Lampas or lumpers. 

This is a condition in which the mucous membrane 
in the roof of the mouth becomes congested with 
blood and protrudes below the incisor teeth. It is 
frequently observed temporarily at the time of eat- 
ing. In some cases, however, it may become exces- 
sive, especially in colts during the eruption of the 
permanent teeth, when it may be relieved by mak- 
ing a few shallow punctures in the mucous mem- 
brane with a sharp knife that has been sterilized. 
Such treatment demands expert care. Searing the 
roof of the mouth with a hot iron is very cruel, 
and never of any value. It is only on the rarest 
occasions that any treatment is necessary. This 
ailment is not common. 

Osteoporosis, or bighead. 

Osteoporosis is a general disease of the bones, 
which develops slowly, and is characterized by the 
absorption of the compact bony substance, and the 
formation of enlarged, softened and porous bone. 
It is particularly manifest in the bones of the head, 
causing enlargement and bulging of the face and 
jaws, thereby giving rise to the terms, "bighead" 
and "swelled head," which are applied to it. In the 
United States the disease has been found in all the 
states bordering the Delaware river and Chesa- 
peake bay, in some of the New England states, and 
in many of the southern states, especially along 
the coast in regions of low altitude. The idea that 
the disease is contagious has been advanced by 
many writers, although no causative agent has 
been isolated. 

Probably the first symptom to be noticed is a 
loss of vitality combined with an irregular appe- 
tite or other digestive disturbance, and with a 
tendency to stumble while 
in action. These earlier 
symptoms, however, may 
pass unobserved, and the 
appearance of an intermit- 
tent or migratory lame- 
ness without any visible 
cause may be the first 
sign to attract attention. 
About this time, swelling 
of the bones of the face 
and jaw, which is almost 
constantly present in this 
disease, will be observed. 
(Fig. 450.) The bones of 
the lower jaw are the 
most frequently involved, 
and this condition is read- 
ily detected with the fin- 
gers by the bulging ridge 
of the bone outside and 
along the lower edge of the molar teeth. A thicken- 
ing of the lower jaw-bone may likewise be identi- 
fied by feeling on both sides of each branch at the 
same time and comparing it with the thinness of 
this bone in a normal horse. Other bones of the 




Fig. 450. Bighead 
{Osteoporotic). 



HORSE 



HORSE 



439 



body will undergo similar changes, but these alter- 
ations are not so readily noticed except by the 
symptoms they occasion. The animal becomes poor 
in flesh, the coat is rough and lusterless, and the 
skin tight and harsh, producing a condition termed 
"hidebound," with considerable "tucking up" of the 
abdomen. The horse shows a short, stilted, choppy 
gait, which later becomes stiffer and more restricted, 
while on standing, a position simulating that in 
founder is assumed, with a noticeable drop to the 
croup. The animal at this stage usually lies down 
and remains recumbent for several days at a time. 
Bed-sores frequently arise and fractures are not 
uncommon, in consequence of attempts to arise, 
which complications, in addition to emaciation, 
result in death. 

Treatment. — The affected animal should be imme- 
diately placed under new conditions, both as to 
feed and surroundings. If the horse has been 
stable fed, it is advisable to turn him out on grass 
for two or three months, preferably in a higher 
altitude. If the disease has been contracted while 
running on pasture, the animal should be placed in 
the stable or corral. In the early stages of the 
disease, beneficial results have followed the supple- 
mental use of lime in the drinking-water. One 
peck of lime, slaked in a cask of water and addi- 
tional water added from time to time, is satis- 
factory and can be provided at slight expense. 
This treatment may be supplemented by giving a 
tablespoonful of powdered bone meal in each feed, 
with free access to a large piece of rock salt ; or 
the bone may be given with four tablespoonfuls of 
molasses mixed with the food. Feeds containing 
mineral salts, such as beans, cowpeas, oats and 
cottonseed meal, may prove beneficial in replenish- 
ing the bony substance that is being absorbed. 
Cottonseed meal is one of the best feeds for this 
purpose, but it should be fed carefully. The 
animal should not be allowed to work at all during 
the active stage of the disease, nor should it be 
used for breeding purposes. 

Rheumatism. 

Rheumatism is a painful febrile disease, affect- 
ing both the muscles and joints, and seen princi- 
pally in the horse, ox and dog. The exact cause of 
the disease is unknown, although many theories 
have been advanced. As predisposing causes may 
be mentioned dampness and chilling. In the horse 
and ox it usually affects the muscles and joints of 
the extremities. It rarely becomes generalized 
(spread over the entire body) in any of the domes- 
tic animals. 

The animal attacked suddenly becomes stiff and 
lame, followed by a rise of temperature (104° Fahr.). 
A swelling appears around one or more of the 
joints of the legs, which is exceedingly painful to 
the touch. The point of localization changes fre- 
quently, and one day the animal may show lame- 
ness in one joint, as for example, in the hock, and 
on the following day the hip or even the opposite 
leg may be affected. The attacks are also inter- 
mittent, and the animal may go sound for two or 
three days between them. The death rate is very 



low, as the disease rarely proves fatal when uncom- 
plicated. 

Treatment. — First of all, a cathartic should be 
administered. Aloes balls containing 7 drams of 
aloes for the horse and 1 to 1J pounds of Epsom 
salts for the cow will give good results. At the 
same time, great benefit may be secured by thor- 
ough rubbing of the affected joints or muscles 
with some stimulating liniment, as camphor or 
chlorofoi'm liniment, which can be purchased ready- 
prepared at any drug-store. In this treatment, the 
rubbing does equally as much service as the lini- 
ment. The cathartic should be followed by some 
antirheumatic medicines, as the salicylates, given 
principally in the form of sodium salicylate. For 
the horse and the cow, 6 to 8 drams may be given 
two or three times daily in the food. In the sheep, 
dog and pig, J to 2 drams should be dissolved in 
water and given as a drench. During the treat- 
ment the animal should be kept in a dry place, and 
have plenty of fresh air. 

Colic. 

Colic is a collective term applied to all forms of 
pain in the digestive tract. The term " false " colic 
is frequently given to pain affecting the abdominal 
organs, as the liver, kidney and bladder. It is a 
very common disease, as in horses it forms about 
10 per cent of all their ailments, and about 10 to 
15 per cent of the affected animals die. 

From the anatomical arrangement of the digest- 
ive tract, especially of the stomach, which does 
not allow of vomiting, the horse is more subject 
to colic than any other animal. Eating at irregu- 
lar intervals, overloading of the stomach or pro- 
longed absence of food, the presence of worms in 
large numbers in the alimentary canal and fermen- 
tation in the intestinal tract, due to the ingestion 
of new corn or hay, or sour decayed food, are 
causes. Sometimes the intestines become displaced 
or may become telescoped on themselves during 
unusual exertion ; or a loop of the gut may pass 
down through the inguinal canal, causing the 
blood-supply to be shut oft" as a result of pressure, 
and giving rise to a rapidly fatal form of colic. 

The symptoms are mainly those of pain. If the 
animal is in harness, he lags and stops ; if urged 
forward, he will lie down in the shafts; if in the 
stable, he stops eating and walks around the box- 
stall restlessly. The animal looks around at the 
side, kicks at the belly, and may grit the teeth. 
The tail gets a peculiar crook in it and is held 
extended. The animal gathers its feet together as 
if to lie down, and when apparently it is going 
down it suddenly straightens up again ; or it may 
lie down, roll, kick, and at times when the pain 
is severe may make very violent movements, as 
slamming the head against the ground or biting at 
itself or the manger. The attacks are sometimes 
intermittent and the animal will appear to be 
eased and may start eating, but this is only tem- 
porary. There may be fermentation in the intes- 
tines, with consequent gas formation, and great 
distention of the abdomen may occur. The patients 
are usually constipated and intestinal movements 



440 



HORSE 



HORSE 



lessened or entirely stopped. The rectum is fre- 
quently filled with dry, hard feces. The duration 
of colic is usually short, varying from a few 
i minutes to several hours. If the pain is continuous 
for twenty-four hours the outlook for recovery is 
grave. 

Treatment. — First of all, the animal should be 
given plenty of room in a large stall or shed, the 
floor of which should be covered with an abundance 
of straw in order to prevent the animal producing 
permanent injuries to itself during its violent 
movements. Sometimes, especially in chronic colic, 
walking exercise is to be recommended. One must 
use judgment in this respect, -as there are many 
cases of colic in which the animals are much 
better if allowed to remain quiet. The internal 
treatment should be directed toward allaying the 
pain. For this purpose, cannabis indica, one to two 
ounces, may be given ; or morphine sulfate, five to 
seven grains, given subcutaneously. Larger doses 
of either should not be given, as cannabis indica 
stops intestinal movements and morphine in larger 
than seven - grain doses in the horse produces 
excitement instead of quiet. The following is an 
excellent prescription for many forms of colic : 

Fluid extract cannabis indica .... 4 drams 

Tincture opium 6 drams 

Sulfuric ether 1 ounce 

Sweet spirits of niter 1 ounce 

Give in one dose and repeat if necessary in one 
hour. The intestines must be stimulated, for which 
purpose eight drams of aloes or one pint of linseed- 
oil may be given. Injections of lukewarm water 
into the rectum after cleaning out the fecal matter 
with the hand will sometimes stimulate the intes- 
tinal movements. In fermentation colic with gas 
formation, tapping the animal is the quickest and 
surest method of getting relief. A sterile trocar 
is necessary for this operation. The puncture is 
made on the right side midway between the angle 
of the haunch, the spinalcolumn, and the border of 
the last rib. The skin should be washed with a 
5 per cent carbolic acid solution or some other 
antiseptic and the trocar pushed through the skin 
into the intestine. The stilette should then be 
withdrawn, leaving the canula in place through 
which the gas escapes. When all the gas is evacu- 
ated, the stilette is again inserted and the instru- 
ment withdrawn. This can be repeated if gas con- 
tinues to form, care being taken not to push the 
instrument in the same place twice. 

Thumps. 

This term has been applied to peculiar throbbing 
movements of the sides of the chest, caused by 
spasmodic contractions of the diaphragm. It is 
analogous to hiccoughs in man. The condition is 
easily recognized, the only thing with which it 
could be confused being palpitation of the heart. 
In thumps, however, the movements involve the 
whole side of the chest and are entirely independent 
of the heart-beats and less frequent. The breathing 
is rapid, jerky and incomplete. By placing the hand 
on the chest near the last rib, which is opposite the 



insertion of the diaphragm, the contractions may 
be felt as distinct throbs against the fingers. The 
condition may last for only a few minutes, or may 
continue for several days, lead to congestion of 
the lungs, and terminate fatally. 

Treatment. — Frequently a single dose of some 
antispasmodic, as 4 drams of asafetida, or 5 ounces 
of the milk of asafetida, will relieve the condition. 
If this is not successful, nerve sedatives, as mor- 
phine sulfate, 5 grains, or potassium bromid, 1 
ounce, should be administered. In obstinate cases, 
a purgative dose of 8 drams of aloes or 1 pound of 
Glauber's salts, should be given. 

Heaves. 

This is a disease of the lungs of horses, due to a loss 
of elasticity and permanent distention of the walls 
of the minute air-sacs in the lungs. Horses that 
stop and start a great deal, as milk-wagon horses, 
are predisposed to the affection. Clover hay and 
various other bulky foods containing little nutri- 
tive elements, and thus requiring the ingestion of 
large quantities to supply the needs of the animal, 
are also considered a cause. 

One of the first symptoms of the disease is the 
distressing dry cough which frequently occurs in 
paroxysms. It can best be produced by giving the 
animal a drink of cold water, or by bringing it 
suddenly from a warm stable into the cold outdoor 
air. There is also present the characteristic double 
respiration, and the expired air comes from the 
nose in two jets, with a pause between them ; the 
flank movements are pronounced, and the anus is 
forced backward at each expiration. Inspiration 
is usually normal. 

Treatment. — The condition is incurable, and all 
medicinal agents are only palliative. The greatest 
benefit is to be derived from the regulation of the 
diet. All dusty hay should be withheld, and only 
small quantities of the best timothy hay given, 
which should be well sprinkled with lime or mo- 
lasses water. Nutritious concentrated foods should 
be given so that relatively small quantities will be 
required, as the less aliment in the digestive tract 
the more easily the animal can breathe. Corn, oats 
and bran, with carrots, turnips or apples mixed in, 
are good. Keep out on pasture when possible, away 
from the dust of the stable. Do not allow the ani- 
mal to drink water just before a drive. 

Medicinally, arsenic is good for a time, given in 
the form of arsenious acid, three grains, three 
times daily in the food. As arsenic is poisonous its 
general use is not advised. Fowler's Solution would 
be safer in this instance. Constipation should be 
avoided, and when any tendency in that direction 
is noticed, one and one-half pints of linseed oil, or 
a pound of Glauber's salts should be given as a 
drench. 

Laryngitis or sore throat. 

This is an inflammation of the lining membrane 
of the larynx (voice-box), caused by exposure, chil- 
ling, cold air, and also by the inhalation of irritant 
vapors as smoke or chlorine gas. It is classified 
according ,to the duration of the affection into 



HORSE 



HORSE 



441 



acute and chronic laryngitis. In the acute form, 
there is a rise of temperature with general symp- 
toms of depression and a constant, more or less 
painful cough. The animal coughs on the slightest 
pressure in the region of the throat, when allowed 
to drink cold water, or when excited from any 
cause. If the ear is placed against the upper part 
of the neck, just back of the jaws, a gurgling 
sound may sometimes be heard. The sound is pro- 
duced by the to and fro movement of fluid in the 
larynx at each inspiration and expiration. The 
head is held stiffly and extended on the neck, and 
a discharge appears from both nostrils, accompanied 
by fluid in the larynx. 

Treatment. — The best results are obtained by 
means of local applications. Toward this end, 
absorbent cotton soaked in warm water should be 
placed around the throat and evaporation prevented 
by means of oiled silk or rubber cloth on the out- 
side, which is kept in place by means of a bed-tick- 
ing bandage passed around the head and tied over 
the poll. Internally, a mixture containing potas- 
sium chlorate 1 dram, codiene hydrochlorate 2 
grains, powdered licorice-root 5 drams, and suffi- 
cient honey or molasses to make a soft paste, should 
be spread over the tongue or teeth twice daily. 
Potassium iodid, J dram, s^\ 

two or three times daily, 
is also valuable. In se- 
vere cases showing no 
tendency to improvement, 
steaming is to be recom- 
mended. This is accom- 
plished as follows : The 
bottom of a large bran 
sack is covered with a 
thick layer of bran. A 
bucket of water is heated 
to the boiling-point, three 
or four ounces of creolin 
added, and the whole 
poured quickly into the 
sack on the bran. The 
open end of the sack is 
then immediately tied 
around the horse's head, 
so that the animal will 
have to inhale the steam that rises inside the sack. 
(Fig. 451.) This may be done twice daily, and may 
be very beneficial in its effects. 

Bronchitis. 

Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial 
tubes. The causative agents are very similar to 
those causing laryngitis, as chilling, sudden inhala- 
tion of cold air, standing in draughts, or the inhal- 
ation of smoke and other irritating gases or vapors. 
It also frequently results from an extension of a 
preexisting inflammation of the larynx in laryngitis. 

The disease is ushered in with a rise of tempera- 
ture, and the animal becomes droopy, the appetite 
is reduced and breathing is rapid. This rise of tem- 
perature varies with the severity of the attack, and 
may reach 106° Fahr. The cough is painful, barking, 
and comes from deep down in the respiratory tract. 




Fig. 451. Steaming a horse 
for sore throat. 



In the beginning stages it is dry, later becoming 
moist and accompanied by a nasal discharge. 
The duration of ordinary uncomplicated bronchitis 
usually extends over a period varying from one to 
three weeks and terminates in recovery. 

Treatment. — The general surroundings should be 
good. Keep the animal in a cool place in summer 
and a sheltered place in winter. Tempt the appe- 
tite, which is likely to be fickle, with different kinds 
of food, as bran mash, oats and grass, until some- 
thing is found that it will eat. Steaming the ani- 
mal as described under laryngitis is to be highly 
recommended. 

In order to prevent the spread of the inflamma- 
tion into the air-sacs, and also to arrest the forma- 
tion of fluid, a mustard plaster should be applied to 
the sides of the chest. Mix about one-fourth-pound 
of mustard in one pint of water and rub over the 
sides of the chest, being careful not to get it under 
the front legs where the skin is soft and the irrita- 
tion it causes is very great. A mustard plaster of 
this strength need not be washed off and may be 
repeated in two or three days. Mustard plasters 
must be used with caution, as they are very likely 
to leave a blemish. 

Internally, a paste consisting of ammonium 
chlorid 1 dram, morphine sulfate 3 grains, pow- 
dered licorice root 6 drams, and sufficient molasses 
to make a soft mass, should be spread over the 
tongue twice daily. General stimulants, such as 
alcohol 2 ounces, tincture of digitalis 1 dram, may 
be given in cases of heart weakness. During the 
course of the disease a bucket of cold water should 
be kept constantly before the animal. If the dis- 
ease tends to become chronic, potassium iodid in 
one-half-dram doses, or arsenious acid in three-grain 
doses, should be given twice daily over a period of 
two weeks. 

Pneumonia. 

Pneumonia is a common disease of the horse, 
usually involving a lobe or even an entire lung. The 
lung becomes solid and of the consistency of liver, 
due to the filling of the air-sacs with exudate. Ill 
health, excessive excretion and chilling are predis- 
posing causes, while the direct cause is a micro- 
organism. 

The onset is sudden, with chill and very high 
fever, 105° or 106° Fahr., depression, muscular weak- 
ness, short dry cough, and increased pulse and 
respiratory rate. Physical signs are present on 
examination of the chest. The temperature remains 
high for seven to fourteen days, and in favorable 
cases drops suddenly, accompanied by a resolution 
of the inflammation in the lungs, a moist cough, 
and a discharge resembling prune-juice from the 
nose. The disease may terminate completely in ten 
to twenty days, or may pass into a chronic state and 
last for two or three months, or lead to permanent 
broken wind. The death rate is low, except in old 
worn-out horses, and those weakened by previous 
disease. 

Treatment. — Place the animal in comfortable, 
roomy surroundings, and tempt him to continue 
eating by offering various kinds of food in small 



442 



HORSE 



HORSE 



quantities. Milk will often be drunk when all else 
is refused. Apply a mustard plaster to the chest, 
as in bronchitis. 

Medicinally, stimulants are indicated, as a mix- 
ture consisting of tincture of digitalis 1 dram, tinc- 
ture of nux vomica 1 dram, quinine sulfate 1 dram, 
water in sufficient quantity to make an ounce, and 
given three or four times daily for several days or 
a week. When convalescence is established, arsenic 
in three-grain doses and iron in one-dram doses may 
be given in the feed. When the symptoms have 
disappeared, potassium iodid in one-half-dram doses 
twice daily should be given for a week, to aid in the 
complete absorption of the inflammatory exudate. 

Abscesses (poll evil, fistula, etc.). 

Abscesses are well-defined collections of pus. 
They are characterized by the fact that they 
increase in size slowly, show symptoms of acute 
inflammation, are firm to the touch, although later 
they may show fluctuation. They follow as the 
result of local inflammation in glands, muscular 
tissue, or even bones. They are very common in 
the first two cases. The abscesses most commonly 
met with in horses are those of the poll (poll evil), 
the withers (fistula) and the glands which occur 
during the existence of strangles or colt distemper. 
At first the swelling is uniformly hard and resist- 
ing over its entire surface, but in a little while 
becomes soft — fluctuating — at some part, mostly in 
the center. From this time, the abscess is said to 
be "pointing" or "coming to a head," which is 
shown by a small elevated or projecting promi- 
nence, which at 
first is dry, but 
soon becomes 
moist with 
transuded se- 
rum. The hairs 
over this part 
loosen and fall 
off, and in a 
short time the 
abscess opens, 
the contents 
escape, and the 
cavity gradually fills up, and heals by granulations. 
Treatment. — Abscesses in muscular tissue, such 
as poll evil and fistula of the withers (Fig. 452), 
are usually the result of bruises or injuries. In all 
cases when abscesses are forming, we should hurry 
the ripening process by frequent hot fomentations 
and poultices of bread, bran, or flaxseed. When 
they are very tardy in their development, a blister 
composed of one part of cantharides and ten parts 
of vaseline, rubbed over their surface, is advisable. 
It is a common rule with surgeons to open an 
abscess as soon as pus can be plainly felt, but this 
practice can not be recommended to owners of 
stock indiscriminately, since this operation requires 
an exact knowledge of anatomy. This is imperative 
if the abscess is in the region of joints. When 
open, we must not squeeze the walls of the abscess 
to any extent. They may be very gently pressed 
with the fingers at first to remove the clots (in- 



spissated pus), but after this the orifice is simply to 
be kept open by the introduction of a clean probe, 
should it be disposed to heal too soon. If the open- 
ing is at too high a level, another should be made 
into the lowest part of the abscess so as to permit 
the most complete drainage. Hot fomentations or 




Fistulous withers. 




Fig. 453. The appearance of bots in stomach of horse. (From 
Diseases of the Horse. U. S. Dept. Agric.) 

poultices are sometimes required for a day or two 
after an abscess has opened, and are particularly 
indicated when the base of the abscess is hard and 
indurated. The cavity should be thorougly washed 
with stimulating antiseptic solutions, such as 3 per 
cent solution of carbolic acid, 3 to 5 per cent solu- 
tion of creolin, 1 to 1,000 bichlorid of mercury, or 
1 per cent permanganate of potash solution. If the 
abscesses are foul and bad smelling, their cavities 
should be syringed with one part of hydrogen 
peroxid to two parts of water, followed by the 
injection of any of the above-mentioned antiseptics. 

Bots. (Fig. 453.) 

Bots are the larva? of the bot-fly, a heavy-bodied 
hairy insect. The larva? are thick, fleshy grubs liv- 
ing practically in the intestinal tract of horses. The 
injury to the horse from the presence of the larvae 
may take one or all of four forms : (1) The attach- 
ment to the walls of the stomach may cause an 
irritation which may interfere with the normal 
action of the glands that secrete digestive juices ; 
(2) the bots abstract some nutriment from the 
walls of the stomach, or by absorption from the 
food content of the organ ; (3) by collecting, par- 
ticularly in the region of the pylorus (opening of 
the stomach into the intestine), they serve as an 
obstruction to the free passage of food from the 
stomach into the intestine ; (4) in passing through 
the intestine after they have released their hold on 
the walls of the stomach, they may attach them- 
selves to the intestinal wall or rectal walls and 
cause great irritation. 

The eggs are deposited in the hair, usually of 
the front legs and chest of a horse, and are held 
there by a sticky fluid, which quickly dries and 
glues them firmly in place. The eggs are taken 
into the horse's month by licking, and if so taken 
between the tenth and thirteenth day after the 
deposition, will develop into the bot in the animal's 
stomach. 

Treatment. — By far the most important point is 



HORSE 



HORSE 



443 



to prevent the introduction of the larva. The eggs 
are very plainly seen on the hair, and it is evident 
that if they are removed before the tenth day (at 
which time they begin to hatch) the animal can- 
not get bots. Eggs may be removed in several 
ways : by washing the hair in a dilute carbolic 
acid solution, one part acid to thirty parts of 
water, by rubbing the parts lightly with kerosene, 
or by clipping. Horses pastured in July, August 
and September should be examined every three or 
four days, and if the eggs are present they should 
be removed. 

It is, of course, not an easy matter to determine 
whether any particular disturbance of the digestive 
organs is produced by bots or by some other agency 
producing similar symptoms. If occasional bots are 
noticed in the manure of the animal, together with 
poor condition, their presence in numbers is to be 
suspected. The animal should then be starved for 
twelve hours, allowing only water, after which 
give two teaspoonfuls of tartar emetic in water as 
a drench. Repeat in four hours' time. Eight or 
twelve hours afterward give a drench of one pint 
to one quart of linseed oil. 

Worms (Ascarides, round worms). 

These worms are found in all domestic animals. 
The round worm of the horse (Ascarid megaloceph- 
ala) is about five to six inches in length by one- 
fourth inch in thickness, and white in color. It 
is easily detected in the feces, its presence in which 
is the only sure sign. 

Treatment. — For the horse, tartar emetic is rec- 
ommended in two-dram doses every four hours until 
three doses are given, care being taken to starve 
the animal twelve to eighteen hours before admin- 
istering, and to follow it in three or four hours 
with one and one-fourth pints of 
linseed-oil. 

Capped elbow or hock. 

These conditions are some- 
what similar in their nature, 
although capped elbow is the 
more common and more serious 
condition. It is caused by re- 
peated mild injuries from lying 
on an unbedded floor or by lying 
with the shod hoof bent under 
the body so that the shoe comes 
in contact with the elbow. 
Capped hock results from strik- 
ing the point by kicking back- 
wards against the side of the 
stall or other hard object. (Fig. 
454.) The severity of the con- 
dition may vary from a slight 
inflammation with edema to cyst 
development, or abscess forma- 
tion, and even organization of the inflammatory 
exudate with the presence of a large fibrous tumor 
on the elbow, commonly called a shoe boil. In 
some cases these shoe boils may reach the size of 
a child's head, and may be very firm and hard or 
soft and flabby. 




Treatment. — In the early stages, the main object 
is to prevent recurrence of the irritation. To 
accomplish this in capped hock, the animal should 
be placed in a large stall with the sides and posts 
well padded. In capped elbow the branches of the 
shoes should be shortened and their ends bevelled 
forward, and a heel boot should be worn while in 
the stable. The stall should also be well bedded, 
and a dirt floor is better than boards or cement. 
When a cyst containing a serous fluid is present, 
it should be aspirated with a sterile syringe or 
drained off with a sterile trocar. If pus is in the 
sac, it must be opened with a free incision in the 
most dependent part and washed out with hydrogen 
peroxid diluted half with water, or 3 to 5 per cent 
creolin solution. Stimulating liniments and even 
blisters, in the subacute cases without pus forma- 
tion, may cause a resolution and absorption of the 
inflammatory products. In the old standing cases 
with the presence of a fibrous tumor, the only 
treatment is the surgical re- 
moval of the mass. The condi- 
tion may last for years, however, 
without reducing the working 
capacity of the animal. 

Curb. 

Curb is an unsoundness in the 
horse sometimes leading to lame- 
ness. It is caused by a rupture 
of the ligament on the posterior 
surface of the hock. (Fig. 455.) 
The inciting causes consist in a 
defective conformation of the 
leg, and in sudden strains dur- 
ing heavy draft work or under 
the saddle. In recent cases there 
is some swelling and heat about 

the posteriorsurface of the hock, .„„ „ t ™-_„' ,.». 
..f , „ . . ' Leg showing curb, 

with lameness. On examining 

the hock joint in profile, the leg, whicn normally 
should be perfectly straight, shows a bulging back- 
ward below the point of the hock. A well-marked 
curb may be present and cause slight or no lame- 
ness. 

Treatment. — This aims to remove the lameness 
but cannot remedy the blemish. In the early 
stages, when there is heat and edema about the 
part, showing the presence of an acute inflamma- 
tion, cold water should be applied for ten or 
twelve hours daily from a rubber hose, which is 
connected with a faucet passed over the back of 
the animal and tied to the leg by tapes. If lame- 
ness persists after about a week, a blister of bini- 
odid of mercury one part to vaseline eight parts 
should be applied and the animal allowed to rest 
in the stable for two to four weeks. In the great 
majority of cases, this will effect a cure. A cer- 
tain percentage of cases, however, are obstinate 
and require point- or line-firing, which must be 
administered by a veterinarian. 

Cartilaginous quittor. 

This is a chronic suppurative inflammation of 
the lateral cartilage leading to necrosis and the 




444 



HORSE 



HORSE 



/ 



.v-CM 



11 



J2 



13 



16 



~ss 



.23 



Fig. 456. 
Muscles in the normal leg 
of a horse. 1. M. su- 
pra -spinatus; 2, M. In- 
f ra-spinatus ; 3, M. del- 
toideus; 4, long head of 
M. triceps; 5, lateral 
head of M. triceps; 6, M. 
biceps; 7, M. sterno- 
cleido mastoideus; 8. M. 
brachialis internus ; 9, M. 
extensor carpi radialis; 
10, M. extensor digito- 
rum communis; 11, M. 
extensor carpi ulnaris; 
12, M. extensor digiti 
minimi; 13, M. abductor 
pollicis longus; 14, prill* 
cipal tendon of the M. 
extensor digitorum com- 
munis; 15, fibrous sheath; 
16, tendon of M. exten- 
sor carpi radialis; 17, 
small lateral tendon of 
M. extensor digitorum 
communis; 18, tendon of 
M. extensor carpi ulnaris; 
19, M. flexor digitomm 
sublimis; 20, flexor digi- 
torum profundus; 21, in- 
terosseus medius: 22, ex- 
tensor digiti minimi; 23, 
lateral part of interos- 
seus medius. (After El* 
lenberger.) 



formation of discharging 
sinuses. It is most often 
seen in the front feet of 
heavy draft horses, and 
especially in animals that 
have flat hoofs with low 
quarters and heels. The 
exciting causes of quittor 
are corns, deep quarter 
cracks, or tread wounds 
and other inflammatory 
conditions which allow 
the entrance of microor- 
ganisms. 

There is first noticed a 
swelling and inflamma- 
tion in the region of the 
quarters, extending u p- 
wards above the hoof. 
This increases until 
finally pus is formed and 
breaks outward through 
the skin. In old cases, 
several openings may be 
present, together with 
scars of old sinuses that 
have healed. The horny 
hoof is bulged outward 
and there may be lame- 
ness, although this is not 
a marked symptom, and 
the animal is frequently 
able to continue at slow 
work. The course of the 
disease is chronic and fre- 
quently covers several 
months. There is danger 
of serious complications 
arising. 

Treatment. — In the 
treatment of this condi- 
tion, a great variety of 
remedies have been tried. 
Soaking the foot in a tub 
containing 1 per cent cre- 
olin solution is valuable. 
When the animal is work- 
ing daily, injections of 
antiseptic solutions and 
protecting the part with 
bandages should be tried. 
This, in addition to the 
careful injection once 
each week of a small 
quantity of a saturated 
aqueous solution of bi- 
chlorid of mercury, 
through a syringe with 
a narrow nozzle that 
reaches to the bottom of 
the sinus, is very good 
treatment. In severe 
cases the condition can be 
permanently cured in a 
comparatively short time 



by the operative removal of the entire lateral 
cartilage. 

Scratches. 

This is an inflammation of the skin in the hollow 
of the fetlock, of various degrees of intensity. 
Among the common causes may be mentioned stand- 
ing in manure and urine, too frequent washing of 
the skin with irritating soaps, working in stubble 
fields, alkali dust, salt from the car tracks in win- 
ter during snowy and icy weather, and bacteria. 
It is most common on white-footed animals. There 
may be a mere reddening of the skin, or the skin 
may contain transverse fissures that gap on ex- 
tension of the part in walking. In more severe 
cases, warty excrescences may form around the bor- 
ders of the fissures and project above the surface, 
and rarely the condition may go on to gangrene. 
The skin is thickened, thrown into transverse folds 
and tender to pressure. 

Treatment. — The first essential in the treatment 
of the condition is to remove the cause. The ani- 
mal should stand in a clean, dry stall, and all long 
hair should be cut away from the hollow of the 
fetlock. The parts should then be washed clean 
with castile soap and warm water and thoroughly 
dried. Frequent washings delay the healing pro- 
cess. If any warty outgrowths are present, they 
should be snipped off with the scissors or removed 
with the hot iron. In the milder cases, astringent 
powders may be applied, as tannic acid or equal 
parts of zinc oxid and boric acid. In the more 
severe cases, ointments are more valuable, as 10 
per cent ichthyol ointment or wet astringent dress- 
ings, as Burrough's lotion. The latter is composed 
of alum 80 grams, lead acetate 24 grams, spirits 
of camphor 60 cc. and water in sufficient quantity 
to make 500 cc. The parts should be dressed twice 
daily in severe cases. 

Founder. 

Founder is an inflammation of the soft structure, 
especially the fleshy leaves, enclosed within the 
horny hoof, accompanied with constitutional dis- 
turbances, and frequently leading to marked ana- 
tomical changes in the structures of the foot. The 
causes of this disease are imperfectly understood. 
Concussion, excessive ingestion of certain grains, 
long drives, standing in unprotected places, or 
drinking cold water while the body is overheated, 
are all considered causes. Long standing on one 
foot when the opposite one is diseased, frequently 
leads to the development of founder. The condition 
is more common in the front feet, although all four 
may be affected. 

The disease is of sudden onset, with fever from 
102.5° to 106° Fahr., rapid respiration, increased 
pulse rate, and intense pain in the affected feet. 
Indeed, the pain is so great that the animal cannot 
be moved out of the stall or made to walk, nor can 
one foot be raised from the ground if the opposite 
one is affected ; and great difficulty is experienced 
in getting the shoes removed. The animal stands 
with the hind-feet well under the body to relieve 
weight from the affected fore-feet. Marked throb- 



HORSE 



HORSE 



445 



bing of the artery along the inside of the cannon- 
bone is present. On tapping the wall of the hoof 
with a hammer, extreme pain is produced, as shown 
by flinching and tremor of the muscles. 

Treatment. — When the condition is recognized 
within the first twenty-four hours of the attack, 




Fig. 457. Shod and unshod hoofs in founder. (Figs. 454, 455, 
457, 459, after Molier-Dollar.) 

bleeding is highly recommended, and six quarts of 
blood should be drawn from the large vein in the 
neck. The object of this measure is to lower blood 
pressure.' The internal administration of tincture 
of aconite in ten-drop doses every two hours during 
the first day, will have the same effect. Locally, 
cold should be applied to the affected feet, by 
allowing the animal to stand in a soaking-tub, or, 
preferably, in a puddle of soft clay, the water of 
which is kept cold by the addition of ice. Internally, 
two-ounce doses of saltpeter in a pint of water 
should be given three times daily, for a period of a 
week. In those cases which fail to respond to treat- 
ment, and the anatomical changes occur in the 
structure of the foot, the hoof will be deformed 
(Fig. 457), and we can only hope to make the ani- 
mal useful for slow work, by properly dressing and 
shoeing the hoof. 

Penetrating nail. 

This condition is a not uncommon accident, 
especially in city horses. The nail usually pene- 
trates the point or lateral cleft of the frog and 
may pass deeply into the soft structures. The 
accident should always be considered serious, as it 
may lead to lockjaw or suppuration and necrosis of 
the soft structure within the horny hoof. 

Treatment. — The nail should be removed if it 
is found in the wound. The horny sole or frog 
should be carefully cut down to the soft tissue 
for a distance of one-fourth to one-half inch on all 
sides of the puncture. The hole formed by the nail 
should then be treated with some antiseptic solu- 
tion, as 5 per cent creolin or carbolic acid solu- 
tion or tincture of iodine. . In the absence of these, 
turpentine may be used. The animal should then 
be made to stand in a soaking-tub, containing 1 
per cent creolin solution, for several days. If this 
is not possible, a wet antiseptic poultice should be 
tied over the hoof. This can be made of bran, 
saturated with a 3 per cent creolin solution and 
kept moist by adding more of the solution from 
time to time. This should be kept in place and 
changed daily until all lameness and discharge 
from the wound ceases. 

Bone spavin. 

This term is applied to any bony enlargement 
around the hock, the usual seat being on the inner 



and inferior surface of the joint. It is the result 
chiefly of defective conformation, heredity, hard 
work, slipping and sprains of the hock joint. 

Spavin is a very prevalent condition and is the 
most common cause of lameness in the hind-leg. It 
is usually gradual in its onset. The lameness is 
somewhat characteristic, in that it is most marked 
when the animal is first brought out of the stable 
and disappears on warming up. The animal brings 
the toe down first, and this part of the shoe shows 
greatest wear while the heels of the hoof tend to 
become high and stubby. The lameness is inten- 
sified by the spavin test, which consists in holding 
the hock joint strongly flexed for three minutes and 
then starting the animal off suddenly. The positive 
proof of spavin consists in the presence of a bony 
enlargement, usually on the inside, low down on 
the hock joint. While spavin may be suspected, it 
is doubtful whether a diagnosis should be made 
before the bony enlargement 
can be recognized. (Fig. 458.) 
In occult spavin, where the in- 
flammation is within the joint, 
this enlargement does not ap- 
pear until late. 

Treatment. — This cannot re- 
move the bony growth entirely 
but may be successful in remov- 
ing the lameness. In shoeing 
the animal the heels should be 
spared, the toe shortened and 
the shoe should have heel-calks. 
Four to six weeks' rest with 
repeated blisters may give tem- 
porary relief. The most success- 
ful treatment, however, requires 
the assistance of a veterinarian, 
and consists in the combina- 
tion of cutting the cunean ten- 
don in conjunction with pene- 
trant point -firing. This hastens the welding or 
ankilosis of the articular surfaces of the inflamed 
bones, the movement of which is the direct cause 
of the pain and lameness. 

Ringbone. 

This term is applied to any new bony growth 
on the phalangeal bones. It is most common in 
the front leg and on the lower end of the long 
pastern or upper end of the short pastern. The 
causes are both internal and external. The in- 
ternal causes are predisposing and consist in 
abnormal directions of the phalanges, improper 
dressing of the hoof and heredity. The exciting 
causes are hard work early in life, fast driving on 
hard roads, missteps, strains and deep tread 
wounds. 

The onset is gradual. Lameness develops gradu- 
ally or may come on suddenly after stumbling or a 
strain. It is made worse by fast work on hard 
roads. At rest the animal "points." There is local 
heat, swelling and pain on passive rotation of the 
foot in some cases. The most important symptom 
is the presence of a bony enlargement about the 
joint (Fig. 459), and when this is absent, as it may 




Fig. 458. 
Leg showing spavin. 



446 



HORSE 



HORSE 



be in early articular ringbone, the diagnosis is 
difficult. A large ringbone may be present, on the 
other hand, without causing lameness. 

Treatment. — The foot should be properly dressed 
and shod. If lameness is marked, prolonged rest and 
repeated mercurial blisters 
(one part of biniodid of mer- 
cury to eight of vaseline) 
should be applied. If this 
is unsuccessful, deep pene- 
trant point-firing should be 
done by an expert veteri- 
narian to produce a welding 
of the articular surfaces 
and thus prevent movement 
which causes the pain. As 
a last resort in this disease, 
double plantar neurectomy 
has to be performed, for the 
animal to be able to work. 




Fig. 459. Leg showing 
ringbone at left; at 
right, normal leg. 



Splint. 

This is a very common 
condition in the horse, pro- 
duced by the deposit of new bone between the can- 
non and rudimentary metatarsal or splint bones. 
Its most common seat is on the inside of the front 
leg, due to the anatomical arrangement of this 
region, which subjects the internal splint bone to 
more pressure than the external one. External 
injuries may rarely be a cause. The condition 
generally occurs before the fourth year of age, 
at which time the splint bones become welded to 
the cannon bone by ossification. The new bony 
growth may sometimes be seen, and can always be 
readily felt by running the fingers along the front 
of the internal splint bone at its junction with the 
cannon. The normal button-shaped termination of 
the splint bone in the lower one-third of the can- 
non should not be mistaken for a splint. 

In a small percentage of cases splints lead to 
temporary or obstinate lameness. The lameness 
becomes apparent after speeding on a hard road, 
and the animal will rest out of the lameness. Pres- 
sure over the splint will cause the animal to flinch. 
The skin will show an increase of temperature at 
this point and there may be some edema. 

Treatment. — Only those cases causing lameness 
should be treated, as the blemish caused by the 
new bone formation cannot be benefited. In the 
early stages, when the inflammation is acute, cold 
water should be allowed to run over the part for 
several hours each day for a week. The hair 
should then be clipped short and a blister, consist- 
ing of biniodid of mercury one dram to one ounce of 
petrolatum, applied and rubbed well into the part. 
The animal should have three or four weeks' rest in 
the stable. In more severe cases, point-firing over 
the bony growth will be required to effect a cure. 
A veterinarian should be employed for the latter. 
Many cases will get well in time without treatment. 

Literature. 

In addition to the references mentioned on pages 
124-146 and 330, regarding the diseases and ail- 



ments of live-stock, reference is here made to the 
following works: Law, The Farmer's Veterinary 
Adviser (1892); Special Report on Diseases of the 
Horse, revised edition, United States Department 
Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry (1903); 
Moller and Dollar, The Practice of Veterinary Sur- 
gery (1903); Fleming, A Textbook of Operative 
Veterinary Surgery (1884); Williams, the Princi- 
ples of the Practice of Veterinary Medicine, revised 
edition (1890); Williams, The Principles of the Prac- 
tice of Veterinary Surgery, revised edition (1890); 
Hopkins, Veterinary Elements (1901). 

Arab Horse. Fig. 460. 

By Homer Davenport. 

The Arab horse is notable as a saddler, and to 
impart vigor, quality and intelligence in cross- 
breeding. His blood has been prominent in the 
development of the Percheron, Hackney, Thorough- 
bred, Russian Orloff, Triccaney, Hanoverian, French 
and German cavalry horses, the coach horse, polo 
ponies ; in fact, a large proportion of our present- 
day types are more or less traceable to the influence 
of the Arabian horse. 

Description. 

The Arabian in his purity is a horse of high 
courage, possessing length, power and substance, 
combined with elastic and graceful movement. He 
is gentle and affectionate. He seems to have no 
fear of anything, even man, a trait shown particu- 
larly in young colts. In his native country he 
stands closer to fourteen hands and two inches 
than any other height ; but his size is merely a 
matter of the feed given him when he is a colt, as 
is shown by the fact that among the Gomussa tribe 
of the Sabba Anazeh, who pay better attention to 
their horses than do others, we find colts at two 
years old standing fifteen hands high ; and at the 
Circassian villages up the Euphrates, where even 
better care of the live-stock is taken than by any 
of the Bedouins, we find the Arab horse much 
advanced in size. 

There is a peculiar'balance and harmony through- 
out the frame of the Arab. The beauty of head, 
ears, eyes, jaws, mouth and nostrils is noteworthy. 
The ears are not small, but are so shaped that 
they appear small ; the head is short from the eye 
to the muzzle, broad and well-developed above ; 
the eye is soft and intelligent ; the nostrils are 
long and appear puckered, drawn back up the face, 
and are capable of great distention ; the neck is a 
model of strength and grandeur, of which he can 
make a perfect arch, that matches the arch of his 
tail. The throat is large and well developed ; it is 
loose and pliant when at rest, and much detached 
from the rest of the neck. This feature is not often 
noticed, but it is indicative not only of good wind, 
but of the capacity for prolonged exertion without 
distress, owing to the great width between the 
jaws. The shoulder is good, as is the deep chest, 
the appearance of which is diminished by the big, 
deep ribs ; the back is short, the loins of immense 
power, and the quarters long and strong, the whole 



HORSE 



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447 



beautifully turned. The legs and feet are superior. 
The two great features, possibly, that a stranger 
would notice first in the Arab horse, are the fore- 
head, or jibbah, which cannot be too prominent, 
giring a peculiar dish to the lower part of the face, 
and the tail, set high and carried in an arch. The 
form of the Arabian horse is essentially one of 
utility ; the space for the seat for the rider is suf- 
ficient, and at once fixes his true position ; the 
weight is therefore carried on that part most 
adapted for it. The rest of the frame is taken up 
with the powers of progression. The color varies, 
and may be white, gray, bay, chestnut, brown and 
rarely black. Roan, spotted or pie- 
bald and yellow colors are not found 
among the Arabs, although roan 
and yellow are common among 
Barbs. The bays often have black 
points, and generally one or more 
white feet, with some white in the 
face. The chestnuts vary from the 
brightest to the dullest shades. 

History. 

There has been a great deal of 
query as to where the Arab horse 
came from. It seems probable that 
he came originally from Mesopo- 
tamia, although some writers hold 
that his native home was in the 
vicinity of Nejd. According to 
Plumb, the Arabs are descendants 
of Ishmael, who, according to tra- 
dition, inherited a valuable horse 
of the Kuhl race. The Anazeh tribe 
descended in a direct line from 
Ishmael, through Sheik Salaman, 
who lived about 1635 B. C. (four generations re- 
moved from Ishmael), and who owned five famous 
mares. From this ancestry has come the purest and 
best Arab horse blood. This race was in existence 
many centuries before the time of Mohammed. 
Early in the seventeenth century Arab horses were 
brought to England, and in the eighteenth century 
the importations were numerous. These exerted 
considerable influence on the development of the 
Thoroughbred and the Hackney. 

In America. — The first record we have of the 
Arab in America was the importation of the stal- 
lion Ranger, about 1765, to New London, Conn. 
In 1838, J. D. Elliott imported a number of both 
sexes. The late A. Keene Richards brought them 
to Georgetown, Kentucky, in 1856. His plant was 
making the most rapid strides toward success, 
when it was destroyed by the Civil war. The blood 
of his horses, however, is found in the present Ken- 
tucky saddle horses, six and seven generations 
back, and there is little doubt that much of the 
beauty of that splendid animal today is traceable 
to the horses that A. Keene Richards imported. 
The next importation was the two stallions given 
to General U. S. Grant, by the Sultan of Turkey. 
These were of unknown families, but they sired 
many beautiful and useful horses. 

A number of Arabian horses were brought to the 



World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago, in 1893. 
The Sultan was induced to permit these horses to 
come to America for the exhibit, and through 
mortgages they were eventually held. Nine were 
burned to death in their stalls at the Exposition 
by the Syrians that brought them, as the outcome 
of a wrangle. From these horses, however, came 
the best results from any Arab horses brought to 
America. Most of them were bought by Mr. Peter 
B. Bradley, of Hingham, Mass., who crossed them 
on some of our best breeds, besides breeding 
them in their purity. With a pure horse of his 
breeding, Mr. Hess, of New York City, won the 




Fig. 460. 



Haleb. A champion Arabian stallion. 



only blue ribbon ever won over our own types of 
saddle horses, with an Arab in open competition. 
Mr. Bradley also bred a trotter, two removes from 
Arab' blood, that trotted to a record of 2:30 in the 
sixth heat of his first race. He produced the finest 
types of polo ponies and accomplished much with 
the Arab blood. 

Distribution. 

The home of the Arab horse, speaking of the 
pure Arab, is the district that is covered by the 
Nomad Arabs, and is confined to Arabia proper and 
the Syrian desert. In its greatest perfection it is 
found among the Anazeh and Shamar Bedouins, 
occupying the territory east and west along the 
Euphrates river ; the Shamar on the eastern shore 
and the Anazeh west of the river. The latter make 
a circuit of the desert annually, going from the 
summer pastures near Aleppo, in the north, to 
Nejd, in the south, in winter. They swing east 
past Bagdad and Deyr on their way north, and on 
their journey south, go west, brushing near Palmyra 
and Damascus. Within that circuit the home of the 
Arabian horse may be said to lie. The haunts of the 
pure Arabian are those of the desert Bedouins, who 
still carry the lance. Of course, specimens of pure 
blood can be found sometimes at Beyrout, and the 
coast towns, but such horses have been brought 



448 



HORSE 



HORSE 



there by wealthy citizens. In like manner they 
have been carried into northern Africa, Persia, 
Turkey, Hungary, Germany, France, Russia, Eng- 
land and America. 

The adaptability of the Arab is noteworthy. 
Accustomed naturally to the most intense heat, 
yet he thrives in the extreme cold, and the writer 
has known one to winter perfectly in the mountains 
of Pennsylvania. His coat, while fine and silky in 
spring and summer, in winter is as thick as a 
beaver's, and has an undercoating of fur-like hair. 

Types and families. 

It has been asserted that there were two breeds 
of Arabian horses, a large breed and a small breed. 
This is untrue ; there is but one general breed of 
Arabian horses, of which there are many families, 
which are different and distinct in many ways. 
While there are not two distinct breeds, there are 
a first and a second class. A horse, or mare, about 
whose breeding there is the slightest doubt, is dis- 
qualified, and not called "chubby," and therefore is 
of the second class. The families originated and 
descended from some great mare. In all cases the 
breed of the colt is that of the dam, and not of the 
sire ; thus, a colt, whose father had been a Ham- 
dani Simri, and whose dam had been a Seglawieh 
Jedranieh, would necessarily be a Seglawi Jedran. 
The Bedouins count the father little, so long as he 
is "chubby," meaning a Thoroughbred that the 
Anazeh would breed from, but they place every- 
thing in the value of the mother's blood, and of 
her own individuality. 

The Gomussa, of the Sabba Anazeh, are the 
shrewdest horse-breeders of the desert. They have 
retained, in the largest numbers, specimens of the 
five great families, which are called the Khamseh, 
which means five. They also have the choicest of 
the other families, which are rated equal in point 
of blood. The Khamseh, so the story runs, have 
descended from the five great mares, which, with 
other mares of Sheik Salaman, were drinking at 
the river after long hardships in war, when the 
trumpet blew, calling them back to battle. Only 
five responded to the call, and it was those five 
that founded the five great families. 

(1) The Keheilan Ajus. — This strain is the most 
numerous, and from it all other Keheilans are off- 
shoots. The words Keheilan Ajus mean the mare of 
the old woman, derived from a legend that the 
mare was dropped by its dam near a well kept by 
an old woman, where the rider had stopped. The 
traveler rode off in a short time, leaving the filly 
colt with the old woman. The next morning the 
colt was found by its mother's side, having traced 
her across the desert during the night. Among 
the Keheilans, bays are more numerous than any 
other color. They are the fastest, although not 
the hardiest horses nor the most beautiful. They 
bear a closer resemblance to the English Thorough- 
bred than any others, as they are more nearly 
related. The Darley Arabian, perhaps the only 
thoroughbred Anazeh horse in our studbooks, was 
a Keheilan of the sub-family called Ras-el-Fadawi. 

(2) The Seglawi family have descended from four 



great mares owned by a man of that name. At his 
death he gave his favorite mare to his brother 
Jedran, and thus the Seglawi Jedrans are the favor- 
ites of the Seglawies ; he gave the second mare to 
his brother Obeyran ; the third to Arjebi ; and the 
fourth to El-Abd, meaning the slave. Many writers 
consider that all four mares were full sisters. The 
Seglawi Arjebi are extinct, and of the remaining 
strains, the Seglawi Jedran ranks first in the 
esteem of the Bedouins, and Seglawi El-Abd second. 
Some years ago, Abbas Pasha, of Egypt, purchased 
nearly all of the Seglawi Jedran mares from the 
Anazeh tribe, paying as high a price, it is said, as 
3,000 pounds, for a single old mare. Many chest- 
nut-colored horses are found among the Seglawia ; 
possibly, with the bays, they would form about an 
equal division. 

(3) Hamdani. — The Hamdanis are not common 
anywhere on the Syrian desert, the Shammar being 
supposed to have the best. They are mostly greys, 
although very handsome browns and chestnuts are 
to be found in the Shammar. The only strain 
of the Hamdani that is counted "chubby" is the 
Hamdani Simri. Mares of the Hamdani Simri are 
very rare. 

(4) Abeyan. — The Abeyan is generally the hand- 
somest breed, but it is small and has less resem- 
blance to the English Thoroughbred than any of the 
other families of the Arabian horse. The Abeyan 
Sherrack is the most esteemed of the seven strains 
of the Abeyan (and there are but two others of 
that seven, the Abeyan Zahaine and Abeyan Fadaha, 
that are counted "chubby"). It is the name of the 
family, and the other strains are derived from 
Abeyan Sherrack. Abeyan Sherracks carry their 
tail much higher than other Arabian horses. They 
are also noted for their prominent forehead or 
jibbah. Their endurance is remarkable. The colors 
are bay, chestnut and grey. 

(5) Hadban. — There are five strains of the Had- 
ban family, Hadban Enzekhi being the favorite, 
and Hadban al-Fert being the only other that is 
considered "chubby" by the Anazeh. The Gomussa 
of the Sabba Anazeh are supposed to have the best 
Hadbans at the present time. Brown and dark 
bay are the favorite colors of the Hadban Enzekhi 
family. 

Other families . — Besides these five families, there 
are sixteen other families that are esteemed almost 
as much as the Khamseh : (1) The Maneghi, sup- 
posed to be an offshoot of the Keheilan Ajus. They 
are plain and without distinction, being somewhat 
coarse, with long necks, powerful shoulders, much 
length, and strong but coarse hind-quarters. They 
are strong boned, and are held in high repute as 
war horses. There are four sub-families in this 
group, the favorite being Maneghi Sbeyel, which is 
counted "chubby" all over the desert. Maneghi 
Hedruj, the next esteemed, is not counted "chubby" 
at Nejd, but is by some tribes of the northern 
desert. The family of Sbeyel of the Gomussa 
possesses the finest specimens of the strain known 
by that name. (2) Saadan, often very beautiful 
horses ; the sub-strain, Saadan Togan, is the most 
highly esteemed. (3) Dakhman. (4) Shueyman. 



HORSE 



HORSE 



449 



The sub-strain of Shueyman Sbah are rated as first- 
class. (5) Jilfan. Of this there is a sub-strain, 
Jilfan Stam el Bulad, meaning the sinews of steel. 
In some parts of the desert, the Jilfan Stam el 
Bulad is prized equally with Hamdani Simri. (6) 
Toessan. Of this, there is the sub-strain Toessan 
Algami. (7) Samhan, with a sub-strain, Samhan el 
Gomeaa. The horses of this family are frequently 
very tall, and are much esteemed. (8) Wadnan, 
with the sub-strain, Wadna Hursan. (9) Rishan, 
with the sub-strain Rishan Sherabi. (10) Tamri. 
The Keheilan Tamris are highly prized. (11) Melek- 
han. (12) Jereyban. (13) Jeytani. (14) Ferejan. 
(15) Treyfi. (16) Rabdan. Besides these, there 
are the Keheilan Heife, Keheilan Kroash, Keheilan 
el-Ghazala, Keheilan al-Denais, Keheilan al-Nowak, 
Keheilan al-Muson, Keheilan abu junub, Keheilan 
Rodan, Keheilan Wadnam Harsan, Dahman abu 
Amr, Dahman Shawan, Dahman Khomais, Abu 
Arkab, all of which are considered "chubby." All 
these are Keheilans, and most, or all of them, have 
descended from Keheilan Ajus. 

Feeding and care. 

Unaccustomed to much feed, or regular feed, the 
Arab is likely to get very fat under our method of 
feeding, so that the horse, once the picture of all 
that is beautiful and graceful, with us may soon 
become a fat horse. He thrives best on half of 
what other horses require. Of all horses, the Arabian 
is least fit to stand idle in his stall. His life for 
centuries has been under the saddle, as a war horse, 
on the scantest rations any horse lives on ; and to 
pen him up in a close stall and feed him three meals 
a day so completely changes his life, that it 
changes his form. 

Uses. 

For riding and driving. — As a saddle horse the 
Arab horse ranks high. He has always been accus- 
tomed to the saddle, and has developed remarkable 
endurance, carrying riders long journeys, day after 
day, in a scorching sun, with little feed or water. 
He can carry very heavy weights on his back. 
When hitched to the carriage, he makes a gentle, 
attractive, driving horse. 

For crossing. — The importance of the Arab for 
cross-breeding purposes is well known. He has 
entered into the development of many of our present- 
day breeds, — trotting, running, saddle, coach and 
draft, — and has imparted his endurance, quality and 
intelligence wherever used. That he is still valued 
for this purpose is evidenced by the fact that in 
certain European countries Arab studs are officially 
maintained for breeding purposes. A new infusion 
of his blood is much needed in our modern horses. 
The farther we get from the Arab blood, that in 
former days was strong in our runners and trot- 
ters, the less our horses show of the powers of 
endurance that made them great animals. And 
while our race horses have become greater sprinters, 
they have lost much of their staying power. A 
fresh infusion of the best blood of the desert should 
improve those families of horses that have been 
bred in the extreme for any special purpose, to the 

C29 



exclusion of many of the qualities possessed in such 
a marked degree by the Arabian horse. One of the 
most noticeable differences between our best types 
of today, especially in America, and the Arab horse, 
is the flat and contracted sides of our horses com- 
pared with the round, barrel-shaped ribs of the Arab- 
ian and the narrow openings of the jaw-bones of our 
horses compared with the wide openings of the 
jaw-bones of the Arab horse. The importance of 
this latter point is seen especially in race horses. 
The many deaths among modern race horses, sup- 
posed to be due to the bursting of blood-vessels, 
are attributed to the narrow jaw-bones. The heart 
is wrought to high action in the effort to force the 
air through the narrow passage, and the result is 
the breaking of a blood-vessel and death. This was 
much less common a few generations ago. Another 
very noticeable difference is the dropping off below 
the knee of our American horses compared with the 
big, flat bone below the knee of the Arab horse. 
The finer quality of bone that is transmitted by 
the Arab horse in crossing is one of his greatest 
values. Beyond this, perhaps, is his ability to stamp 
eveness and beauty of disposition on his offspring, 
a quality desired in all horses, especially in cavalry 
horses. The very close relation that has long ex- 
isted between the Arab horse and his master, has 
produced in him a docility and intelligence that is 
seldom found in horses of other breeds. The pre- 
potency of the Arab is due to the fact that in his 
veins flows only thoroughbred blood, with no admix- 
ture of cold blood, a fact that cannot be said of 
any other breed. 

Organizations and records. 

At this time efforts are being made to organize 
an American Arabian Horse Association, which 
shall publish a studbook. Arabian horses are now 
eligible for registration in the American Studbook 
and in the General Studbook of Great Britain. 

Literature. 

Roger D. Upton, Gleanings from the Desert of 
Arabia, London (1881) ; Lady Anne Blunt, The 
Bedouin Tribes of the Euphrates, 2 vols., London 
(1879) ; Same, A Pilgrimage to Nejd, 2 vols., Lon- 
don (1881); Boucant, The Arab, the Horse of the 
Future, Gay & Bird, Strand, London (1905). [For 
further references, see page 416.] 

Barb and Turk Horses. 

By Carl W. Gay. 

The Barb horse takes his name from his native 
habitat, the so-called Barbary states of northern 
Africa, originally peopled by the Berber tribes. 
These states are Morocco, Algeria, Tunis and Tripoli. 
The Barb is the " Horse of the Sahara," of Daumas, 
the " North African " or " Libyan " horse of Ridge- 
way. The Oriental group is composed of the Barb, 
the Turk, and the Arabian, although most recent 
investigations indicate the Barb to have been the 
real source of all Oriental blood. A common error 
resulting in much confusion is the use of the term 
Arabian in a sense synonymous with Oriental. 



450 



HORSE 



HORSE 



Description. 

The Barb is fourteen to fifteen hands in height, 
short of body in proportion to length of limb, his 
whole form being conducive to speed. The head is 
beautifully proportioned, with a neat ear, broad, 
full forehead, large, clear, prominent eye, flashing 
fire and yet expressing intelligence, a deep jowl 
with open angle, a trim muzzle and a nostril thin at 
the margin, capable of great dilation and continu- 
ally in play. The head is nicely set on a rather long, 
high-crested neck, well cut-out in the throttle and 
giving the head a lofty carriage; shoulders well 
laid-in and sloping, well set-up at the withers ; 
deep, well-arched rib ; somewhat drooping croup, 
although the tail is carried high ; straight hind- 
leg, long pasterns, and rather deep, narrow foot of 
the most superior texture of horn. 

The prevailing colors in Barbary are dark bay, 
brown, chestnut, black and gray. Ridgeway con- 
curs with other authors in his conclusions that bay 
with some white markings, as a star or a blaze, 
together with white coronets, was the original 
color of the pure Barb. He reasons that the rigid 
course of selection which modern, scientific breed- 
ing has established for the improvement of the race 
is, incidentally, gradually eliminating all but bays 
and allied browns and chestnuts, and indicates the 
final exclusion of all but the bays. Statistics re- 
garding the winners of the principal racing events 
bear out this conclusion. Thus, as the " blood tells," 
the bay color predominates. 

History. 

History first records the horse under domesti- 
cation in Egypt, and it is thought that his general 
distribution throughout the civilized world, which 
took place largely through the agency of the con- 
quests of nations, has been made from this center. 
Such an indefinite beginning is given a more satis- 
factory explanation by the modern researches 
reported by Ridgeway, which he maintains are 
strongly suggestive that the Egyptians secured 
their horses from Libya, where they are thought 
to have been indigenous. This hypothesis has a 
striking significance in view of the fact that the 
Libyan horse of Ridgeway is identical with the 
subject of this discussion. 

Zoologically, there have been demonstrated three 
distinct species of horses in the genus Equus besides 
the various species of asses, zebras, and the extinct 
quagga. To these, Ridgeway adds Equus caballus 
libycus, held by him to be a distinct species or at 
least a sub-species. This being the case, we are 
justified in accepting the Barb as the progenitor 
of all modern light breeds, the Turk and Arabian 
being derivatives, and not antecedents of the Barb. 
It is known that horses existed in Egypt 1,500 
years before they were in Arabia, a fact that is 
contrary to the popular belief that the genesis of 
all good horses was in Arabia. It establishes the 
Barb as the real origin of the Thoroughbred, the 
blood influence of which is recognized in all horse- 
breeding countries. Furthermore, in view of the 
fact that the Andalusian horse of Spain traces its 
ancestry across the Mediterranean, the Barb 



becomes an important part of the native base on 
which the improvement of horses in America has 
been made. 

In America. — The most notable Oriental horses 
brought to America are Grand Bashaw, a Barb from 
Tripoli, whose immediate descendants founded the 
Clay, Patchen and Bashaw families ; Zilcaadi, an 
Arabian from Turkey, and sire of the dam of Gold 
Dust ; Leopard, an Arab, and Linden Tree, a Barb, 
presented to General Grant and used by Randolph 
Huntington in his creation of the Clay Arabian. 
Most important of recent importations are those of 
Mr. Homer Davenport, the most conspicuous indi- 
vidual of which is Haleb. (Fig. 460.) 

Importance of the Barb. 

The importance of the Barb is a matter of his- 
tory, although it is only recently that there has 
been much reliable data concerning him available. 
Much of the early literature has been more or less 
obscured in mythology and superstition. 

Authorities may differ in their views concern- 
ing Darwin's theory of the origin of species, but 
the facts pertaining to the formation and develop- 
ment of those subdivisions of the species called 
breeds are too well established to admit of any 
question. These facts show conclusively that the 
striking contrast in the size, type, conformation, 
quality, temperament and adaptability of the pon- 
derous Belgian on the one hand, and the racy 
Thoroughbred on the other, is directly a matter of 
inheritance, no matter how much the environment 
may have influenced the two original types from 
which each respective line of inheritance has been 
derived. A study of the origin of each of the 
breeds of horses shows that there were two origi- 
nal sources from which the foundation blood of 
each breed was drawn. These were the wild Black 
horse of Flanders, thought to have been indigen- 
ous to central Europe from the Rhine river to the 
Black sea, and characterized by his great scale, 
grossness, slow awkward movement, sluggish lym- 
phatic temperament, black color and extreme 
development of hair ; and the Oriental horse, 
native to the desert regions of northern Africa, 
Turkey, Asia Minor, Persia and Arabia, the most 
notable characteristics of which were extreme 
refinement and breediness, beauty of form, spirit 
and intelligence, speed, stamina and grace of 
movement, and an active nervous temperament. 
The breeds of the heavier, draftier type show a 
preponderance of the characters of the former, 
while those of the lighter, speed type resemble 
more closely the latter. The so-called coach breeds 
represent a more or less proportionate blending of 
the two. 

Use. 

Some idea of the extent to which the Oriental 
blood has proved a potent factor in the foundation 
or improvement of modern breeds may be had from 
a review of the origin of some of them. The term 
Oriental is used in this connection for the reason 
that earlier writers were not specific in their ref- 
erences to Barbs, Turks, or Arabians. The Darley 



HORSE 



HORSE 



451 



Arabian, Byerly Turk and Godolphin Barb, with 
the "Barb mares," have been called the real 
foundation of the Thoroughbred. The Percheron 
owes his origin to the mating of Oriental horses, 
left by the Saracens or brought back by the Cru- 
saders, with native French mares of the Flemish 
blood. Subsequently, there were made at intervals 
systematic top crosses of blood from the Orient. 
Gallipoli and Godolphin were two of the most 
important of these, and the former is regarded as 
the most influential sire in the history of the 
breed. The prototype of the Hackney, the Norfolk 
trotter, was the result of a Barb union with the 
Black trotter of Friesland. The Cleveland bay 
was the product of a Barb- Yorkshire cart horse 
cross. The hot blood of the desert is mentioned in 
connection with the origin of the German coach 
horse. Bars 1st, progenitor of the Russian Orloff 
trotter, was three generations removed from 
Smetanka, a gray Arabian taken into Russia. The 
Prussian Trakehner is derived from an admixture 
of Oriental and Thoroughbred blood with the 
native stock. [See further under History in 
America.] 

There is some question as to the value of this 
Oriental horse to the breeder of the present time, 
although its importance as a foundation stock is so 
well demonstrated. For example, the Thorough- 
bred is an improvement over his Oriental ancestors 
as a race horse, and fresh infusions of the blood 
are generally regarded as detrimental. Further- 
more, no increase in trotting speed can be expected 
to follow crosses of the Oriental blood on our 
American Standardbred trotter. Nevertheless, 
there k <*n active demand in the markets of today 
for a horse that is neither a running race horse 
nor a trotting race horse, but a harness type. In 
this horse, a pleasing appearance and good 
manners are as valuable attributes as speed, and 
to this end beauty of form, symmetry, quality and 
finish, style and a pleasant, tractable disposition, 
are essentials that offset extreme speed. It is 
as a source of these desired characters that the 
Oriental horse finds a place in meeting modern 
market demands. 

Organizations and records. 

Barbs are registered in The Algerian Studbook, a 
book of record recognized by the United States 
Department of Agriculture. It is said that the 
number of English and French horses in Algeria 
has led to the Barb being more extensively crossed 
with this blood than in Morocco, where there are 
fewer foreign horses, and systematic efforts have 
been made under the direction of the Sultan to 
keep the blood pure. Some Barbs are also regis- 
tered with Arabians in the General Studbook of 
Great Britain. 

The Turk Horse. 

This horse, named with the Barb and the Arabian 
as constituting the so-called Oriental group, has 
much less significance than either of his contem- 
poraries. Sanders suggests that the horses of 



Arabia and Persia were originally derived from 
Turkey. In the light of recent investigations we 
are led to conclude that the term Turk does not 
imply any particular stock, but designates merely 
the horses of Turkey. These have been of a, differ- 
ent character at different periods. The originals, 
called Turcoman, were probably offshoots from the 
pony types native to the mountainous districts of 
southern Asia. They were first reported in Turke- 
stan, but became generally distributed later in Turk- 
ish Asia and Persia; there are few horses in Turkey 
in Europe. These original ponies do not represent 
the Turk as he is referred to in recent times, how- 
ever. Their type has been so completely modified 
by the Arabians with which they have been crossed 
as to leave little evidence of their former charac- 
teristics. However, plain heads with Roman noses, 
ewe necks, light middles and long legs are still 
noticeable, and are charged to the Turcoman foun- 
dation. These modified Turkish horses are of fair 
size, bay, black or gray in color, with uniform 
white markings. In those parts of Turkey nearest 
the Arabian border, many pure Arabians are found. 
Captain Hayes reports that the horses in ordinary 
use in Turkish towns at the present time are small, 
hardy animals, grey or bay in color, and are pro- 
duced by Arabian stallions out of Kurdistan pony 
mares, the latter being similar to the Turcoman 
ponies already referred to, and typical of the 
horses indigenous to Turkey. Probably the best 
Turks, so-called, were not Turks at all, but Ara- 
bians or Barbs. 

Literature. 

E. Daumas, The Horses of the Sahara, London 
(1863). [For further references, see page 416.] 

Belgian Draft Horse. Fig. 461. 

By W. L. Carlyle. 

As the name suggests, this breed is developed 
for draft purposes. It has little value for any 
other purpose, being of a sluggish temperament, 
although very powerful. 

Description. 

The Belgian draft horse is one of the most com- 
pact in form of any draft breed found in America, 
possessing a maximum of weight with very short 
body set on short legs. The form is broad, mas- 
sive and well proportioned, as a rule. In quality, 
it is somewhat lacking, the legs appearing round 
and rather coarse. The tendons of the legs are 
large and not well defined. The skin is sometimes 
fine, although the hair is occasionally rather coarse 
and inclined to curl. The head is of good size, the 
nostrils are large and the eyes small and not very 
prominent. The ears are small, set wide apart and 
generally are not well carried. The neck is short, 
very thick and well crested. The shoulders are 
upright, strong and heavily muscled. The chest is 
deep and wide, giving a very large girth. The 
ribs are long, well sprung, and closely ribbed up 
to the hip, giving a better barrel than is found in 
any other breed of draft horses. The back is short, 



452 



HORSE 



HORSE 



very broad and inclined to sag somewhat more 
than is desired. The loins are wide, short and very 
thick. The flank is low and full. The hind-quar- 
ters are inclined to be short, very wide and mus- 
cular, and the tail is attached somewhat low and 
not well carried. The lower thighs are usually 
very wide and well muscled. The hocks are round, 
not clearly defined and too " meaty." One of the 
serious faults the American horsemen have found 
with this breed is in the character of the bone of 




Fig. 461. A Belgian stallion 

the legs, particularly with the hock joints. The 
feet also receive rather severe criticism, as the 
hoofs are inclined to be small, narrow and very 
high in the heels, predisposing to side-bones and 
contracted feet. In action, the Belgians are 
inclined to stumble at the walk, but trot off freely 
and with apparent vim and spirit. In color, the 
chestnut and roan are most common, although 
brown and bay are frequently found. The grays 
are not in favor, although occasionally one is seen. 
In Belgium, these draft horses are classified 
somewhat according to the sections of the country 
in which they have been bred. Those from Flanders 
are the largest and those from Ardennais district 
the smallest, while those from Brabant are of 
medium size and weight. 

History. 

In the early history of the Belgian breed of 
draft horses, no particular animals appear to have 
been prominent nor has any breeder of outstand- 
ing merit appeared. This breed, unlike most other 
draft breeds that have been developed, has been 
almost entirely the product of its environment. 
The small country of Belgium has a reputation as 
the home of draft horses extending back through 
several centuries. Many, if not all, of the draft 
breeds of Great Britain and France were greatly 
improved during their formative period by the 
use of the heavy Flemish horses, the early pro- 
genitors of the Belgians. Modern horse-breeding 
in Belgium, however, is comparatively recent in 
its greatest activity. A revival of the interest in 
horse-breeding in Belgium was greatly stimulated 
and developed with the establishment of govern- 
ment breeding studs in 1850. The Belgium gov- 
ernment annually sets apart about $75,000 for the 



supervision and encouragement of draft - horse 
breeding in that country. By a system of prizes, 
and financial encouragement of individual breeders, 
as well as of the National Draft Horse Society 
of Belgium and the local fairs, it has had a 
very potent influence in the development of this 
breed. By every means, the government seeks to 
encourage the best efforts of individuals, and to 
discourage the exportation of desirable animals. 
The city of Antwerp, in Belgium, is noted through- 
out the world as possessing many of the finest 
specimens of draft horses to be found, and these 
horses are without exception of the Belgian breed. 

In America. 

The history of this breed in America is compara- 
tively brief. The earliest importation was prob- 
ably in 1886, when a few horses were imported 
into Illinois by Dr. A. G. Van Hoorebeke. They 
were at that time incorrectly termed " Boulan- 
nais." Since 1887, large numbers of Belgian draft 
stallions have been imported into the United States 
and have been found exceedingly valuable for 
crossing on native grade draft mares. In 1888, 
Mr. E. Lefebure began importing and promoting 
the interest of the breed in this country. One 
of the first firms to import these horses was 
D. P. Stubbs & Sons, of Fairfield, Iowa. Since 
1897, there has been a large and constantly 
increasing demand for stallions of this breed. The 
leading importers have been A. B. Holbart and 
Lefebure & Sons, of Iowa ; J. Crouch & Son, of 
Indiana ; McLaughlin Bros., of Columbus, Ohio ; 
Dunham & Fletcher, of Illinois, and H. A. Briggs, 
of Wisconsin. Very few mares have been imported 
into this country for reasons that are not well 
understood. This is due partly to the fact that 
there is not the demand for the Belgian breed to 
encourage importing and breeding, as the trade is 
better satisfied with the Percheron and some of the 
English draft breeds ; and partly because of the 
very high prices asked for Belgian mares abroad. 

Distribution. 

The Belgian draft breed of horses had no wide 
general distribution outside of its native home, 
until within the past ten years, since which time 
it has had a wide distribution on the continent, as 
it is particularly desirable for use in the heaviest 
kind of work in large cities. Numbers have been 
imported into Germany, France, Holland, Sweden, 
Austria, and other European countries, the Argen- 
tine Republic, and other South American countries, 
and to the United States, where they have had a 
wide distribution, particularly in the central states. 

Feeding and care. 

In its native country, the Belgian draft horse is 
given the best of feed and care to produce a maxi- 
mum of size and weight as early in life as possible. 
The foals on the best farms are born early in March 
or April, the dams usually doing all of the farm 
work. The foals remain in the stables during the 
day, and a number of them together in one inclosure 
if possible. While the mares are at work, the foals 



HORSE 



HORSE 



453 



are fed liberally on a sloppy mixture of equal parts 
of crushed oats and bran and sufficient water to 
form a thin gruel. They are also supplied with fresh 
drinking-water at all times and with an abundance 
of good green clover and grasses. At night they 
are turned into rich pasture lots with their dams. 
They are weaned at four or five months of age, 
very little change being made in their feed, and 
they are allowed to eat all they will con- 
sume of bran and oats, and of green clover 
and hay. They are turned into grass lots at 
night and confined to darkened stables dur- 
ing the day. This system of feeding is fol- 
lowed until they are three years of age, 
when they are broken to work. Since most 
of their feed is green and succulent, it is 
thought that this is responsible for the great 
depth of barrels of the Belgian horses, and to some 
extent for the soft bone and poor quality of feet. 

Uses. 

For draft. — As has been said, these horses are 
bred entirely for draft purposes, and they rank 
well among the heavy breeds, especially in Europe. 
The short, stocky legs, and low-set blocky body, 
make them very useful for slow, heavy hauling 
over city streets. 

For crossing. — Belgian draft horses are especi- 
ally adapted for crossing on grade draft mares, 
lacking in weight and substance, for the production 
of heavy draft horses. When crossed on grade 
Percheron or Clydesdale mares, they impart an 
increased depth of body with a comparative short- 
ening of the legs, and a general massiveness of form 
not easily secured by the use of any other breed of 
draft stallions. 

Organizations and records. 

The National Draft Horse Society of Belgium 
(Le Cheval de Trait Beige) was founded in 1886, 
and the American Association of Importers and 
Breeders of Belgian Draft Horses in 1887. The 
former association has issued a number of stud- 
books, and is very aggressive in the interest of the 
breed. It receives national financial support. For 
twenty years the latter association did very little 
to encourage the breed, which accounts, in part, for 
the little interest taken in these horses in America 
until within recent years. It is now more active. 
The first studbook was issued in 1905. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 416. 

Cleveland Bay and Yorkshire Coach Horse. Figs. 
462, 463. 

By John A. Craig. 

The Yorkshire coach horse is an outgrowth of 
the Cleveland Bay coach horse, conceded to be 
merely an improved type. The two are so insepa- 
rably associated that it is deemed best to consider 
them together. In fact, in America, they are con- 
sidered to be one breed and are registered in the 
same studbook. 



Description. 

In the Cleveland Studbook (British) there is the 
following description of the Cleveland Bay horse 
which, in addition to being very accurate, is also 
official: "From sixteen hands one inch to sixteen 
hands two and one-half inches in height, he should 
be possessed of good, sloping shoulders, a short 
back, powerful loins, and long quarters. His head 




Fig. 462. Cleveland Bay stallion. Special Delight. 

is rather plain than otherwise, and on the long side, 
but it is well carried, and his general appearance 
denotes strength, combined in a manner not seen in 
any other light horse breed. His action is not spe- 
cially high, but it is the kind for getting over the 
ground. In color he is bay — either light or dark — 
with black legs clear of hair; and black, zebra-like 
stripes on the arm and above the hocks are some- 
times seen. These are known as the black points 
and are supposed to denote special purity of breed- 
ing. White, save a small star or a few white hairs 
in the heel, is not admissible, a blaze or white foot 
proclaiming at once the admixture of foreign blood." 1 
An early writer 2 makes the following comment on 
the old stamp of Cleveland Bay, just about the 
time the Thoroughbred was to be used most liber- 
ally : " Very many of the Cleveland horses are dis- 
figured by having large heads and Roman noses ; 
and it is only when these parts are, to a certain 
extent, concealed by the winkers of the bridles and 
the trappings that adorn them, and their heads are 
borne up by the bearing rein, that they acquire the 
imposing appearance which, when well matched, 
so many of them possess. When stripped, a great 
proportion of them appear a very different sort of 
animal indeed, and, in all probability, a smaller 
and more compact sort of horse would go through 
double the quantity of work that they are capable 
of enduring. Fashion, however, is to be consulted 
by the breeder, to a certain extent ; and, so long 

1 Wallace, Farm Live Stock of Great Britain. 

2 John Burke, Royal Agricultural Society Report, Vol. 
V, 1844. 



454 



HORSE 



HORSE 



as he can obtain from job masters a large sum for 
a pair of these overgrown animals, he will do well 
to breed them without reference to their being 
unequal in point of endurance to a smaller and 
better-formed sort of draught horse. It is gener- 
ally supposed that a horse destined for harness 
should not have a very oblique shoulder, as when 
so formed he is not capable of throwing so much 
of his weight into the collar as when his shoulders 
are more upright ; but it must be remembered that 
grand and lofty action is highly prized in London 
for the purpose of show, and not for hard work, 
and hence a sloping shoulder is a point to be 
desired by the farmer who breeds carriage horses 
for the London market ; for, as I have already 
observed, it is one which is mostly accompanied by 
high action." 

In the latter part of the nineteenth century, 
after the organization of societies in the eighties, 
to promote this breed, the British public became 




Fig. 463. Cleveland Bay mare. Queen Dearest. 

interested in the horse to supplant oxen on the 
farm. At this time, too, the demand changed from 
a very heavy carriage horse to a lighter horse 
with more quality, more style and more coach or 
high action. The Cleveland had to veer one way or 
the other or become extinct. It is evident that it 
was changed towards the latter largely by the 
greater use of Thoroughbred blood, and that 
resulted in the type more commonly known by the 
name of the Yorkshire coach horse. To indicate 
the tendency of the change, the following extract 
from the Yorkshire Coach Studbook will be of 
service : "It cannot be claimed for the Yorkshire 
coach horse that he is a pure-bred animal, but 
that, on the contrary, by the judicious crossing of 
large-sized good-colored mares with stallions alto- 
gether or nearly Thoroughbred, a class of horses 
has been produced suited to the wants and circum- 
stances of the times. By universal consent, the 
color should be bay or brown, with black eyes, 
mane and tail abundant but not curly, the height 
from sixteen hands to' sixteen hands two inches, 
with fine head, sloping shoulders, strong loins, 
and lengthy quarters, high-stepping action, good 



sound feet, flat legs and abundance of bone and 
muscle." 

History, 

Perhaps the best evidence we have of the an- 
cient origin of this breed is the prevalence of so 
many theories as to the foundation from which it 
started. Martin Doyle, writing in 1843, asserts 
that it is descended from the old war horse of 
Great Britain. There are other authorities, also, 
who state that this breed has the best claim to the 
distinction of being related to the horses that 
pulled the war chariots of the early Britons when 
Julius Caesar invaded England. As a matter of 
fact the first records of the Cleveland horse con- 
nect it with being a pack or Chapman horse. 

It is historically certain that the breed origi- 
nated in Yorkshire, one of the northern counties of 
England. The conditions of Yorkshire were emin- 
ently suitable for the production of superior light 
horses. The people were horsemen, and the fertile 
valleys and hills, underlaid in the best grazing dis- 
tricts with limestone, were very productive of 
nutritious grass. 

No specific reference to the Cleveland breed 
is made by any of the earliest writers. The first 
distinct reference to the Cleveland seems to be 
that made by George Culley, in his " Observations 
on Live Stock," published in 1801. In this refer- 
ence, Culley originates the theory that the Cleve- 
land Bay horse is the result of the mixture of the 
Thoroughbred with the cart horse, a theory which 
some writers combat so far as to say that neither 
the Thoroughbred nor a heavy strain like the old 
cart horse had anything to do with the formation 
of the breed. One authority 1 , who takes unusual 
pains to substantiate the war horse theory of 
Cleveland Bay origin, goes to considerable length 
to disprove the introduction of either cart or 
Thoroughbred blood, and this he has failed to 
accomplish, as he has been forced to acknowledge 
that " Probability points to a Thoroughbred Trav- 
eller as having had something to do with impart- 
ing fresh quality and courage to the Cleveland 
Bay" The straight croup or level hind-quarter is 
a decided Thoroughbred characteristic, and it is a 
trait that most other breeds of light horses tend 
towards when much Thoroughbred blood is used, 
as has been found in the instance of both the 
Hackney and the French coach horses. It is a mat- 
ter of record, too, that Dunsley's Dart, one of the 
three sires that seem to have had most to do in 
establishing the Cleveland as a breed, goes back 
to the Darley Arabian, and the preface to the York- 
shire coach studbook so states. The old Cleveland 
Bay, the horse that was so popular in early days 
for heavy coaches and for matched teams for the 
London market, may not have had very much 
Thoroughbred blood in it, considering the amount 
that has been used later. 

The best early history of the county of York- 
shire appears in three separate prize essays by dif- 
ferent writers, published in the ninth volume of 
the Royal Agricultural Society (England) Report, 
'Light Horses: Breeds and Management.. 



HORSE 



HORSE 



455 



published in 1848, from which the following refer- 
ence by George Legard is taken: "Formerly, a 
large, powerful, bony animal was required for car- 
riage purposes ; the fashion of the present day 
has, however, changed this particular, and now it 
is necessary that the London carriage horse should 
be at least three parts Thoroughbred. Conse- 
quently, all traces of the original pure coaching 
breed or Cleveland Bay, as it was termed, are 
nearly obliterated." Another writer on Yorkshire 
in the same report, page 518, says : " The Cleve- 
land, as a pure-bred, is losing something of its 
distinctiveness. It is running into a proverb that 
a Cleveland horse is too stiff for a hunter and too 
light for a coacher, but there are still remnants 
of the breed, though less carefully kept distinct- 
ively than may be wished by advocates of the 
breed." 

Other causes, too, were operating to change the 
type of the breed and encourage the more liberal 
use of Thoroughbred blood. One of these was that 
the abundant grass -land was converted into til- 
lage-land. The high price of grains, due to the 
war, induced an unusual activity in farming, and a 
heavier horse was called for. The coal industry 
also demanded a heavier horse. Again, the use of 
the horse on the road, because of lighter vehicles, 
called for a lighter horse, so that, in a multitude of 
ways, the old type of Cleveland was undergoing 
dissolution. When the outlook seemed darkest, the 
American trade opened up, and, in 1884, the Cleve- 
land Bay Horse Society was formed, and a stud- 
book established. At this time Thoroughbred blood 
was used very liberally. So much stress would not 
be laid on the Thoroughbred blood introduced, if 
the writer did not believe that all our recognized 
breeds of light horses have more or less Thor- 
oughbred blood in them, and all are, as a conse- 
quence, rooted deep in Oriental ancestry, chiefly 
the Arab. 

In 1889, the Royal Agricultural Society recog- 
nized the Cleveland Bay as one of the distinct 
breeds of English horses, and offered prizes for it, 
although it was shown with the Yorkshire Coach. 
At the meeting of the societies, in York, as early 
as 1848, a few Clevelands were shown. 

In America. — It cannot be said that the Cleve- 
land Bay or Yorkshire coach horse ever had the 
popularity in this country that has attended the 
importation of some of the other breeds of light 
horses. Those that were imported were considered 
unusually good representatives, but the type and 
breed characteristics never found much favor. In 
coach or carriage horses, high and attractive front 
action with good hock action are essentials, com- 
bined with a stylish, smooth and symmetrical 
appearance, associated with quality in all parts. 
In these respects, the Cleveland Bay did not 
approach the excellence shown by other breeds. 

Distribution. 

The Cleveland Bay horse has enjoyed some popu- 
larity, notably in South Africa. Aside from impor- 
tations into America, the horse has been taken to 
South America, Australia and Sweden. 



Enough has been said to indicate the place of 
the Cleveland Bay as a coach horse. It has found 
some favor as a roadster, especially in England. 
These horses are very uniform in color and mark- 
ings, and they are very prepotent in transmitting 
these characters when crossed on common mares. 
Because of this their get is uniform and easily 
matched into teams. Their size and power and dis- 
position adapt them for some of the work of the 
farm better than is the case with any of the other 
breeds of light horses ; but, owing to their defic- 
iency in quality and action, they have not been gen- 
erally popular in American horse-breeding districts. 

Organizations and records. 

There are two studbooks in England, that of the 
Cleveland Bay Horse Society and that of the Coach 
Horse Society, devoted to the Yorkshire Coach. 
In 1885, the Cleveland Bay Horse Society of Amer- 
ica was organized, which registers both the Cleve- 
land Bay and the Yorkshire Coach. The headquar- 
ters of the society are in West Orange, N. J. It 
has published two volumes of its studbook. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 416. 

Clydesdale Horse. Figs. 464, 465. 

By John A. Craig. 

This breed has been known for many years as 
the draft .breed of Scotland. It is one of the oldest 
breeds of British draft horses. 

Description. 

Clydesdales have a kind, quiet disposition, good 
courage, and enough spirit. A weight of 1,700 to 
2,000 pounds for stallions and 1,500 to 1,800 
pounds for mares, with an average height of 16| 
hands for the former and 16 hands for the latter, 
may be regarded as the standard for mature, well- 
developed individuals of this breed. The charac- 
teristics of the modern Clydesdale, in reference to 
color, vary somewhat, the most prevalent being 
bay, brown, black or occasionally chestnut, with 
white markings on the forehead or face and below 
the knees and hocks. They vary more in character- 
istic markings than most of the other draft breeds, 
but in uniformity of type there is a striking simi- 
larity among the best. The head is almost inva- 
riably intelligent. The shoulder is exceptionally 
good, which gives a free, easy, long stride. It is 
somewhat oblique, accompanied by high withers. 
The arm is usually well muscled, and the bone clean 
and flat. The feather (hair on the legs) in horses 
of the best quality, springs from the edge of the 
bone, and is fine, silky and long. It is not con- 
sidered of much importance in itself, but is valued 
for what it indicates. The assertion is made that 
a proper feather protects the coronet and back 
part of the pastern from filth and mud, and, con- 
sequently, is preventative of scratches. It has 
often been objected to in America. At any rate, 
the feather, when fine, indicates that the other 



456 



HORSE 



HORSE 



tissues, the bone and skin, are also of fine texture. 
Conversely, when the feather is wiry and coarse 
and curly in this region, it surely denotes a leg 
predisposed to grease or scratches. The pastern 
and feet have been vastly improved in this breed in 
recent years, owing to the demand for more slope 
and length in the former and larger hoof heads in 
the latter. The same is true to a degree in regard to 
the coupling, which at one time was considered the 
weakness of the breed, attributable to the lack of 
depth in the shorter ribs. Increasing the depth 




Fig. 464. Baron's Pride. Said to be the greatest Clydesdale sire in thj 
Owned by A. and W. Montgomery, Scotland. 



of body and adding to the length of the hinder ribs 
have been effective in lessening the prevalence of 
this criticism. The croup of the Clydesdale is 
muscular, and the quarters are specially well devel- 
oped. The set of the hocks is one of the strong 
points of the breed. A properly set hock forecasts 
pulling power, and it also implies freedom from 
curbs and from coarseness, due to thoroughpin or 
bog spavins. With the web of the hock free from 
any filling, the latter works freer and stronger, and 
is not predisposed to diseases ; and such a hock is 
almost invariably properly set, for it will frequently 
be noticed that it is the straight hock that is more 
" meaty " and subject to bog spavins and thorough- 
pins. Properly set hocks, above all other things, 
insure the hock action which is so greatly sought 
in Clydesdales. To bring the hocks well under the 
body and not to spread too much in passing each 
other are very desirable attributes, and these are 
eminently characteristic of the Clydesdale's hind 
action. The front action in best form is free, 
snappy and folding at the knee, chiefly attributable 



to a shoulder of correct slope, and springy yet 
strong pasterns. 

History. 

The Clydesdale originated in the lowlands of 
Scotland, with the county of Lanark as the chief 
center of activity in producing the breed. It is 
frequently referred to as the Clydesdale district, 
and is divided throughout its length by the Clyde 
river. While the lowlands of Scotland have long 
been noted for the heavy horses bred there, yet it 
was not until the latter part 
of the eighteenth century 
that the breed was much im- 
proved by the importation of 
some heavy stallions from 
Flanders. John Paterson, of 
Lochlyoch, is said to have im- 
ported the first Flemish stal- 
lion for this purpose early in 
the eighteenth century. The 
Flemish stallions were large- 
boned and heavy horses of 
sluggish temperament, with 
slow, awkward action. The 
lowlands of Scotland are 
very favorable for the breed- 
ing of heavy horses, as the 
soil is fertile and the pas- 
turage luxuriant; and these, 
with a suitable climate, have 
a marked effect on the char- 
acteristics of the modern 
Clydesdale, as they are fa- 
vorable for growth of bone 
and muscle, giving both 
height and substance. 

The Clydesdale of today is 
the result of careful and per- 
sistent breeding for definite 
ends. The results of the 
breeders' efforts in a general 
way may be summed up by 
stating that they have ultimately been very suc- 
cessful in combining w T eight, quality and action as 
the prime essentials of a draft horse. These, suc- 
cessfully united, produce a draft horse that has 
pulling power, wearing quality or endurance, in 
association with ability to move properly at a 
satisfactory pace, either walking or trotting. The 
evolution of this breed of draft horses is more 
than usually interesting because of the decided 
views of the home breeders and the singleness of 
purpose which they have shown. The progress has 
been secured through concentration on one feature 
after another, until it produced the desired re- 
sults. Without government direction or aid to 
secure uniformity of progress, it is safe to say 
that the Scottish breeders have accomplished as 
marked improvement in their draft horses as the 
breeders of any other nation, and the modern 
Clydesdale of accepted type possesses inherited 
characteristics so fixed by consistent breeding that 
they are likely to be passed on to succeeding gene- 
rations. Archibald MacNeilage, secretary of the 



HORSE 



HORSE 



457 



Clydesdale Horse Society of Scotland, in a review 
(Famous Clrdesdale Sires, Transactions of High- 
land and Agricultural Society, Vol. IX, 1897) of 
the most noted Clydesdale sires from Champion to 
MacGregor 1487, shows the evolution of a type 
from a coarse prototype, which the author describes 
as being a horse of weight with plenty of strength 
of bone, but not at all "right at the ground" in the 
modern sense, nor as "sweet" in his limbs as horses 
are liked now. 

For a century the Clydesdale breeders in Scot- 
land worked without results that were striking on 
the surface, but when this cycle had passed, the 
evolution of such sires as Prince of Wales (673) 
and Darnley (222) had crowned their efforts. The 
former is credited with possessing style and action 
in an unusual degree, and these qualities were very 
desirable to graft on to the breed at that time. 
But with the production of Darnley (222), a sire 
possessing the true balance of qualities which mark 
the serviceable draft horse, with the power to 
reproduce these, the Clydesdale breed received an 
impetus that effectively disarmed the old-time 
criticism of " light middles." From the Prince of 
Wales line have come Prince of Albion (6178), said 
to be the highest-priced two-year-old draft horse 
ever sold, he bringing £3,000. He was, in turn, the 
sire of the two-year-old filly, Queen of the Roses, with 
a similar record, she bringing £1,000. Also, from 
the Prince of Wales came Cedric (1087), exported 
to Scotland from the stud of Col. Robert Holloway, 
Alexis, Illinois, one of the leading importers of 
Clydesdales in America. From the Darnley line 
have come MacGregor (1487), Baron's Pride (9122) 
(Fig. 464) McQueen (3513) ; and in such as these 
the Clydesdale breeders secured that combination 
of substance, quality and action, with right set of 
legs, for which they had striven long and assiduously. 
Beginning with a prototype coarse and weighty, it 
was refined without loss of substance ; and then by 
concentrating their attention successively on style, 
action, set of legs, slope of pasterns, through years 
of criticism and discussion, the Clydesdale of today 
emerges with the characteristics desired very pro- 
nounced, and in addition, equipped to transmit them. 

In their adherence to quality, meaning thereby 
texture of bone, cleanness of joints and fineness of 
skin and coat and feather, the Scotch breeders 
made no mistake in so improving the breed at an 
early day, for it has not only added to the appear- 
ance of the individuals, to free them from the 
charge of grossness of joints and coarseness of 
bone, but it has also added materially to their du- 
rability under the strain of steady service. Fineness 
of feather and sloping pasterns seemed fine fancy 
points to the uninitiated, but a steady demand for 
them improved the quality of the Clydesdale at a 
rapid rate. The breeders previous to this had con- 
centrated on action with a zeal that has hardly 
been equaled by the breeders of any other breed 
of horses. The demand became insistent for action 
in show and breeding stock, and the result is that, 
in the possession of this feature, judged from a 
purely mechanical standpoint, the breed has made 
marvelous progress. The action required had to be 



straight, regular and free, both at the walk and at 
the trot, with a free flexion of the knee, a springi- 
ness to the pastern and a straight and close pas- 
sage of the hocks. In the effort to secure these 
improvements, the Scotch breeders were very ably 
supported by the American breeders, although the 
latter did not feel like going so far in the securing 
of quality as the home breeders. It is very likely 
that the latter felt some misgivings on the point, 
for there is no doubt but that the slight infusion of 
Shire blood, which was made into the Clydesdale, 
chiefly through the use of Prince of Wales (673) 
blood, is, to some degree, evidence that they wished 
to regain some substance and weight, which, for 
the time being, had been sacrificed to a degree for 
quality. 

The Clydesdale breeders ultimately secured what 
they had striven for, even though little attention 
has been paid to the American dislike for splashes 
of white on legs or body. In this connection it may 
be given as a general principle that while it is well 
to bear in mind the peculiar requirements of any 
trade, yet it is well to be careful in the matter of 
humoring any fad as to color or any other fancy 
point, when it clashes in any way with real essen- 
tials. Having secured the latter, then the question 
of markings and color may properly be allowed to 
enter as a substantial factor. Another feature is 
that the history of the live-stock trade in this 
country indicates that to cater to a color, especially 
of a fad, has its dangers. The preference for red 
among Shorthorn admirers carried to the point of 
a prejudice against the roan, has reacted, although 
not until the breed had suffered as a consequence. 
The Percheron breeders submerged the old gray 




Fig. 465. 



A Clydesdale filly. 



Percheron and gave preference to the more 
modern black in answer to American preference, 
and now that the demand of the draft-horse market 
in this country is said to place a premium on grays, 
the breeders will have to swing back if American 
preference is to be recognized. Uniformity of color 
and attractive markings are admitted by every one 
to be desired, and the Clydesdale is the sufferer for 
bizarre markings. 



458 



HORSE 



HORSE 



In America. — The first importations were made 
into Canada in 1842, when Archibald Ward, of 
Markham, Ontario, imported Grey Clyde, 78 ; three 
years later, R. Johnson, of Scarborough, Ontario, 
imported Sovereign, 181. Other importations were 
made into Canada in 1850-51-54. About twenty 
years later Clydesdales were imported to the United 
States, both directly from Scotland and from 
Canada as well. The largest importations were 
made after 1880, and in the following twelve years 
many thousands of both sexes were brought to 
America. They are now widely distributed, and 
generally known and used. 

Distribution. 

The adaptability of the Clydesdale, has led to a 
wider distribution of it than of any of the other 
draft breeds. It has found favor in the leading 
English-speaking countries, including, in addition 
to the United States, Canada, Australia and New 
Zealand. The Argentine Republic has imported 
many of the best, while several of the European 
nations, notably Germany, Sweden and Russia, 
have been most active in making importations. It 
has also found its way into South Africa. On this 
continent, the breed has been most popular in 
Canada, and the good effects of the use of this 
breed in grading up farm mares to produce draft- 
ers serviceable on the farm and marketable on the 
best markets, may be seen on almost any Canadian 
farm, while on the streets of the large Canadian 
cities, such as Toronto, Hamilton and Winnipeg, 
the teams attached to the lorries, showing in their 
characteristics Clydesdale breeding, will compare 
favorably with any others doing like service under 
similar conditions. 

Uses. 

For draft. — The Clydesdale is essentially a draft 
horse, bred for that purpose alone. His free, 
straight, rapid gait, and strong, heavy frame, give 
him high rank among draft breeds. 

For crossing. — Good types of pure-bred Clydes- 
dales on native draft mares have given grades 
with considerable snap and power, well adapted for 
medium draft work in the city and on the farm. 

The secretary of the American Clydesdale Asso- 
ciation has reported the sale of four draft geld- 
ings, largely of Clydesdale breeding, on the Union 
Stock Yards market for $3,200, to Nelson Morris 
Company. Sales by private treaty are not reported 
to the extent that auction sales are, but this, 
however, is considered to be a record price on 
the Union Stock Yards' market. It is, in a degree, 
an index to the merit attainable by horses of this 
extraction for draft purposes. 

Organizations and records. 

In 1877, the American Clydesdale Horse Asso- 
ciation was formed to look after the interest of 
this breed in America, and up to 1907, about 15,- 
000 registrations had been entered, there having 
been over 1,000 entries during the past year. The 
Scotch Clydesdale Horse Society was organized in 
1878, and it has a registration of over 30,000 



stallions and mares. Each of these associations 
issues a studbook, the American Association having 
published thirteen volumes and the Scotch Society 
twenty-nine volumes. The headquarters of the 
American Association are in the Union Stock 
Yards, Chicago. 

Literature. 

For references, see page 416. 

French Coach Horse. Fig. 466. 
By John A. Craig. 

The name " French coach " originated in America, 
and it is here the official designation of this breed 
of coach horses, although it is not in use in France, 
where the name "Demi-Sang" prevails. 

There has always been a strong demand in most 
of the horse markets of the world for high-class 
coach or carriage teams. The fact that carriage 
teams of right type and action bring unusually 
high prices in the horse markets has always been 
a strong stimulus for their production. This of it- 
self has led to the development of breeds suitable 
for the production of such horses in several coun- 
tries, but an additional stimulus was added to the 
production of the French coach through the French 
government being actuated by the desire to supply 
its army with the best remounts. The wisdom of 
this has already accrued to the advantage of the 
private individual, for superior carriage horses are 
always at a premium, and it remains for a war to 
bring to the attention of other nations the superior 
foresight with which France has provided for her 
cavalry and other army corps in the matter of re- 
mounts. It is a national work, the matured fruit 
of which will be fully apparent only in a national 
crisis when most needed. 

Description. 

Coach type. — The French coach horse of the coach 
or " carrossier " type is in every essential a coach 
or carriage horse according to the market require- 
ments. These horses stand, on an average, sixteen 
hands high, and in weight may vary from ten to 
fourteen hundred pounds. Most of the horses of this 
type are upstanding, carrying their heads and tails 
high when in motion or at rest. They are smooth, 
symmetrical and invariably of fine .quality, with 
very graceful movement, having high and bold 
knee action, with regular, uplifting, hock action. 
They have intelligent heads, graceful necks, 
snugly ribbed bodies, and muscular quarters. If 
any part of the conformation might be chosen 
as fit for general criticism, it would be the legs, 
although these, in most instances, are well set 
and have every evidence of quality. There is an 
airiness and gracefulness about a well set-up French 
coacher that is hard to find in any other coach 
breed. It is due chiefly to their unusual length and 
gracefulness of neck, in conjunction with a spirit 
of alertness in movement or statuesqueness in 
standing which, besides being due to bodily con- 
formation, is also traceable to the excellent train- 
ing they receive to show their qualities to the best 



HORSE 



HORSE 



459 



advantage. The common colors are bay, brown or 
black. Considering the mixed breeding followed in 
evolving the French coach, it is exceptionally uni- 
form in type, a result due likely to the uniformity 
in the standards of the men who as directors have 
control of the government breeding operations. The 
greatest success in producing the most handsome 
and stylish carriage or coach horses has been 
by using mares approaching as nearly as pos- 
sible the type desired, with as much quality 
and action as possible. /, 

The trotting type. — The production of the Jj$_ 
trotting type for many purposes has been 
encouraged since 1836, when the French gov- 
ernment began offering prizes for trotting 
races, with the special object of encouraging long- 
distance trotting, more especially under the saddle. 
The races are usually for distances varying from 
two to three miles, and are run over sod ground. 
The records are established by the kilometre, which 
is about five-eighths of a mile, without reference 
to whether the race extended one or three miles. 
They are made under saddle from a standing start 
and carrying not less than 120 pounds. As might 
be expected, those of the trotting type are racier 
in appearance, being somewhat like our own trot- 
ters, finely drawn, more angular than the coach 
type, rangier in appearance and somewhat better 
in quality. A horse of stamina and substance, as 
well as speed, is required, for it is to be remem- 
bered that the races are for long distances over 
turf, which demands strong, bold going and pow- 
erful action. [Speed records and races are discussed 
on the following page.] 

History. 

In the latter part of the seventeenth century, the 
French government, by establishing the Adminis- 
tration des Haras, began the systematic improve- 
ment of their horses, and as early as 1690 there 
were 1,600 stallions known as "royal" or "ap- 
proved." During the many years of disturbance in 
France, changes of government and national 
reverses, the work has gone steadily on to the 
present day. In 1789, there were 3,239 stallions 
in the government service, and at the present time 
provision is made for the maintenance of 3,300 
government stallions, mostly kept in that part of 
France west of Paris, and particularly in the 
province or district of Normandy. It is in this 
section that the breed has had its greatest growth, 
and it was because of this that some of the earlier 
importations were called Anglo-Normans. In 1833, 
a studbook was established, and in 1870 the 
department of agriculture was given control of 
the government horse-breeding interests under the 
supervision of a director general and staff of 
inspectors. The government control is exercised in 
a way very similar to that described in discussing 
the Percheron, except that the government, in the 
case of the coach horses, does most of the breed- 
ing, and consequently branded stallions among the 
French coachers are not so common as among the 
draft breeds. According to the report of the 
Director General for 1903, about fifteen hundred 



stallions owned by private parties were approved 
and authorized. The same classes are made as in 
the case of the draft breeds, there being (1) the 
stallions in the government service, (2) the stal- 
lions subsidized to the extent of $100 to $1,000 
yearly while approved, and (3) the stallions author- 
ized for public patronage. All others are prevented 
by a law passed in 1885 from 
standing at public service, al- 
though any owner, at his discre- 




Fig. 466. French coach mare. Modjeska 2194. 

tion, may use such for private purposes, a practice 
that is not encouraged. 

In the breeding operations of the government, a 
great variety of sources are drawn on. Thorough- 
breds have been very extensively imported from 
England since the early days of the breed, and 
Hackneys have been freely imported and liberally 
used ; in the inception of the breed, twenty to 
thirty Hackneys were imported annually. Heavy 
importations of Arabians and others from the 
Orient, have been made, particularly in the early 
stages of government control, and even stallions of 
American breeding have been used. Niger, whose 
record is quoted elsewhere as among the best, was 
sired by the Hackney stallion Norfolk Phenomenon, 
and had an American - bred mare for his dam. 
Descendants of Norfolk Phenomenon were a popu- 
lar line of breeding, and enter largely into the 
pedigrees of many of the Demi-Sang. Another 
stallion that had considerable to do with the better 
type was Aemulus by Mambrino Pilot, and out of 
a Morgan-bred mare, Black Bess, consequently 
representing one of the old strains, common among 
our Standardbred trotters. This is mentioned to 
indicate further the variety of sources drawn on 
for foundation stock. In the production of trotters 
among the French coach horses, one stallion, 
Fuschia, holds about the same relation to the breed 
as Hambletonian 10 does to that of our American 
Standardbred trotters, in the extent to which the 
blood of each predominates in the respective breeds. 

In America. — The French coach horse was most 
extensively imported to this country during the 
eighties, many of them coming to the eastern states. 



460 



HORSE 



HORSE 



Those sent west were most largely taken to the 
states of Illinois and Ohio. In the middle west they 
have been liberally patronized, and when the foun- 
dation mares were of suitable size and type, and a 
fair degree of action, high-class carriage horses 
have been produced. The scarcity of the proper 
type of mares to breed to such stallions militated 
against the reputation of the breed for crossing 
purposes ; and especially has the scarcity of genuine 
coach action been the source of some disappoint- 
ment. 

Distribution. 

The French coach horse has been imported into 
many parts of Europe and America, but has not 
been bred systematically on a large scale in many 
parts of the country. As has been said, it is found 
in America chiefly in the eastern states, Illinois 
and Ohio being, perhaps, the leaders. 

Types. 

Owing to the needs of the army, the French 
coach horse in France is represented by two types, 
referred to as the Demi-Sang trotteur, or those of 
the trotting type, and the Demi-Sang carrossier, or 
those of the coach type. There are now two stud- 
books in France for the registration of these : The 
French Studbook, A Register of Demi-Sang Horses 
Born and Imported in France, established in 1833; 
and the Studbook Trotteur, compiled and published 
in 1907. Records had been compiled before this, 
but only in recent years has the full importance of 
these become manifest to the patrons of the breed. 

Speed records and races. 

As to speed, M. W. Dunham, who has been an 
extensive importer and breeder, has compiled the 
following data from official records : In 1891, there 
were 1,399 contestants in races, 312 of which 
trotted races of two to three and three-fourths 
miles at less than three minutes per mile ; 137 
under 2:50, 112 under 2:45 and 62 under 2:40. 
One hundred and one of the 312 were three-year- 
olds. The average distance was 2 T V miles ; aver- 
age time per mile, 2:50; fastest time for three- 
year-olds, distance 2J miles, 6 : 33 ; fastest time for 
five- to seven-year-olds, distance 3 J miles, 8 minutes. 
In further reference to speed it may be noted that in 
1877, Zacinthe is credited with having trotted 18| 
miles over a good road in 59 minutes, and Niger 
in 1873 trotted 2J miles in 6 : 55. To prevent the 
sacrifice of size for speed, it is asserted by the 
authority just previously quoted that a law was 
enacted excluding all horses from public races that 
were under fifteen and one-fourth hands high. 

As illustrating the conditions under which most 
of the races are held, the Derby of Rouen may be 
cited. It is worth 20,000 francs, made for three- 
year-olds, to be entered the year of their birth, 
and trotted in June on turf track two miles under 
saddle, fillies to carry 120 pounds, colts 125 pounds. 
From these conditions and the data submitted, it 
is easy to understand that the government's aim is 
to encourage speed at the trot without sacrificing 
stamina or substance. 



Uses. 

The use of the French coach horse for carriage, 
cavalry and fast saddle purposes will have been 
gathered from the preceding discussion. It remains 
to mention the use of French coach stallions on 
common mares bred in America for the production 
of a grade coach horse for general city purposes. 
Considerable success has followed such efforts when 
pure-bred stallions have been used. Half- and three- 
quarter-bred coachers have commanded high prices 
on the market. 

Organizations and records. 

The studbooks devoted to this breed in France 
are mentioned under types. The French Jockey 
Club, organized in 1833, has been responsible for 
much of the development of the breed. The French 
coach is represented in America by two societies, 
the French Coach Horse Society of America, 
organized in 1888, with the present secretary at 
Oak Park, Illinois, and the French Coach Horse 
Registry Company, organized in 1904, with head- 
quarters in Columbus, Ohio. Each society pub- 
lished the first volume of its studbook in 1906. 

Literature. 

For references, see page 416. 

French Draft Horse. Figs. 467, 468. 

By W. L. Garlyle. 

A number of breeds and types of draft horses 
have been developed in France, and specimens of 
most of them have been introduced into America 
simply as French draft horses. This has led to 
some confusion in the names, as there is no single 
French draft breed, but rather several distinct 
breeds or types of French draft horses. The French 
draft horse best known in America is the Per- 
cheron (see pages 478-481). Others less well known 
are the Ardennais, Boulonnais, Breton and Niver- 
naise, which are here given brief treatment. The 
Picardy draft horse has been said to be a variety 
or type of the Boulonnais. By some writers it is 
held to be a Belgian breed. 

Ardennais Horse. 

This draft breed or type is a native of Ardennais, 
adjoining the Belgian, frontier in northeastern 
France, and resembles very much in type and char- 
acteristics the Belgian draft horse. It is a very 
blocky, compact breed of great usefulness for pro- 
ducing heavy farm "chunks," and one type is used 
largely as heavy draft horses. Individuals of this 
breed scarcely equal in size the Belgians, but are of 
the same general type. The heads are strong, with 
small eyes and ears, short, thick necks, heavy shoul- 
ders and short, thick and compact bodies. The legs 
are short, of fairly good quality, although the feet 
are high and narrow. The color of the Ardennais 
is more frequently chestnut and roan than any- 
thing else, although bay and brown are sometimes 
found. Gray is not common and is not looked 
on with favor. When imported into this country, 
horses of this breed are eligible for registration in 




Plate XIV. Draft horses. — Percheron above, Belgian beneath 



HORSE 



HORSE 



461 



the studbook of the National French Draft Horse 
Association of America. 

Boulonnais Horse. Fig. 467. 

The head of the Boulonnais is of good size, being 
broad in the forehead and with a larger eye than 
the Percheron, and somewhat more clean-cut about 




Fig. 467. Champion Boulonnais horse. Bigotte. (No. 2405.) 

the lower part of the head. The neck is medium 
in length and clean-cut. The shoulders are laid 
well into the body and well muscled. The body is 
compact and deep -ribbed, with short and broad 
back and well-muscled loins. The croup and rump 
are inclined to be short and with a low-set tail. 
The hind - quarters are muscular and broad with 
well-filled thighs. The legs and feet are free from 
superfluous, hair and are possessed of excellent 
quality. Many Americans favor the feet of the 
Boulonnais in preference to those of any of the 
other French breeds. On the whole, the feet are 
larger, more rounded and the pasterns have more 
slope than the Percherons. The colors are dapple 
gray, dark iron-gray, black, brown and occasion- 
ally chestnut. 

The northern part of France has been particu- 
larly fertile in the production of high-class horses 
of various types. This has been due in part to the 
character of the soil and climate and to the char- 
acter of food on which they have been fed, and in 
part also to the taste and temperament of the 
people in this section. In addition to the Percheron 
and Demi- Sang Normand, or French coach horse, 
there have been developed in this region several 
distinctive types or breeds ranging in character- 
istics from coach horses to the heaviest type of 
draft animals. 

The Boulonnais breed originated in the Boulogne 
district in northeastern France adjoining Belgium. 
In common with the other draft breeds of France, 
the Boulonnais horses without doubt had their 
origin in the heavy Flemish horses. In their general 
characteristics they very much resemble the Per- 
cheron, so much so that it is impossible in the best 
specimens to distinguish one from the other. In 
recent years more animals of gray color are to 
be found among the Boulonnais than among the 
Percherons, and there has probably been less change 
and improvement in type in the Boulonnais breed 
than in the Percherons. They are not so large as the 
Percherons, and somewhat less refined, on the whole. 



The breed has an excellent reputation in its native 
country, where an association has been formed and 
a studbook kept in the interest of the breed. It 
has been imported in large numbers to America 
and has more largely than any other breed made 
up what is known as the French draft breed. 

This breed is growing in popularity in America, 
and its interests, together with other French draft 
breeds, are represented in the National French 
Draft Association of America, which publishes a 
studbook. This Association was first organized as 
the National Norman Horse Association in 1876, 
but its title was changed to the one that it now 
bears in 1885. The Association thus far has pub- 
lished nine studbooks. The present headquarters 
of the Association are at Denver, Colorado. 

Breton Horse. Fig. 468. 

This breed of light draft or general-purpose 
horses belongs to Brittany, in the western part of 
France in a section of country that is much broken 
in surface. 

In general, these horses have intelligent heads, 
clean-cut necks of medium length, beautiful, round, 
well-muscled bodies with short backs and rather 
longer and straighter croups and rumps than the 
other French breeds, and with more quality in the 
legs and feet, the latter being large and more 
rounded in form than the Percheron or the Boulon- 
nais. In color they are dapple-gray, with very 
few exceptions. 

Brittany has been prominent in horse-breeding for 
many years, although the animals bred are rather of 
a miscellaneous type. The Breton horses are exceed- 
ingly useful and of much the same general character 
as the old-style Percherons, but are smaller and more 
refined in type. Many of the Percheron stallions 




Fig. 468. A Breton Stallion. 

have been taken into this district in recent years 
in an effort to improve the breed in size and char- 
acter. It is stated by some historians that English 
races have been introduced into this section, which 
possibly accounts for the more luxuriant growth of 
hair about the legs. Representatives of this type 
of horses are used very largely in France as omni- 



462 



HORSE 



HORSE 



bus horses in the cities. They have not been 
imported to this country to any great extent, prob- 
ably owing to their lack of size and weight. 

This breed may be registered in the studbook of 
the National French Draft Horse Association of 
America. 

Nivbrnaise Horse. 

The Nivernaise is a breed of draft horses of 
French origin. The horses are of large size, with 
good length of neck, well-formed bodies of good 
length, massive shoulders and hind-quarters, very 
strong boned, giving the legs a rather round 
appearance. They are uniformly black in color. 
Seldom, if ever, is a gray, brown or chestnut to be 
found. 

This breed of horses has been developed in the 
Department of Nivernaise, or Nievre, in central 
France, and is one of the largest of the French 
draft horses. Its interests have not been very 
carefully looked after, and the choice specimens of 
the breed are not very numerous. It is only within 
the past two or three years that an association has 
been formed in France for the keeping of records 
in the form of a studbook. It is thought by Amer- 
icans who have investigated the matter that the 
transformation in color and size in the Percheron 
horses in the past ten or fifteen years has been 
brought about, to some extent at least, by the use 
of the best types of Nivernaise stallions from this 
district, crossed on the mares of the LaPerche 
district. 

This breed is being imported to America to an 
increasing extent in recent years, where it is 
classed as one of the French draft breeds. Individ- 
uals of this breed may be recorded in the studbook 
of the National French Draft Horse Association of 
America on the same basis as are the horses of 
the Boulonnais breed. 

Literature. 

For references, see page 416. 

German Coach Horse. Fig. 469. 

By M. W. Harper. 

The name indicates that this is a breed of coach 
horses, taking its name from Germany, where it 
was developed. Horse-breeding in Germany is in- 
fluenced greatly by military requirements, and there 
are found few of the powerful and compactly built 
types, such as the English Shire horse. Although 
Germany has several types or breeds of horses that 
are suitable for commercial and military purposes, 
she still imports many English horses. 



In describing the characteristics of a typical 
German Coach horse as seen in America, the Ger- 
man Hanoverian and Oldenburg coach Horse Stud- 
book says : 

"The typical German horse is bay, brown or 
black, sixteen to sixteen and one-half hands high, 
and weighs 1,350 to 1,450 pounds. He has a deep, 
round body, close ribs, well proportioned, neck long 



and high set on the shoulders, neat at the throat, 
with neat head and with bright and intelligent 
countenance. His back is short and strong, smooth 
at coupling, tail well set, plump rounded quarters, 
strongly muscled limbs, strong hock, clean flat bone, 
and the best possible feet." 

From the discussion of types given below, it will 
be evident that these horses vary in size. Coarse- 
ness is not uncommon, as seen in large head and 
joints, with more or less largeness of bone. In 
action, there is a wide difference of merit, and, 
from the coach horse point of view, they are fre- 
quently deficient in this respect. A superior folding 
of knee and flexing of hock, with desirable action, 
is not a prevailing attribute of the American spec- 
imens of the breed. 

History. 

The German Empire is composed of numerous 
states and principalities. Owing to the number of 
separate governments involved prior to the consol- 
idation of the Empire, there was no single fixed 
policy followed, for which reason there are many 
marked differences between the various strains of 
coach horses found in the Empire. The multiplicity 
of states likewise renders it hard to reach very 
accurate conclusions regarding the early history 
of most of these strains, but there is no doubt that 
in point of antiquity these horses rank with any of 
the other breeds. 

The northwestern parts of Germany, particularly 
the lowlands drained by the rivers Elbe, Weser 
and Ems, which flow into the North sea, has long 
been noted as the horse-breeding section of the 
Empire. Early records of horse-breeding in Ger- 
many go back nearly five centuries. As early as 
1500, important annual fairs were held in Fries- 
land, near the Holland boundary, where buyers from 
Holland, Belgium and Germany found superior 
horses. A government stud was established at Ilo, 
which contained 182 horses in 1648. At Harlinger- 
land, in East Friesland, government studs were in 
operation, and reports refer to these as far back as 
1712, when sixteen stallions were used for the ser- 
vice of 819 mares. In 1889, in this same region, 
fifteen stallions were used on 1,421 mares. It does 
not appear that the Germans have made extended 
use of the Thoroughbred in the evolution of some 
strains of their coach horses, although in others 
the trace of the blood is plainly discernible. It is 
well known that the German cavalryman with his 
kit weighs more than the soldier of any other 
army, hence we find the German horses possessing 
much substance. In other horse-breeding countries, 
we find draft and coach horses being developed 
side by side, which leads to a division of labor, the 
heavy or draft horses doing the heavy work, and 
the light horses doing the lighter work. This is 
not so in Germany, where the one breed serves both 
purposes. This leads to increased size. No effort 
to inject speed at the trot has been made at any 
time. The heavier soldiers, the heavier work and 
the slower gaits, all tend to increased size, hence 
we find the German coach the heaviest of the coach 
horses. 



HORSE 



HORSE 



463 



Government supervision of horse-breeding in 
Germany has obtained for centuries. The use of 
stallions on mares of East Friesland was regulated 
by royal edict for many years. It was made a law 
that no permits should be issued authorizing the 
use of stallions, unless the latter had passed a sat- 
isfactory government inspection. At the present 
time, both the government and the agricultural 
societies promote intelligent horse-breeding. Prizes 
are awarded to animals of special merit, and such 
animals must remain in the country for a 
specified term. First prizes are awarded only 
to mature horses and mares that have shown 
merit as breeders. Stallion shows have long 
been held at Aurich, in East Friesland, where 
the horses are brought annually for inspec- 
tion and approval. Prizes for brood mares 
are also awarded by the government. 

In America. — The history of the German coach 
horse in America is comparatively brief. It first 
made its appearance in the United States in the 
eighties. Not much prior to 1890 did the breed 
receive recognition at American shows. A. B. Hol- 
bert, of Greeley, Iowa, was one of the earliest 
introducers of the breed. Oltmann Brothers, of 
Illinois, and Crouch & Son, of Indiana, have also 
been most actively and prominently identified with 
its promotion in America. 

German coach horses of importance are not as 
yet found in America in large numbers. Among 
the earlier ones imported, Moltke 13, Kaiser Wil- 
helm 494, Young Altma I 458, and Young Adonis 
476, met with favorable comment, the latter being 
a successful prize-winner in California in 1891. In 
the central West, Bertus, brought out by Oltmann 
Brothers, and Ento and Hannibal, owned by Crouch 
& Son, have been distinguished in the show-ring, 
winning against the severest competition for years 
in succession. 

Distribution. 

The German coach horse is found in many coun- 
tries throughout Europe, South Africa and both 
North and South America. In Canada, it is perhaps 
most popular in the Northwest. In the United States, 
it is most popular in the states of Indiana, Illinois 
and Iowa, but it is found in many parts of the 
country. 

Types and families. 

As stated above, owing to the conditions prevail- 
ing in Germany, we have many types of German 
coach horses. Perhaps the most noted are the East 
Prussian or Trakehner horses, the Hanoverian, the 
Holstein, the Oldenburg, the East Friesland, the 
Rhenish Prussian, the Mecklenburg and the Schles- 
wig coach horses. Most of these strains have 
separate studbooks and are well recognized. 

The East Prussian or Trakehner horse is per- 
haps the lightest of all. It has a good disposition, 
great endurance, a fine head, well-formed back and 
is well ribbed up. It is, perhaps, rather long legged, 
looks rather light for its height, and lacks the 
action that is admired in a carriage horse. The 
greatest horse-breeding center in East Prussia is 



the stud of Trakehner, which was founded in 1732 
by Frederick William I, King of Prussia, and father 
of Frederick the Great. He furnished this stud 
with 1,101 horses from the royal studs. There 
were a few importations from Arabia and a few 
English Thoroughbreds added to the stud from 
time to time. 

The Hanoverian horses are larger than the East 
Prussian horses. However, they are softer, and 
their action not so good, due, perhaps, to the Ara- 
bian and Thoroughbred blood in the 
East Prussian horses. They are used 
more for draft than for saddle pur- 
poses. They have strong legs and a 




Fig. 469. German Coach stallion. 



good back, on which they can carry a load suffici- 
ently heavy to make them serviceable military 
horses. These horses are bred by farmers, who 
work the brood mares on their farms. There is no 
trace of either Arabian or English Thoroughbred 
blood in their veins. 

The Holstein horses are about equal to the Hano- 
verian in size. They are fine powerful horses, with 
good legs and free action, are suitable for both 
riding and driving, and are in great demand ; but 
it is doubtful whether they are as enduring as the 
East Prussian horses. For many centuries, Hol- 
stein has been noted for its good horses. 

Oldenburg horses are, perhaps, the parent of the 
German coach horses, and are used for heavy coach 
work, and for all-purpose horses, but seldom are 
used as saddlers. Some writers contend that these 
horses are not of the best quality, but stand in high 
favor because of their great size, some being seven- 
teen hands high, and broad in proportion. They have 
good dispositions, and mature at an early age. 

East Friesland horses are about as large as the 
Oldenburg horses, and have grown up under simi- 
lar conditions. The East Friesland Studbook says : 
"The object of the breed is to produce a strong, 
noble and docile carriage horse, which will develop 
quickly, and can be put to light agricultural work 
in its third year, in order to refund a part of its 
cost of rearing." 



464 



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Mecklenburg horses. — Although Mecklenburg 
horses were the finest saddle and coach horses in 
Germany eighty or ninety years ago, their breed- 
ing has been so badly managed, and English thor- 
oughbred blood has been so indiscriminately intro- 
duced, that the best horses now in Mecklenburg are 
perhaps those of the Hanovarian or Holstein breeds, 
brought there to grow up under the favorable 
Mecklenburg conditions of soil and climate. Meck- 
lenburg possesses high-lying pasture lands, which 
are admirably adapted for the breeding of good 
horses, and it is unfortunate that the breed declined. 

Breeding, feeding and management. 

In general, one would breed, feed and care for 
the German coach horse in the same way as for 
any other coach horse. However, in the breeding 
it is well to bear in mind that there are many 
strains of German coach horses, and that some of 
these strains differ very much in size, conforma- 
tion, action and endurance. There is as much or 
more difference between the two extremes repre- 
sented in these strains as there is between some of 
the distinct breeds, and it may be no more desir- 
able to cross the light strains of German coach 
horses with the heavy strains than to cross some 
of the distinct breeds. 

Uses. 

As stated above, in the German Empire this is 
the horse-of-all-work. At home, this breed is called 
on to do the saddle work, the light as well as the 
heavy carriage work, and the draft work. In this 
country, the German coach horse differs from other 
coach horses in at least two respects. In the first 
place, there has never been any attempt to breed 
or train them to speed at the trot ; and in the sec- 
ond place, some strains are decidedly heavier than 
the other coach horses, notably the Hackney and the 
French coach. There may be individual exceptions 
to this statement, but in this country the large Ger- 
man coacher ranks between the French coach and 
the Suffolk Punch, the lightest of the draft breeds. 

Since we have the two extremes, varying so much 
in size, conformation and action, we might expect 
them to meet a variety of conditions. For example, 
take the East Prussian or Trakehner horses, which 
have some Arabian and Thoroughbred blood in their 
veins, and we would expect these to meet any con- 
dition requiring a light well-bred horse. They 
possess much quality, action and endurance, and 
are undoubtedly adapted for light coach work. On 
the other hand, take the heavy horses from Olden- 
burg, and we would not expect them to be so active 
nor so enduring. In fact, these big horses are 
looked on with disfavor by some persons. Count 
Wrangel says of them : " Most lovers of horses will 
acknowledge that their value, from a useful point 
of view, is not particularly great. The majority of 
Oldenburg horses which I have seen, have given 
me a very bad impression, and I would not use them 
for breeding at any price. As I may have been 
unfortunate in my acquaintance with them, I will 
merely say that their hereditary defects are heavy 
heads, weak bac'.:s, bad ribs, long legs, 'tied in' 



below the knee, brittle hoofs and want of endur- 
ance. These defects ought to prevent people from 
breeding such animals, because the fact that the 
horse is seventeen hands high and broad in pro- 
portion, has good manners and matures at an early 
age, is not sufficient to make a breeder ignore 
other and perhaps more important qualities." This 
criticism is perhaps too severe, but it comes from 
a German person of note. 

Organizations and records. 

The German, Hanoverian and Oldenburg Coach 
Horse Association of America was incorporated 
under the laws of the state of Illinois about 1892, 
and a studbook was started, containing pedigrees of 
registered stallions and mares imported, or raised in 
America. Two volumes have been issued to 1906. 
They contain the registration of about eighteen 
hundred animals, mostly stallions. Soon after the 
organization of the German, Hanoverian and Olden- 
burg Coach Horse Association, came the Oldenburg 
Coach Horse Association, which was also incorpo- 
rated in Illinois. So far as the American public is 
aware, the various coach horses brought to Amer- 
ica from Germany are known as the German coach 
breed, whether Oldenburg, Hanoverian, or otherwise. 
This difference of title may be accounted for in part 
by the variety of types. It would seem that the advo- 
cates of the breed would do well to clarify in some 
permanent way this apparent confusion of names. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 416. 

Hackney Horse. Fig. 470. 

By John A. Craig. 

The present-day Hackney is a carriage horse 
breed. Among the early English writers on subjects 
relating to the horse, the word "hackney" was appar- 
ently used frequently as a synonym for roadster. 
The word ocurs in the earliest English, but its mean- 
ing, or rather the class of horse that it was applied 
to, is not made clear. Mr. Euren, the secretary of 
the English Hackney Horse Society, states that the 
Normans, at the time of their invasion, introduced 
the word haquenee or hacqxienee, which he states was 
recognized as far back as the year 1303. Chaucer 
also used the word "hakeney" or "hacknay," but 
does not give any clue as to the class of horse re- 
ferred to. Cully, an early English writer on live- 
stock subjects, does not mention the Hackney. 
Lawrence, however, in some of his writings, gives 
us an inkling as to its application, and, as already 
stated, it meant a roadster. 

Description. 

The Hackney of true type is a horse of substance, 
extremely smooth and with gracefully curved out- 
lines. Being full made, owing to splendid muscular 
development, and being on short legs, the repre- 
sentative of this breed suffers in stature in com- 
parison with most of the other coach breeds. The 
type most sought, and the one that may be said to 
be the old-fashioned type, represents a powerfully 



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465 



built horse, round-ribbed, muscular loin, and plump 
quarters, with short legs. The desire for more 
quality on the part of some of the breeders, and 
the use of Thoroughbred blood to secure it, had the 
effect of making some of them more bloodlike and 
rangier in appearance. The question of height in 
the Hackney has been liberally discussed, and the 
general belief is that a height of 15.2 to 16 hands 
is most compatible with the other features of the 
type that are most desired. It might 
be mentioned that until recent years 
the Hackney rings at the exhibitions 
of the Royal Agricultural Society of 
England were open only to horses not 
exceeding 15.2 hands in height. So 
many of the noted sires of later years 
have been over that height, that it was 
not advisable to enforce the restric- 
tion, and consequently it was removed 
known writer states that it is somewhat remark- 
able to note the circumstance that most of the 
successful stallions, both as sires and exhibition 
horses, of the present and past generations, have 
stood 15.2 hands high. 

For a horse of such substance, the Hackney is 
not deficient in quality, although to combine the 
two in a right degree is as much a problem with 
the Hackney breeders as it is with the breeders 
of the other breeds of coach horses. Substance, 
meaning thereby muscular development and size of 
bone, is easily enough secured; but to have with it 
the refinement of features and tissues, with fluted 
legs, which makes up quality, is a combination of 
the highest excellencies. 

Such being the general form, a more careful 
analysis of the several features that blend into the 
type desired is necessary to fill out the details of 
the true type. The Hackney head sometimes 
approaches meatiness, but, as a rule, it is well pro- 
portioned to the body, clean cut, with full eyes 
and specially alert and medium-sized ears. It has 
been criticised for a tendency towards being 
"bull" or thick-necked. There are some grounds 
for this criticism, but it is to be remembered that 
the heavy harness horse may be permitted to be 
fuller in the neck than those of more coachy type, 
in which length and slimness of neck contribute to 
high-headedness. In the Hackney, the shoulder is 
a point of particular importance, for it has a great 
deal to do with the high knee-folding action, so 
very much admired in the heavy harness horse. 
A long, sloping shoulder, well clothed with muscle, 
gives it that lifting power in front which is a 
feature of the front action more often met with 
in this breed than any other. The body must 
necessarily be deep and round-ribbed, to give that 
appearance of substance required, together with 
the rotundity characteristic of the type. A loin 
swathed in muscles, even to the extent of round- 
ing upwards slightly, makes a strong, short coup- 
ling, which should join smoothly a plump rounded 
and deeply muscled hind-quarter. These, with 
muscular thighs and well-set and strong hocks, 
are derivative of the snappy and propelling hock 
action behind. 

C 30 



The action. — It is in the action of the Hackney 
that the chief merit of the breed resides for heavy- 
harness purposes, although this statement is not 
meant in the least to belittle the special type re- 
quired also. It is stylish, attractive action, not 
speed, that is of most importance. The front feet, 
in walking or trotting, are lifted with snap and 
spring, and in the trot the foot goes forward after 
being uplifted, as if it were following the rim of a 
wheel. It is not held in the air at any one point ; 
that is, the leg is not fully extended when the 
foot is several inches from the ground, but 
it is still following our imaginary rim 
of a wheel when it reaches the 
ground and is planted firmly. When 






Fig. 470. Hackney stallion. Dilham Prime Minister, 
13 hands, 3 inches high. 

pulled up, it does not fly toward the elbows as if 
to hit them, but goes up and out without any delay 
in the knee -folding. While the fore action is a 
point of paramount importance, yet it may be said 
that in its hock action for heavy-harness purposes 
the Hackney has hardly a peer. The hock is lifted 
sharply toward the body, and the action is in no 
sense sprawling. Many horses can be made to step 
high and fold the knee, as a Hackney or heavy- 
harness horse should do, but the true heavy-har- 
ness hock action is not susceptible to artificial 
imitation. The weakness of most horses, other 
than Hackneys, in the heavy-harness classes, is 
that the hind -leg dwells somewhat like a duck 
swimming in water ; it is not brought up quickly 
to the body. Very frequently, the leg from the 
hock down is thrown stiffly forward, making the 
horse spread or sprawl in his gait, as his hind-feet 
have to be thrown out and past the fore -feet. 
Such a horse, no matter how high or folding or 
even perfect his fore action may be, cannot go with 
that collected and well-balanced stride that a 
heavy-harness horse should have. He may likely 
go faster, but at a moderate gait, such as that 
which is most useful for heavy-harness horses, he 
cannot go collected and with snap and style. To 



466 



HORSE 



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have snap and style in hind action is as necessary 
in the view of the critical horseman as that of the 
fore-feet, and, to have it, the hocks must be prop- 
erly flexed, with perhaps less stifle action than that 
required for speed. 

The color. — In reference to the color, it may be 
said that these horses are mostly brown, bay or 
chestnut, with some white markings. A rich, dap- 
pled brown is not an infrequent color. As they are 
mostly of solid colors, there is usually little diffi- 
culty in matching teams in this particular respect. 

Soundness of the Hackney. — A note should be 
made of the fact that unsoundness is not frequent 
among Hackneys. While not in the least desiring to 
detract from this desirable trait, yet it needs to be 
qualified somewhat, especially when it is used to 
make invidious comparisons with the Standard- 
bred trotter. The Standardbred trotter usually 
leads a strenuous life, beginning to race when two 
years old. The popularity of the colt trotter as a 
money-maker, because of the large stakes for two- 
and three-year-olds, as well as the large purses for 
free-for-all campaigners, puts our Standardbred 
trotter through a course of racing that is a very 
trying ordeal. The Hackney is more carefully kept 
and is never tried out in the sense that our trot- 
ting horses are, consequently it should be sounder 
and always fresher. The fact remains that the 
Hackney as a breed is unusually free from unsound- 
ness. Since the Shire Horse Society of England 
wisely decided, in 1885, that all horses at their 
annual show should undergo veterinary examina- 
tion conducted by three qualified veterinarians, 
other societies have followed the system, although 
with most of them only one veterinarian acts. In 
regard to the Hackney, it may be stated that the 
Hackney Horse Society for the past ten years has 
subjected the entries to its show to veterinary ex- 
amination, and the percentage rejected has been very 
small. Of course, when such a system is in vogue, 
much carefulness on this point would be observed 
by exhibitors ; consequently it is hardly a complete 
index to the prevalence of unsoundness in the breed 
as a whole. However, combined with general 
observation, the figures bear out the point that 
unsoundness is not very prevalent. In the years 
from 1896 to 1904, inclusive, 2,108 of the horses 
were examined, and 106 of these were rejected, 
showing an average of not quite 5 per cent rejected. 

History. 

The development of the Hackney into a breed 
may be traced to definite stimuli, which have been 
noticeable and in operation with more or less force 
in the development of several other breeds of horses. 
In the evolution of the breeds of light horses, there 
may be said to be a district suitable for rearing 
light horses of quality, which implies a soil well- 
drained, either light, hilly or underlaid with lime- 
stone, with good grass, all of which should indicate 
wholesome grazing conditions. With these associate 
men who love a horse, and let them be inspired with 
a definite aim, and the breed takes form and becomes 
popular according to the force and growth of the 
demand and ideals. A variety of sources are in- 



variably drawn on, frequently very diverse in some 
attributes, but somewhat similar in the breed 
characteristics desired ; and, these once secured, the 
aim becomes to concentrate and multiply them. 

With these general conditions in view, let us 
bring their particular application to the Hackney. 
As bearing on this, and also to show that these 
factors were recognized by horsemen at a very early 
day, a quotation from Lawrence will suffice : " Light 
soils and a hilly surface of ground generally pro- 
duce clean, vigorous and active horses, and probably 
there is no county in England where a better sort 
are bred than in Shropshire. Yorkshire and Lin- 
colnshire are celebrated for carriage horses, and 
many very good ones are reared in those districts." 
Yorkshire and Norfolk were the original home of 
the Hackney, at an early time known also as the 
Norfolk trotter ; and Yorkshire became prominent 
in the development of this breed, through the adapta- 
bility for light horses and superiority over the 
counties of Shropshire and Lincolnshire in this line, 
chiefly because of the other stimulus referred to — 
the Yorkshireman was an enthusiastic horseman. 
To carry the postulate to its full and more recent 
application, it is necessary only to direct attention 
to what Kentucky, Vermont, Virginia, Tennessee, 
and other states possessing the character of soil 
and people referred to, have accomplished. Con- 
versely, apply what has been stated to be the evo- 
lution of draft breeds, and it will be apparent that 
the heaviest breeds of draft horses come from the 
lower and more level lands, with their more lush 
vegetation. 

Continuing our reference to Yorkshire and Nor- 
folk, it should be said that the demand during the 
earliest time was for a horse that could trot fast 
under saddle, and the horsemen of these two coun- 
ties vigorously took up the work of breeding a 
stoutly built fast trotting horse of as much endur- 
ance as possible. It is said (Wallace, Live-Stock) 
that the Norwegian horse was used at a very early 
day on the common mares of these counties, as it 
was in Norfolk and Yorkshire, where the Norse 
invaders had their principal strongholds in Eng- 
land. The influence of this on the breed may be 
slighted when the more potent influence of the 
Thoroughbred is considered. It is also of interest 
to mention that even the blood of the Standard- 
bred trotter found its way into some of the Hack- 
ney pedigrees through Shepherd F. Knapp, No. 282 
in the register of Standardbred horses. The main 
source of the Hackney blood lines runs back to 
Arabian origin through the Thoroughbred, being 
similar in this respect to all the other breeds of 
light horses. Since the eighteenth century, the 
breed has been undergoing evolution, and it may 
be said to have had its inception with Shales (699), 
variously called " The Original," " Old Shales," etc. 
This horse, in the history of the Hackney or Nor- 
folk trotter, stands in relation to the breed very 
much as Hambletonian 10 does in that of the 
Standardbred horse or American trotter ; and, 
curiously enough, their breeding is of surprising 
similarity. Shales (699) was sired by Blaze, a 
Thoroughbred horse, foaled in 1733. It is said that 



HORSE 



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467 



Blaze was not a Thoroughbred, but the best evi- 
dence we have credits him with being about as 
much so as any other horse of that early day. 
Blaze was by Flying Childers (a noted running 
horse), by the Darley Arabian. The dam of Blaze 
is asserted to have been by Grey Grantham, by 
Brownlow Turk out of a mare by the Duke of Rut- 
land's Black Barb. Now the same Blaze sired Samp- 
son, the sire of Engineer, he the sire of Mambrino, 
and he, in turn, the sire of Messenger, which was 
imported to America and was the grands ire of 
Hambletonian 10. Again, the dam of Hambletonian 
10 was the Charles Kent mare by Imported Bell- 
founder, a Norfolk trotter tracing back through 
the Fireaways to Driver, a son of Shales by Blaze. 
The dam of the Kent mare was One Eye, by Bishop's 
Hambletonian, a son of Messenger. Yet again, 
Mambrino Chief was by Mambrino Paymaster, by 
Mambrino, by Messenger. So we have the two 
great lines of the American trotter, Hambletonian 
10 and Mambrino Chief II, tracing back through 
Messenger to Blaze, and the most noted of the 
early sires of Hackneys or the Norfolk trotters 
going back to the same Blaze. May it not be rea- 
sonable to assume from these facts that from the 
latter horse has originated the trotting instinct, 
which has later developed into breed characteris- 
tics ? Following the development of the Hackney, 
we find that Shales (699), considered the most 
famous trot.ter of his day in England, sired Driver 
(187) and Scott's Shales (692), and, according to 
the statement of a writer of authority, "to the 
former of these horses many — very many — of the 
best Hackneys of the day owe their origin." For 
example, Mr. Philip Triffitt's great sire, Fireaway, 
was by Achilles, by Achilles (Hairsines'), by Fire- 
away (Scott's), who was got by Fireaway (Rams- 
dale's), by Fireaway (Burgess'), by Fireaway 
(West's), by Fireaway (Jenkinson's), a son of Driver. 
It may be interesting to state here that John A. 
Logan is authority for the statement that the stock 
of Triffitt's Fireaway has sold to the amount of 
$2,500,000, which is somewhat of an index to the 
value of this horse to the breed. 

Mention of other noted sires should include Den- 
mark (177), sire of Danegelt ; Lord Derby II (417), 
sire of Cadet, 1251 ; Confidence (158), sire of the 
Champion and Reality (665) ; and Rufus, an Elsen- 
ham Challenge cup winner and a noted progenitor 
of Hackney character. 

With the change from use under the saddle to 
driving on the road attached to a vehicle, the 
Hackney's proclivities to trot do not seem to have 
undergone any change ; although there was a ten- 
dency at this time toward refinement of the type, 
largely through the greater infusion of Thorough- 
bred blood. This also added to the height without 
changing the form much, except to add some to the 
straightness of the croup. Up to this time, and 
since, considerable evidence had been accumulating 
to indicate that the Hackney possessed more than 
ordinary excellence for long-distance trotting. Such 
records, it remains to be said, are of use only to 
enable us to understand the original characteristics 
of the breed, not for their official value to establish 



the reputation of the Hackney of the present day, 
for speed at the trot, for either long or short dis- 
tances. It is to be remembered, also, that these 
records, if they may be called such, are in nearly 
all instances dependent on hearsay and not on official 
trials over measured distances. It is said that 
Driver (187), already referred to, trotted 17 miles 
within the hour, and Fireway is credited with hav- 
ing trotted 2 miles in 5 minutes. The performance 
that is most noteworthy is that credited to the 
mare Phenomena, that in July, 1800, trotted 17 
miles in 56 minutes, and shortly afterward repeated 
the same performance in 53 minutes. Attention 
has been drawn to the fact that it was not until 
1849 that Trustee, in America, trotted 20 miles in 
59 minutes and 35J seconds. The mare's rate would 
be 20 miles in 62g- minutes, showing that at that 
early day the Hackney or Norfolk trotter was noted 
for ability to trot long distances, with speed unusual 
at that time. 

The secretary of the Hackney Horse Society, 
Mr. Euren, in the first volume of the studbook, 
credits the era of railroad building with dampen- 
ing the ardor of the breeders of Hackneys ; and, 
for a time, the breed did not receive much hearty 
support. A revival came in a very decided manner 
with the advent of exhibitions, and especially with 
the inauguration of horse-shows. Until the breed 
began to attract notice for heavy - harness and 
high-stepping purposes, they were not very largely 
imported from England, nor did they attain their 
present popularity in England. It was in the 
spring of 1893 that the first notable Hackney 
exhibition was held in England. In America, the 
horse-shows, the growth of recent years, as dis- 
tinct from the usual live-stock shows, were factors 
that did more to popularize the Hackney than any 
other influences. The high-lifting action of the 
Hackney, both fore and aft, made a very attract- 
ive feature of the shows ; and that, coupled with 
the growth of the high-stepping fad, gave the 
breed a strong impetus, although their genuine 
merit as heavy-harness horses has outlived this. 
The possession of stoutness of form with this action 
has adapted them particularly for heavy harness 
and heavy vehicles. 

In America. — Aside from the first importation 
to America of Bellfounder (55), in 1822, by James 
Booth, of Boston, the next importation of note was 
the stallion Fordham, a son of Denmark, brought 
over in 1881, by Hillhurst Stock Farm, of which 
Senator Cochrane, of Quebec, Canada, was pro- 
prietor. Then comes the era of the horse-show, 
when extensive importations were made, chiefly 
into the New England states and Canada, with 
scattering importations into Ohio, Wisconsin and 
other states. The largest of these importations 
was made in 1890 by Mr. Seward Webb, of Ver- 
mont, who imported thirty-one horses, four of 
which were stallions. About this time, there was 
a lull in the profitableness of breeding Standard- 
bred trotters, which put many horses of this 
breeding on the market that otherwise would have 
been retained in the breeding stud. Attention was 
drawn to the fact that many horses of Standard- 



468 



HORSE 



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bred trotting lines were competing with the Hack- 
ney, especially in the high-stepping classes, in the 
show-ring. They were more or less freaks, with 
the high stepping exaggerated by heavy shoeing 
and training, but they sometimes made a more 
popular show than the Hackney, by being able to 
go fast as well as high. There was little inclina- 
tion among exhibitors at that time to stop and 
consider that fast going was not a much sought 
after characteristic for a high-stepping or a heavy- 
harness horse. A lessening of the interest in the 
mere high goer, and more attention to the trueness 
and serviceability of the action, has done good in 
recent years ; and the outcome has been to 
strengthen the position of the Hackney and make 
it more decidedly a heavy-harness horse. 

Distribution. 

The good qualities of the Hackney have attracted 
world-wide attention, and, as a consequence, it is 
now found in many lands. In general, from Eng- 
land it has gone out into France, Germany, Hol- 
land, Denmark, Belgium, Spain, Italy, far east 
into Japan and south into Africa, Australia and 
New Zealand, and westward into the Argentine 
Republic in South America, and into Canada and 
the United States in North America. It is pressing 
its way into every land where heavy-harness horses 
are in demand. In America, the Hackney is bred in 
the largest numbers east of the Mississippi river, 
but numbers of the breed have become very broadly 
scattered over the states and provinces. 

Uses. 

From what has been written, it is clear that the 
special field for the Hackney is the production of 
heavy-harness horses, for the breed in itself has 
been specifically bred for that purpose. The high 
knee-folding action and attractive appearance, 
either standing or in motion, adapt it for the 
production of stylish heavy-harness horses for city 
driving. Possessing these qualities, with the sub- 
stance and smoothness of type to wear heavy 
leather becomingly, the Hackney as a breed has 
superior claims. 

The degree to which a breed may be useful in 
producing a marketable product is a factor that 
has to be considered, as well as the breed character- 
istics. However useful pure-bred horses may be, 
yet the degree to which they may contribute to 
the general improvement of the horses of a country 
is a broader and more influential factor entering 
into their standing. In this respect, the Hackney 
has established a reputation. On our common 
mares of much quality and some action, the Hack- 
ney makes a desirable cross. As Johnstone says, 
"the similarity of action I count the most salient 
of its features," and it is because this mechanical 
action is so deeply bred into the Hackney that it is, 
perhaps, the most likely of any of the European 
light horses to transmit it. It seems to be easier 
to produce the type than it is to secure the natural 
heavy-harness action. The tendency toward this 
action and type is surely stronger in the produce 
of the Hackney, because the breed itself has been 



bred for years for just those things ; yet it is not 
safe to assume that it will come spontaneous to 
the surface without proper mannering and encour- 
agement. 

Organizations and records. 

The societies devoted to the breed are the Eng- 
lish Hackney Horse Society, established in l£<83, 
with the first studbook published the following 
year, and the American Hackney Horse Society, 
with headquarters in New York City, established 
in 1891. The first volume of its studbook was 
published in 1893. 

Literature. 

For references, see page 416. 

Hunter Horse. Fig. 471. 

By W. C. Bacon. 

The Hunter, as bred in America, cannot yet be 
called a breed of horses. The Irish Hunter, how- 
ever, has been recognized as a distinct breed for a 
hundred years or more. The Hunter and the Stand- 
ardbred trotter have come from the Thorough- 
bred, the Standardbred trotter having been devel- 
oped in America as the result of the desire for a 
fast driving horse, and the Hunter breed developed 
in Ireland as the result of the demand for horses 
with Thoroughbred or ideal saddle conformation, 
that were able to carry much more weight than 
the pure-bred Thoroughbred. Ireland, therefore, 
may be said to be the home of the Hunter, or 
where this type of horses has been bred for so 
many years that it has long since been classed as 
a distinct breed, and recognized as such at all the 
fairs and horse shows in Great Britain. 

Description. 

The Hunter should not be high-headed, and the 
longer the rein the better. The fore-hand should 
be light. The withers should be higher than the 
croup, and the bones of the fore-limb compara- 
tively long, so as to be able efficiently to raise the 
fore-hand both in taking and landing. The shoul- 
ders and pasterns should be long and sloping. The 
muscles that lie above the fore-arm should be well 
developed, as the fore-arm straightens the shoul- 
der joint and the latter straightens the elbow 
joint, two actions which help to prevent the horse 
falling when he lands over a jump. The muscles 
over the loins behind the saddle should be particu- 
larly strong. The hocks should be large and Ras- 
kins broad. 

The following is a detailed description of the 
points of an ideal Hunter : Head. — Ears fine, not 
too large, approaching each other at the tips, 
when thrown forward ; cranium broad and nicely 
rounded; forehead flat and broad; eyes wide 
apart, prominent and bold in expression ; nasal 
bones straight in front, but slightly dished on lat- 
eral surfaces ; nostrils firm, large and flexible, of 
large capacity when the animal is excited ; lips 
firm, mouth medium-sized ; muzzle small and taper- 
ing ; cheeks well but not too heavily clothed with 





Plate XV. Hackneys above (four years old); gaited saddler below 



HORSE 



HORSE 



469 



hard, well-developed muscles ; branches of lower 
jaw well spread apart at their angles. Neck. — 
Clean-cut and rangy ; crest well developed and 
whipcordy, but not so heavy as in other classes ; 
head well attached to neck in a graceful, angular 
manner ; jugular gutter well developed. Withers. 
— Well developed, high, and not too wide on top. 
The withers should be sloping and of such form 
that the saddle may be placed well back over the 
center of gravity, which is especially desirable in 
negotiating timber. Shoulders. — Long and 
oblique, so as to give easy action ; shoulder- 
blades well covered with muscles. Chest. — 
Deep, giving good girths, with a well-filled 
breast. Arm. — Thrown well forward, so as 
to give an oblique shoulder. Forearm. — Long, 
well developed, and strong, well clothed with 
hard, well-developed muscles, having grooves 
of demarcation between them, showing the 
outlines of each individual muscle. Knee. — 
Clean, straight, large and strong in all di- 
rections, the bone forming the back part 
being somewhat prominent. Knee to fetlock 
joint. — Cannon short, broad, flat, and clean; 
tendons standing out plainly, hard and whip- 
cordy. The lines of demarcation between ten- 
don and ligament, and between ligament and 
bone must be well supported beneath the knee, 
not showing any tendency to weakness. 
Fetlocks. — Strong and well supported. Front past- 
ern. — Strong, medium length and oblique. Front 
feet. — Rather smaller in proportion than in other 
breeds, round, strong, and fairly deep wall ; soles 
concave, frog well developed ; heels full and not 
too deep ; toes turning neither in nor out while 
standing. Body. — Back strong and inclined to be 
short, with a long under-line ; loin broad and well 
muscled ; ribs well sprung and of good depth. 
The under-line must be long, otherwise the horse 
will be shortened in his gait. To get this long 
under-line, perhaps a longer back will be required 
than would otherwise be desirable. Croup. — Well 
muscled, carried out straight to tail, which should 
be full haired and very stylishly carried. Hock. — 
Deep and strong in all directions ; all points well 
developed, but not rough ; absence of malforma- 
tions or puffiness ; point very well developed, 
straight on posterior border ; the whole joint 
clean, hard, and of an angular shape. Hock to fet- 
lock. — Cannon short, wider and flatter than in 
front ; tendons well marked individually, and must 
not have a pinched appearance below joint in 
front, but very gradually taper in width from 
hock to fetlock. Fetlock joint. — Large, clean-cut 
and strong. Hind pasterns. — Medium length, slop- 
ing and strong. Hind-feet. — Smaller and not so 
round as the front ones ; sole more concave ; frog 
well developed ; heel good width and not too deep. 
Color. — Bay, brown or chestnut, black, roan and 
gray ; with reasonable modifications. Skin and 
hair. — Skin soft, mellow, and loose, hair fine, silky, 
and straight and soft in comparison with other 
breeds. Temperament. — Mild, energetic, not vi- 
cious nor too nervous. Action. — Prompt, free, and 
elastic, not too much knee and hock action, but 



going close to the ground, especially in the canter 
and gallop ; no paddle or roll, and front feet not 
to go close enough behind to interfere ; a good 
straightaway walker. Weight. — 1,000 to 1,300 
pounds. Height. — 15 hands 1 inch to 16 hands 
and over. 

Breeding in America. 

The breeding of Hunters in America has hardly 
progressed far enough in any one section of the 








'.. 471. The Hunter, "Guardsman." Owned by John Clay. 

country to distinguish such animals as "pure 
bred." However, a great many animals are yearly 
bred in this country for the special purpose of pro- 
ducing Hunters. The method of breeding is the 
same as originally adopted in Ireland, namely, the 
use of Thoroughbred stallions on native or grade 
mares. As the external conformation usually fol- 
lows the sire, the breeders of Hunters are usually 
able to produce, even in the first cross, saddle con- 
formation, and at the same time to have trans- 
mitted to such a cross sufficient of the courage, 
intelligence and staying qualities of the Thorough- 
bred to make the first cross (half-blood) a most 
satisfactory animal for cross-country riding to 
hounds. The fact that those half-, three-quarter- 
and seven-eighth-blood horses make such satisfac- 
tory Hunters is probably the reason why, in this 
country, there has been no general movement in 
any one section to continue special breeding. How- 
ever, a great many clean-bred horses are favored 
by many persons for cross-country work. This 
special line of breeding has not been followed long 
enough for the breed to become fixed. In fact, 
the demand for such horses has always exceeded 
the supply in America to such an . extent that the 
type has never had an opportunity to become 
thoroughly established. Nevertheless, there has 
been a National Steeple Chase and Hunt Associa- 
tion organized in America under the auspices of 
The Jockey Club, that admits to register almost 
any animal with one or more crosses of Thorough- 
bred blood, that has been regularly "hunted" a cer- 
tain number of times, with some recognized pack 
of hounds, and approved by the master. 

Hunter-breeding in America is conducted to a 
limited extent in the neighborhood of most of the 



470 



HORSE 



HORSE 



organized hunt clubs, of which there are some fifty 
in the eastern states. In such sections one will 
find one to half a dozen Thoroughbred stallions in 
general use among the farmers of that special 
community. In the Genesee valley in Livingston 
county, New York, for example, there are no less 
than eight Thoroughbred stallions within a radius 
of fifteen miles, being used on the farm mares of 
the neighborhood for the special purpose of breed- 
ing Hunters. Virginia probably produces more 
animals that are especially bred for hunting than 
any other state. Of late years, however, the 
Jockey Club has put out many Thoroughbred 
stallions throughout the state of New York, which 
in a few years should make that state promi- 
nent for breeding Hunters. Hitherto, Canada has 
been one of the principal sources from which 
American hunting men have been supplied. The 
Canadian Hunters come largely from between 
Toronto and London, Ont., where Thoroughbred 
stallions have been very generally used. 

Distribution. 

As hunting has long occupied a place in the 
sports of nations, horses that may be characterized 
as hunters are widely distributed. From Ireland, 
the home of the breed, the Hunter has been scat- 
tered over great Britain and the continent. In 1904, 
the Dutch government bought 350 young mares of 
this breed in Ireland. In America, both Canada and 
the United States are devoting increasing attention 
to the production of horses for hunting purposes. 

Classes. 

At the leading horse shows there are several 
classes for Hunters of different types and different 
weight-carrying abilities. Qualified Hunters are 
those that have been registered with the National 
Steeple Chase and Hunt Association, but need not 
be clean bred. Heavy-weight Hunters must carry 
up to 200 pounds to hounds (qualified and not quali- 
fied). Middle-weight Hunters must carry up to 180 
pounds to hounds (qualified and not qualified). 
Light-weight Hunters must carry up to 165 pounds 
to hounds (qualified and not qualified). Thorough- 
bred Hunters must be registered in the studbook. 

Feeding and care. 

The Hunter should not have more than three or 
four days of all-day fox-hunting in a fortnight ; 
with drags, some may go three times a week, but 
much depends on the going and the length of the 
runs. The Hunter should be jogged home after the 
hunt, given warm gruel and thoroughly rubbed. A 
groom should exercise him gently on non-hunting 
days for about five miles early in the morning. He 
should be carefully looked after and given the best of 
oats and hay. The night before he is to be "hunted," 
water should be kept in his stall all night, so that he 
may take it at will. He should be fed very early and 
saddled only just before he is ordered. 

Organizations and records. 

In Great Britain, the interests of the breed are 
in the hands of the Hunter Improvement Society of 



Great Britain. Two volumes of the Hunter Stud- 
book have been published and a third is in prepa- 
ration. The pedigree qualifications of the Hunter 
Studbook are that the stallions shall be by a Thor- 
oughbred or registered Hunter sire out of a fully 
registered mare, and the mares shall show two 
crosses of Thoroughbred or registered Hunter blood, 
viz, sire and dam's sire, or if dams of winners of 
races under rules, and accepted after inspection. 
The supplement of the studbook is open to mares (1) 
by a Thoroughbred or registered Hunter sire, winners 
or dams of winners of prizes or medals at national, 
county or associated shows, or (2) by inspection 
and veterinary examination. In America, The 
Jockey Club with headquarters in New York City, 
was instrumental in the organization of the 
National Steeple Chase and Hunt Association, which 
registers and otherwise looks after the development 
of the Hunter and the steeple-chaser, discussed in 
the following paragraph. 

Steeple-chasers. 

The steeple-chaser is almost always a clean-bred 
horse, that has natural or made adaptability to 
jump. He must be more seasoned than the Thor- 
oughbred that is to run on the flat, and must be up 
to a good deal more weight. There are certain 
blood lines that have produced natural jumpers, 
which, when "nicked" with certain mares, have 
produced fencers. Many horses that, perhaps, have 
not enough speed for the flat, have been schooled 
and made good chasers. Unlike the steady fox- 
hunting Hunter, the steeple-chaser must be able to 
go a good pace and take his fences flying, or almost 
as fast as in a hurdle race. In this type of horse, 
the adaptability for the special performance and 
the result gives the horse his place and name as a 
steeple-chaser. 

Literature. 

The literature of the Hunter is for the most part 
interwoven with expositions of the chase, and is 
not specific and direct. Yet some direct discussions 
will be found in the works referred to on page 416. 
Other references are: Peer, Cross Country with 
Horse and Hound ; Walsh, The Horse in the Stable 
and in the Field, Loudon (1871); Goodwin, The 
Turf Guides; Nimrod, The Chase, the Road and the 
Turf; White, The History of the British Turf, two 
volumes, Loudon (1840); Curzon, A Mirror of the 
Turf, Loudon (1892). 

Military Horse. Figs. 472, 473. 

For military purposes, several distinct types of 
horses are required according to the use to which 
they are to be put ; and each type must conform 
carefully to a standard set by the War Department. 
The specifications for each type issued by the War 
Departments of the United States and Great Britain 
(for Canada) are inserted in this Cyclopedia for 
their reference value, and also that farmers inter- 
ested in breeding horses for army use may be 
informed as to what is required. 



HORSE 



HORSE 



471 



Horse Types Required by the United States 
War Department 

All of the specifications that follow were pre- 
pared under the direction of the Quartermaster 
General. Those for medium and light draft horses 
and for cavalry horses, were issued under date of 
November 25, 1903 ; for saddle horses for moun- 
• tain batteries, August 3, 1907; for artillery horses, 
October 15, 1906 ; for small horses for orderlies 
and mounted messengers, January 17, 1908 ; for 
mules, November 5, 1907. 

Specifications for cavalry horses. 

The cavalry horse must be sound, well bred, of a 
superior class, and have quality ; gentle and of a 
kind disposition ; thoroughly broken to the saddle, 
with light and elastic mouth, easy gaits, and free 
and prompt action at the walk, trot, and gallop ; 
free from vicious habits, without material blemish 
or defect ; and otherwise to conform to the follow- 
ing description : 

A gelding of uniform and hardy color, in good 
condition ; from four to eight years old ; weighing 
from 950 to 1,100 pounds, depending on height, 
which should be from 15 to 15| hands. 

Head. — Small and well set on neck ; with ears 
small, thin, neat, and erect ; forehead broad and 
full ; eyes large, prominent, and mild, with well- 
developed brow and fine eyelid ; vision perfect in 
every respect ; muzzle small and fine ; mouth deep ; 
lips thin and firmly compressed ; nostrils large and 
fine ; and branches of under-jaw (adjoining neck) 
wide apart. 

Neck. — Light, moderately long, and tapering 
toward the head, with crest firm and longer than 
underside ; mane fine and intact. 

Withers. — Elevated, not unduly fine, well devel- 
oped and muscled. 

Shoulders. — Long, oblique, and well muscled. 

Chest. — Full, very deep, moderately broad, and 
plump in front. 

Fore-legs. — Vertical, and properly placed ; with 
elbow large, long, prominent, and clear of chest ; 
fore-arm large at the elbow, long and heavily 
muscled. 

Knees. — Neatly outlined, large, prominent, wide 
in front, well situated, and well directed. 

Back. — Short, straight, and well muscled. 

Loins. — Broad, straight, very short and mus- 
cular. 

Barrel. — Large, increasing in size toward flanks, 
with ribs well arched and definitely separated. 

Hind-quarters. — Wide, thick, very long, full, 
heavily muscled, rounded externally ; and well 
directed. 

Tail. — Fine and intact ; well carried and firm. 

Hocks. — Neatly outlined, lean, large, wide from 
front to rear, well situated, and well directed. 

Limbs. — From knees and hocks downward, verti- 
cal, short, wide laterally, with tendons and liga- 
ments standing well out from bone and distinctly 
defined. 

Pasterns. — Strong, medium length, not too 
oblique, and well directed. 



Feet. — Medium size, circular in shape, sound ; 
with horn dark, smooth, and of fine texture ; sole 
moderately concave, and frog well developed, sound, 
firm, large, elastic and healthy. 

Each horse will be subjected to a rigid inspection, 
and any animal that does not meet the above 
requirements should be rejected. No white or gray 
horses to be accepted. 

Specifications for saddle horses for mountain bat- 
teries. 

The specifications are the same as for cavalry 
horses, except that the weight must be 950 to 
1,070 pounds, depending on height, which should 
be 15 to 15J hands. 

Specifications for small horses for orderlies and 
mounted messengers. 

The small horse for orderlies and mounted 
messengers must be sound, well bred, of a 
superior class, and have quality; gentle and of a 
kind disposition ; well broken to the saddle, with 
light and elastic mouth, easy gaits, and free and 




Fig. 472. General, a brown gelding. Winner of first prize as 
f cavalry horse type, Canadian Horse Show. 

prompt action at the walk, trot and gallop ; free 
from vicious habits, without material blemish or 
defect ; handy, speedy and suitable in all other 
respects, and otherwise to conform to the follow- 
ing description : 

A gelding of uniform and hardy color, in good 
condition ; from 4 to 8 years old ; weighing from 
825 to 950 pounds, depending on height, which 
should be from 14J to 15 hands. 

The remainder of the description is the same as 
that given above for cavalry horses. 

Specifications for artillery horses for siege batteries. 

The artillery horse for siege batteries must be 
sound, well bred, of a superior class, and have 
quality ; of a kind disposition, well broken to har- 
ness, and gentle under the saddle, with easy mouth 
and gaits, and free and prompt action at the walk, 
trot and gallop; free from vicious habits; without 
material blemish or defect, and otherwise to con- 
form with the following description : 

A gelding or mare of hardy color, in good con- 



472 



HORSE 



HORSE 



dition, from 4 to 8 years old ; height, from 16 to 
17 hands ; weight, from 1,350 to 1,650 pounds. 
Horses otherwise satisfactory, which fall short of 
or exceed these limits of weight by not more than 
50 pounds, due to temporary conditions, may be 
accepted. Mares in foal will not be accepted. 




Pig. 473. Cassandra, a pure-bred Hackney mare. Winner of 
first prize as artillery horse type, Canadian Horse Show, 
Toronto, April, 1900. This mare represents the lighter 
type desired, weighing 1,325 pounds. 

Head. — Small and well set on neck ; with ears 
small, thin, neat, and erect ; forehead broad and 
full ; eyes large, prominent and mild, with well- 
developed brow and fine eyelid ; vision perfect in 
every respect ; muzzle small and fine ; mouth deep ; 
lips thin and firmly compressed ; nostrils large and 
fine, and branches of under jaw (adjoining neck) 
wide apart. 

Neck. — Moderately long and tapering toward the 
head, with crest firm and longer than under side ; 
mane fine and intact. 

Withers. — Elevated, not unduly fine, well devel- 
oped and muscled. 

Shoulders. — Long, oblique, well packed with 
muscle, not too heavy, smooth, rounded, and so 
formed as properly to support the collar. 

Chest. — High, wide, very deep ; plump in front 
and full. 

Fore-legs. — Vertical and properly placed ; with 
elbow large, long, prominent, clear of chest, and 
well placed; fore -arm wide, thick, long, heavily 
muscled and vertical. 

Knees. — Neatly outlined, large, prominent, wide 
in front, well situated and well directed. 

Back. — Short, straight and well muscled. 

Loins. — Broad, straight, very short and mus- 
cular. 

Barrel. — Large, increasing in size toward flanks, 
with ribs well arched and definitely separated. 

Hind-quarters. — Wide, thick, very long, full, 
heavily muscled, rounded externally and well 
directed. 

Tail. — Fine and intact ; well carried and firm. 

Hocks. — Neatly outlined, lean, large, wide from 
front to rear, and well directed. 



Limbs. — From knees and hocks downward, verti- 
cal, short, wide laterally, with tendons and liga- 
ments standing well out from bone and distinctly 
defined. 

Pasterns. — Strong, medium length, not too 
oblique, and well directed. 

Feet. — Medium size, circular in shape, sound; 
with horn dark, smooth, and of fine texture ; sole 
moderately concave, and frog well developed, sound, 
firm, large, elastic and healthy. 

Each horse will be subjected to a rigid inspec- 
tion, and any animal that does not meet the above 
requirements should be rejected. 

Long-legged, loose-jointed, long-bodied, narrow- 
chested, coarse and cold-blooded horses, as well as 
those which are restive, vicious, or too free in har- 
ness, or which do not, upon rigid inspection, meet 
the above requirements in every respect, will be 
rejected. A horse under five years old should not 
be accepted, unless a specially fine, well-developed 
animal. No white or gray horses will be accepted. 

Specifications for artillery horses for light and horse 
batteries. 

These specifications are the same as those for 
the artillery horses for siege batteries, except that 
the height should be 15| to 16 hands, and the 
weight, 1,150 to 1,250 pounds. The artillery horse 
for light and horse batteries is required for quick 
draft purposes, and should be heavy enough to move 
the carriage, ordinarily, by weight thrown into 
the collar, rather than by muscular exertion. 

Specifications for light draft (coach) horses. 

The light draft horse must be sound, well bred, 
of a superior class, and have quality ; of a kind 
disposition ; thoroughly broken to harness ; with 
easy mouth, and free, prompt, straight, and true 
action at the walk and trot ; free from vicious 
habits ; without material blemish or defect ; and 
otherwise conform to the following description : 

A gelding of uniform and hardy color, in good 
condition ; from five to seven years old ; weighing 
from 1,100 to 1,200 pounds, depending on height, 
which should be from 15| to 16 hands. 

Head. — Small, and well set on neck ; with ears 
small, thin, neat, and erect ; forehead broad and 
full ; eyes large, prominent, and mild, with well- 
developed brow and fine eyelid ; vision perfect in 
every respect ; muzzle small and fine ; mouth deep ; 
lips thin and firmly compressed ; nostrils large and 
fine ; and branches of under-jaw (adjoining neck) 
wide apart. 

Neck. — Light, moderately long, and tapering 
toward the head, with crest firm and longer than 
underside ; mane fine and intact. 

Withers. — Elevated, not unduly fine, well devel- 
oped and muscled. 

Shoulders. — Long, oblique, well packed with 
muscle, not too heavy, smooth, rounded, and so 
formed as properly to support the collar. 

Chest. — High, wide, very deep, plump in front 
and full. 

Fore-legs. — Vertical, and properly placed ; with 
elbow large, long, prominent, clear of chest, and 



HORSE 



HORSE 



473 



well placed ; fore-arm wide, thick, long, heavily 
muscled, and vertical. 

Knees. — Fine, thick, and wide in front, prominent, 
well situated, well directed, and free from blemishes. 

Back. — Short, straight, and well muscled. 

Loins. — Broad, straight, very short and muscular. 

Barrel. — Large, with ribs definitely separated 
from each other, and well-arched from girth toward 
flank. 

Hind-quarters. — Wide, thick, very long, full, 
heavily muscled, rounded externally, and well 
directed. 

Tail. — Fine and intact, well carried and firm. 

Hocks. — Neatly outlined, lean, large, wide from 
front to rear, and well directed. 

Limbs. — From knees and hocks downward verti- 
cal, short, wide laterally, with tendons and liga- 
ments standing well out from bone, and distinctly 
defined. 

Pasterns. — Strong, medium length, not too 
oblique, and well directed. 

Feet. — Medium size, circular in shape, and sound ; 
with horn dark, smooth, and of fine texture ; sole 
moderately concave, and frog well developed, sound, 
firm, large, elastic, and healthy in appearance. 

Each horse will be subjected to a rigid inspection, 
and any animal that does not meet the above 
requirements should be rejected. 

Specifications for medium draft horses. 

The medium draft horse must be sound, well 
bred, and of a superior class ; gentle and of a kind 
disposition ; thoroughly broken to harness, with 
easy mouth and free, prompt, straight, and regular 
action at the walk and trot ; free from vicious 
habits, without material blemish or defect, and 
otherwise to conform to the following description : 

A gelding of uniform and hardy color, in good 
condition ; from 5 to 7 years old ; weighing from 
1,200 to 1,400 pounds, depending on height, which 
should be from 15J to 16 hands. 

Head. — Small and well set on neck ; with ears 
small, thin and erect ; forehead broad and full ; 
eyes large, prominent and mild, with well-devel- 
oped brow and fine eyelid ; vision perfect in every 
respect ; muzzle fine ; mouth deep ; lips thin and 
firmly compressed ; nostrils large and fine, and 
branches of under jaw wide apart adjoining neck. 

Neck. — Moderately long and tapering toward the 
head, with crest firm and longer than underside ; 
mane fine and intact. 

Withers. — Elevated, not unduly fine, well devel- 
oped and muscled. 

Shoulders. — Long, oblique, well muscled, smooth, 
rounded and so formed as properly to support the 
collar. 

Chest. — Full, high, wide, deep, and plump in 
front. 

Fore-legs. — Vertical, and properly placed ; with 
elbow large, long, prominent, clear of chest, and 
well placed; fore-arm wide, thick, long, heavily 
muscled and vertical. 

Knees. — Fine, thick, and wide in front, promi- 
nent, well situated, well directed, and free from 
blemishes. 



Back. — Short, straight, well muscled, and strongly 
coupled to hind-quarters. 

Loins. — Broad, straight, very short and muscu- 
lar. 

Barrel. — Large, with ribs definitely separated 
from each other and well arched. 

Hind - quarters. — Wide, thick, very long, full, 
heavily muscled, rounded externally and well 
directed. 

Tail. — Fine and intact ; well carried and firm. 

Hocks. — Neatly outlined, lean, large, wide from 
front to rear and well directed. 

Limbs. — From knees and hocks downward, verti- 
cal, very short, wide laterally, with tendons and 
ligaments standing well out from bone, and dis- 
tinctly defined. 

Pasterns. — Strong, medium length, not too 
oblique, and well directed. 

Feet. — Medium size, circular in shape, and sound ; 
with horn dark, smooth, and of fine texture, sole 
moderately concave, and frog well developed, sound, 
firm, large, elastic and healthy in appearance. 

Each horse will be subjected to a rigid inspection, 
and any animal that does not meet with the above 
requirements, should be rejected. 

Specifications for mules. 

The mule must be sound, well bred, and of a 
superior class ; of a kind disposition, gentle, and 
well broken to harness, with the exception of the 
pack mule ; with free and prompt action at the 
walk or trot ; free from vicious habits, without 
material blemish or defect, and otherwise to con- 
form to the following description : 

A gelding or mare of uniform and hardy color, 
in good condition ; from four to eight years old ; 
weight, depending on height, to be as follows : 

Wheel mules for six-mule teams, to weigh from 
1,150 to 1,200 pounds, and be from 15 hands 3 
inches to 16 hands high. 

Swing mules for six-mule team, to weigh 1,050 
to 1,150 pounds, and be from 15 hands 1 inch to 
15 hands 3 inches high. 

Lead mules for six-mule team, to weigh from 950 
to 1,050 pounds, and be from 14 hands 3 inches to 
15 hands 1 inch high. 

Wheel mules for four-mule team, to weigh from 
1,100 to 1,200 pounds, and be from 15 hands 2 
inches to 16 hands high. 

Lead mules for four-mule team, to weigh from 
1,050 to 1,100 pounds, and be from 15 hands 1 inch 
to 15 hands 2 inches high. 

Riding mules for wagons and pack trains, to 
weigh from 1,000 to 1,050 pounds, and be from 15 
hands to 15 hands 1 inch high, broken to saddle. 

Saddle mules for mountain batteries to be broken 
to saddle, to weigh from 950 to 1,000 pounds, and 
be from 14 hands 2 inches to 15 hands high. 

Pack mules to weigh from 850 to 1,000 pounds, 
and be from 13 hands 3 inches to 15 hands high. 

Pack mules for mountain batteries and for 
machine gun platoons, to weigh from 950 to 1,000 
pounds, and be from 14 hands 2 inches to 15 hands 
high. 

Head. — Fine and of medium size, with ears fine 



474 



HORSE 



HORSE 



and erect ; forehead broad and full ; eyes large, 
clear, prominent, and mild, with well-developed 
brow and fine eyelid ; vision perfect in every 
respect, nostrils large and open. 

Neck. — Medium length and smoothly joined to 
the shoulder and withers, with crest firm and full. 

Shoulders. — Long, oblique, well and smoothly 
muscled, and so formed as to provide proper sup- 
port for the collar. 

Chest. — High, wide, very deep, and full. 

Back. — Short, straight, and well and smoothly 
muscled.. 

Loins. — Broad, straight, very short and muscular. 

Barrel. — Large, with ribs well arched and defi- 
nitely separated from each other. 

Fore-legs. — Vertical and properly placed ; with 
elbow large, long and clear of chest ; fore-arms 
large, very long, heavily muscled and vertical. 

Knees. — Large, wide in front, well placed, and 
free from blemishes. 

Hind-quarters. — Wide, thick, very long, full, heav- 
ily muscled, rounded externally, and well directed. 

Hocks. — Neatly outlined, lean, large, wide from 
front to rear, and well directed. 

Limbs. — From knees and hocks downward, verti- 
cal, short, wide laterally, with tendons and liga- 
ments standing well out from bone, and distinctly 
defined. 

Pasterns. — Strong, medium length, not too 
oblique, and well directed. 

Feet. — Medium size and sound ; with horn dark, 
smooth, and of fine texture ; frog well developed, 
elastic and healthy. 

Each mule will be subjected to a rigid inspection, 
and any animal that does not meet the above 
requirements should be rejected. 

Horses Required by the British War Office 

The following specifications, issued by the Brit- 
ish War Office, designate the types of army horses 
called for in Canada. A discussion of the breeding 
of horses in Canada for army use will be found in 
Appendix I of "The Horse," by Roberts. 

The classes and types of horses required for the 
army may be generally described as follows : (1) 
Chargers (for officers). — Height from 15 hands 1 
inch to 15 hands 3 inches. (2) Riding horses (troop- 
ers). — Height from 15 hands 1 inch to 15 hands 
2J inches. (3) Cobs (for mounted infantry). — 
Height from 14 hands 2 inches to 15 hands. (4) 
Draft horses (for gun and wagon). — Height from 
15 hands 2 inches to 15 hands 3J. inches. 

Age. — From 4 years (off) to 6 years. 

Color. — Bays, browns and blacks preferred, but 
chestnuts will be accepted. Whites, grays, pie- 
balds or skewbalds, etc., are required only for spe- 
cial purposes. Light, washy-colored horses are not 
accepted. 

Sex. — Geldings or mares. Entire or unmanage- 
able horses are not accepted. 

Unhogged manes and undocked tails are desired, 
especially in the case of chargers. Good horses 
with short manes and docks can be accepted. 

Soundness. — No horse is accepted without pass- 
ing a veterinary examination ; and soundness in 



wind, eyes and limb is insisted on. Stale, upright 
and over -shooting joints, weak or curby hocks, 
brushing, dishing, or untrue action, turned-in or 
turned -out toes and weak feet are absolute dis- 
qualifications. 

Chargers, riding horses and cobs should be short- 
legged, short - backed, good - barrelled, with good 
rein and shoulders, of the hunter stamp, with sub- 
stance and quality, action true and quite clear of 
the joints. 

Draft horses should not be too big, but fit to 
carry a man driving postillion ; active and able to 
gallop, deep, short - legged, well ribbed -up, with 
plenty of substance and quality ; action true and 
quite clear of the joints. Very coarse horses and 
those with heavy rolling action are not accepted. 

Note. — No horses will be purchased unless they 
have been handled and are reasonably quiet. 

Orloff Trotting Horse. Figs. 474, 475. 

By C. S. Plumb. 

The Orloff trotter, as its name implies, is a breed 
of trotting horses used chiefly for driving purposes. 

Description. 

This Russian breed of horses does not possess 
very great uniformity. A well-accepted height is 
sixteen hands, with a weight of 1,100 to 1,300 
pounds. The color is variable, gray, white or black 
being most common, with chestnut and bay not 
infrequent. Quality is not a notable feature. The 
head is frequently small and neat, of Arabian 
character, with some dish to the face. The neck is 
inclined to be strong and a bit throaty, and in 
good specimens is well arched and carried high. 
The withers stand high, the back is short and 
strong and the loin full and muscular. The croup 
has a sloping tendency and is commonly criticized 
in this respect, but is powerfully muscled. The 
shoulders are rather sloping, and while strong and 
active in character, lack heaviness of form. The 
legs are strongly muscled, the tendons stand out 
well, while the bone and feet are regarded as of 
very superior quality. Russians lay much emphasis 
on the soundness of limb and endurance of this 
breed. In its native home, the Orloff has a rather 
heavy coat of hair and a thick forelock, mane and 
tail. This heaviness of hair gives something of a 
rough appearance, which may sometimes give an 
unfair impression of the horse. 

History. 

The early history of the Orloff trotter seems to 
be very well established, excepting for minor de- 
tails. Count Alexis Orloff, of Russia, in 1777, it is 
said, began the work of developing a new breed of 
horses that would be better than any existing 
Russian breed. Some authorities state that he 
secured an Arab stallion from the Sultan of Turkey 
in 1780, while others state that this same stallion, 
Smetanka, was purchased by Orloff, in southern 
Greece, in 1777, for 60,000 roubles ($8,570). This 
was a very pure Arab, of a silvery white color, 
very strong and muscular and about fifteen hands 



HORSE 



HORSE 



475 



high. Smetanka was used in Orloff's stud but one 
year, when he died, but he sired four stallions and 
one mare, all but one from English Thoroughbred 
mares. One son, Polkan, known as Polkan 1st, was 
from a " big, long, Isabel Danish mare." Polkan 
was sire of seven stallions and twenty-one mares, 




Fig. 474. Russian Orloff stallion. 

one of which, Barss or Bars 1st, is an important 
factor in foundation blood-line descent. He was 
foaled in 1784 and died in 1808. The dam of Bars 
was a big Dutch mare of fine knee action, and 
from this ancestry comes the size and action desired. 

Count Orloff used English Thoroughbred mares 
for many years in his stables, and they were bred 
to Orloff stallions, but no stallions were ever sold 
from this stud. In-and-inbreeding was finally ac- 
tively followed in one group, while another group 
of Orloff and English blood stock was main- 
tained. In 1845, the Russian government bought 
the Orloff stud from the Countess Orloff, daughter 
of its founder, when there were 21 stallions and 
194 brood-mares of the Orloff breed, and 9 
stallions and 112 brood-mares of Orloff-Hackney 
blood. 

In America. — There have been a number of 
importations of Orloffs to America. In 1877, 
four stallions and one mare were brought over 
and sold at auction, all being purchased by 
Lieutenant Ismailoff of the Russian army. In 
1890, Jacob Heyl, of Wisconsin, imported two 
black stallions, and, in 1892, two stallions and 
four mares. One of these stallions, Wzmakh, 
made a record of 2:21J. This same year F. G. 
Bourne imported five stallions and one mare. In 
1893, eighteen head were imported from Russia 
for exhibiting at the World's Columbian Ex- 
position. In 1902, Bergh & Company, of New 
York, imported twenty-eight head, which were 
sold at auction in New York, at an average 
price of $1,243. The breed has never secured 
any permanent foothold in America. 

Distribution. 

The Orloff is generally distributed over Russia, 
and is the predominating trotting horse of that 
country, although other breeds occur. It has no 
distribution to a great extent outside of Russia. 



There are several types of the Orloff, and, of those 
exhibited in 1893, criticism was made of the dif- 
ference in type. Mr. M. W. Dunham, who judged 
the breed at Chicago, especially commented on this 
variation. Mr. Dunham, at that time, was one of 
America's most noted importers and breeders of 
French coach horses, and was well qualified to 
judge. He commented in particular on a heavy, 
coarse type, and a fine, light type. Coarseness of 
form is given as a reason for the unpopularity in 
America. Without doubt, the Orloff does not show 
any greater variety of type, however, than does 
the American trotter, although the latter unques- 
tionably possesses much more speed. 



For driving. — The main use of the Orloff is for 
driving to carriages of the lighter type or to sleigh. 
It is not used under the saddle, but in general ser- 
vice compares well with the American roadster or 
trotter of the heavier type. For long-distance 
trotting the speed of the Orloff is very satisfactory, 
surpassing the American trotter. For short dis- 
tances it is inferior to the American. 

For crossing. — The Orloff has been crossed with 
the American trotter with the best of results. 
When the dam is an Orloff, the offspring frequently 
shows more speed than the sire. Little attention 
has yet been given to this cross in America, but in 
Russia it has found more favor. 

Organizations and records. 

The Russian government especially promotes this 
breed in its own stud, and what is known as the 
Record of the Imperial Russian Horse Breeding 
Society, represents the Orloff officially. In 1906, 
during the serious internal dissensions in Russia, 
press reports stated that one of the government 




Fig. 475. Russian Orloff mare. 



studs was seized by rebels, the buildings detroyed 
and many valuable pure-bred horses burned. 

Literature. 

The Orloff Horse, Country Gentleman, Vol. 68, 
p. 330 ; Orloff Horses, Breeders' Gazette, August 
16, 1893. [For further references, see page 416.] 



476 



HORSE 



HORSE 



Pacing Horse, Standardbred. Fig. 476. 
By John A. Craig. 
The pacer is not a separate and distinct breed of 
norses. The name is applied to a class of horses 
that are characterized by the pacing gait. The 
American Standardbred trotting horse breed is the 
most potent source of pacers. 

Description. 

It was a prevalent opinion some years ago that 
there was a type evolving among pacers, but this 
has been largely dispelled. Dan Patch (Fig. 476) is 
as smooth and graceful in line of mold as it would 
be possible to conceive an ideal, and Joe Patchen is 
considered among horse-lovers-, no matter what 
their preference as to breed, as being very nearly a 
model in finish, symmetry and style. So many old- 
time pacers were steep in the hind-quarters and 
some crooked in the hocks and pitched forward, 
that it became the opinion of a coterie that a 
pacing type was being evolved. Time demonstrated 
with the pacer as with the trotter, that symmetry 
and graceful lines and style in action or repose 
were not opposed to speed. 

History. 

From the earliest writings referring to horses 
and from the earliest representations of them in 
sculptured frieze, we learn that pacing or ambling 
was a gait common to the horse in earliest times. 
This gait is shown in Greek sculpture and referred 
to in the publications of some of the earliest 
writers in Spain, Great Britain and America. It is 
unnecessary here to recount these early references, 
for they are accessible in nearly every work devoted 
to the horse; and it is equally unnecessary to 
attempt to locate the origin of the gait, for there 
is no feature connected with the history of the 
horse that depends more on legendary lore than 
this. Suffice it to say that in Spain, where the 
saddle horse as a pack animal and for traveling 
was much in vogue, the pacing or ambling gait was 
considered a very necessary attribute ; and the same 
is true in perhaps a lesser degree when the early 
history of the pacer in Great Britain is considered. 

In America. — It is in America in colonial days 
that the pacer in the New England states seemed 
to reach the highest point of utility ; from there 
and from Canada the pacer seems to have spread. 
The Narragansett pacer of Rhode Island attained 
a wide notoriety over the New England states in 
colonial times, but with the improvement of roads 
and the abandonment of horse-back riding for 
long-distance traveling, this strain became extinct. 
Whether or not it drifted over into Canada and 
formed the foundation for the remarkable number 
of pacers common to the Province of Quebec, is 
not definitely known, nor is there any other satis- 
factory supposition as to the origin of the Cana- 
dian pacing families. It would seem more plausible 
to account for the Canadian pacers in this way 
than to accredit them to French origin, for they 
were very dissimilar to the French horses of that 
time in their characteristics. 



The theory that the French-Canadian pacer is 
an offshoot of the Thoroughbred has also been 
advanced and in some instances it may be proved, 
but in most instances the originator of the strain 
was by a Thoroughbred out of a pacing mare. 
Again, it has been asserted that the French-Cana- 
dian horse is a descendant of the French Perche- 
ron, reduced in size by the more vigorous condi- 
tions of climate. This seems to the writer the 
most untenable of all the theories. Long observa- 
tion among the more common types prevalent 
among the French -Canadian people, and attend- 
ance at their winter ice-racing, where the most of 
those with speed would congregate, substantiate 
the writer's opinion. In all its characteristics the 
French -Canadian comes nearer the Morgan in 
some traits and nearer the Thoroughbred in others, 
than those of any other breed or family. While 
like the Morgan in type and style of going when 
trotting, yet it must be admitted there are very 
few pacers among the Morgans. Also, not many of 
the Thoroughbreds pace unless there is a strain of 
pacing through the dam's side. The French-Cana- 
dian families, especially those showing inclinations 
to pace, although most of them were double-gaited, 
have in time become submerged in the foundation 
of other families which are now of most promi- 
nence. Among the Canadian families of early origin, 
the most noted spring from Copperbottom, Pilot, 
Daniel Boone, Drennon, Davy Crockett, Corbeau, 
St. Lawrence, St. Clair. Of those of more dis- 
tinctly Thoroughbred origin, might be mentioned 
Smuggler, Clear Grit, Uwharie and Hiatogas, while 
perhaps the two most noted of all, the Hals, 
springing from Tom Hal in Tennessee and Blue 
Bull from Indiana, had their origin so shrouded in 
misty legend that it is not even advisable to specu- 
late on it. From all that we know, it may be safe 
to assume that the Thoroughbred horse has had as 
much to do with the evolution of the pacer as any 
other up to the time of the introduction of the stand- 
ards, although we have to admit that there seems 
to have been an original stock on which the Thor- 
oughbred, as a scion, was grafted with more or 
less success. 

The Copperbottoms and Pilots made a reputation 
in Kentucky at an early time ; the Columbus fam- 
ily did the same in New England, the St. Clairs in 
California, the St. Lawrences in Michigan, the 
Blue Bulls in Indiana and Ohio, the Hiatogas in 
Virginia, and the Hals in Tennessee. While all 
these were in a general way known as pacers, yet 
with most of them the gait was interchangeable, 
and many of them could trot as fast as they could 
pace, and very few of them sired a majority of 
pacers. As might be expected, the fastest of their 
get were pacers, and those made the reputation of 
the sire, while as a matter of fact that sire would 
be getting mostly trotters. For example, Blue Bull, 
a fast pacer himself and a getter of some fast 
pacers, sired fifty-six trotters out of a total of 
sixty of his in the list. So also with many of the 
others, with the notable exception of the Hal 
family. This is the leading family of pacers that 
is justly entitled to be called a family of pacers, 



HORSE 



HORSE 



477 



and the writer does not know of any other like it, 
pacing in origin and breeding on at the pacing 
gait. 

What has been written may enable the reader 
to understand the position of the pacer in the ear- 
liest days. But to explain the position in our own 
day is almost beyond the possibilities of the most 
earnest student, so intertwined in breeding and 
development are the trotting and pacing gaits. 
When the standard for Standardbred horses was 
established, pacers and trotters came in 
on almost equal footing. At the races, 
too, trotters and pacers at that time 
mostly competed on equal footing, many 
of the purses being open-class for trot- 
ters or pacers. It was soon found that 
the pacers were naturally faster than the 
trotters, for they would win most of the 
races when both competed on equal foot- 
ing. The craze for speed and the desire to put the 
get of stallions in the list, increased the popu- 
larity of the pacer at a bound. 

It was found, too, that it was a very easy mat- 
ter to change the gait of most horses from trot- 
ting to pacing, especially with the use of hobbles 
or hopples, as they are interchangeably designated. 
This leads us to say that the difference in the gaits 
is simply that in the pacer the two legs on the 
same side move together, while in the trotter the 
movement is diagonal (see page 423). By putting 
a horse in hobbles, he must either pace or break 
the hobbles, which are so strong as to be almost 
unbreakable, or be thrown. Hobbles have been 
permitted in races, but owing to the danger to the 
driver if any entanglement occurs, they have not 
become popular except to keep horses that show a 
tendency to pace at that gait or train them until 
they can do without them. At its meeting on Feb- 
ruary 5, 1908, the American Trotting Register 
Association adopted a resolution against the use of 
hobbles. It was found that a change in the shoe- 
ing, such as shoeing very light all round, would 
encourage a horse to pace ; and even the shifting 
of the bit would accomplish the same purpose. 

After the craze for speed at any cost had sub- 
sided somewhat, and a different time limit set for 
the pacer before he could become standard, the 
winnings possible for green trotters increased, and 
with that the purses and colt stakes for trotters 
were augmented so that trotting as a part of the 
sport of racing became again more than on a par 
with pacing. The pacing standard now in force is 
appended. It should be said that it is identical 
with the trotting standard except that the word 
"pacer" is substituted for the word "trotter" and 
the word "pacing" for the word "trotting," and 
the speed standard is changed from 2:30 to 2:25 ; 
furthermore, Rule 6 is an addition. 

The pacing standard. — "When an animal meets 
these requirements and is duly registered, it shall 
be accepted as a Standardbred pacer : 

"(1) The progeny of a registered standard pacing 
horse and a registered standard pacing mare. 

"(2) Any stallion sired by a registered standard 
pacing horse, provided his dam and granddam were 



sired by registered standard pacing horses and he 
himself has a pacing record of 2:25 and is the sire 
of three pacers with records of 2:25 from different 
mares. 

"(3) A mare whose sire is a registered standard 
pacing horse and whose dam and granddam were 
sired by registered standard pacing horses, pro- 
vided she herself has a pacing record of 2:25 or is 
the dam of one pacer with a record of 2:25. 

"(4) A mare sired by a registered standard 
pacing horse, provided she is the 
dam of two pacers with records of 
2:25. 

"(5) A mare sired by a regis- 
tered standard pacing horse, pro- 




Fig. 476. Dan Patch, 1:55M. 

vided her first, second and third dams are each 
sired by a registered standard pacing horse. 

"(6) The progeny of a registered standard trot- 
ting horse out of a registered standard pacing 
mare, or of a registered standard pacing horse out 
of a registered standard trotting mare." 

Distribution. 

From the New England states and Canada, espec- 
ially Quebec, the pacer was gradually scattered all 
over America, and is now found more particularly 
in Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Missouri, California 
and Indiana. 

Families. 

Among the modern Standardbred horses it is 
not possible to separate the familes into those that 
pace as a family characteristic, and those that 
trot. The Hal family is composed most distinctly 
of pacers, for Tom Hal Jr. has fourteen in the list, 
all pacers, while Brown Hal, one son, has seventy- 
eight, all pacers. The latter has two noted sons, 
Star Pointer, with fifteen in the list, all pacers, and 
Hal Dillard with forty-two in the list, only three 
of which are pacers. In some instances there is a 
union of one of the leading families with the Hal 



478 



HORSE 



HORSE 



strain which produces pacers consistently. For 
instance, Direct, 2:05 J, of the Dictator family is a 
pacer and has sired forty-two pacers and thirty- 
seven trotters. He sired Direct Hal p., 2:04|, the 
sire of nine in the list, all pacers, and the fast- 
est green stallion of 1907. While some of the 
families of Standardbreds show a stronger tendency 
to trot than to pace, the reverse is not common, 
although it is possible .that in time this may result, 
as it is ostensibly the aim to establish two sep- 
arate standards. The champion pacing stallion, 
Dan Patch, 1:551 (Fig. 476), is sired by Joe 
Patchen, a noted race horse and a pacer, sired by 
Patchen Wilkes of the George Wilkes-Mambrino- 
Patchen cross ; and the dam of Joe Patchen was 
by Joe Young of Morgan breeding. The dam of 
Dan Patch was Zelicia by Wilkesberry, which was 
a Wilkes on his sire's side and a Clay on his dam's. 
There is very little of what might be called pacing 
blood in her pedigree, although the Wilkes strain 
and the Abdallah 15 strain have produced many 
fast pacers. On the other hand, Lou Dillon, the 
champion trotter, 1 : 58 J, comes as near being of 
a pacing line through her sire as almost any note- 
worthy pacer. She is by Sidney Dillon, no record 
sire of eleven trotters and eight pacers, by Sidney, 
pacing record 2:195, sire of sixty-three trotters 
and forty-seven pacers, including Citation 2:03j, 
the pacing queen of 1907. Sidney is sired by Santa 
Claus, 2:174, trotting horse and sire of nineteen 
trotters and six pacers. At present it does not 
seem likely that the pacing families will become 
separate from the trotting families. 

Uses. 

For racing purposes the pacer cannot be said to 
equal the trotter as a money-maker, as the purses 
are not generally so large; and the colt stakes for 
the trotters are also large. For road purposes in 
general, the pacer is not so popular as the trotter, 
although for matinee uses it is held in high favor. 
For the speedway, the pacer is decidedly popular 
for several reasons. One is that in brushing, a pacer 
can get away quicker than a trotter ; and usually, 
also, it is the faster gait. Pacing is an easier gait, 
and in pacing a horse does not strike the pavement 
so hard, a matter of some consideration on hard 
roads. For usage on common roads or in snow, the 
pacer cannot be said to be as popular as the trotter. 
The pacer has not, as a rule, so evenly a rated gait 
as the trotter. Very often it is a slow amble or full 
speed. However, many pacers jog-trot, and when 
forced to full speed at a trot strike into a pace 
when urged to do more. 

It is considered by some persons that the pace is 
an ungainly gait, but it is to be remembered that, 
like all other gaits, there is a difference in the 
classes of it. Some horses pitch in such a way as 
to be_ lumbering in gait, but others go as true and 
as frictionless as the piston of an engine. Again, 
for road-riders, the pacer does not develop, as a 
rule, into a puller, which is sometimes so true of 
the trotter. While the pacing gait is generally 
considered to be the faster of the two gaits, five 
seconds is thought to about express the difference 



in time. The pacer, as a rule, needs the lighter road 
rig, for the trotter seems to have the advantage 
slightly in pulling power. 

Organizations and records. 

The same registries and the same associations 
look after the interests of the pacers as those that 
have the Standardbred trotter under their auspices. 
[See page 507.] 

Percheron Horse. Figs. 42, 477. 

By Charles F. Curtiss and John A. Craig. 

The Percheron draft breed of horses is native of 
the ancient province of La Perche, a territory about 
one hundred miles square, in the north-central part 
of France. This region lies in the heart of a fer- 
tile farming country. The land is high and rolling, 
the soil is fertile and the farms are watered by 
numerous springs and small streams. These springs 
and brooks give rise to some eight or ten rivers 
flowing into the English Channel on the north 
and the Atlantic ocean on the west. The numer- 
ous valleys are rich and they produce sweet, nutri- 
tious grasses and bountiful crops of grain. The 
climate is mild, yet sufficiently tonic and invigorat- 
ing to produce horses of good temperament. The 
land is held mainly by tenant farmers who are fru- 
gal and thrifty, and good tillers of the soil. The 
natural conditions of this region all combine to 
make a most favorable environment for this widely 
known and popular breed. Among the breeds of 
draft horses that have been imported to America 
from France, the Percheron leads both in numbers 
and in popularity. 

Description. 

Nearly a century ago the aim of the breeders of 
horses in La Perche was to produce a medium- 
weight draft horse, suited in type and action 
for pulling a "diligence" or omnibus. At an 
early day, the demand existed in France for a 
horse that could haul a load at as rapid a rate as 
possible. At this time, the breed was represented 
by horses of upstanding type, somewhat rangy but 
strongly built, with attractive and unusual action 
for draft horses. They were then gray in color, 
and these were the first to be brought to America. 
While not so drafty in type as the modern Perche- 
ron, they were horses of superb style, full of vigor, 
and they had powerful action which enabled them 
to pull strongly and more quickly at the same time. 
In themselves, the gray Percherons of early days 
were unusual draft horses, and it was the degree 
to which they combined activity with pulling 
power that made the Percheron a very popular 
horse for farm work. But the demand in America 
became more insistent for a heavier, blockier, 
shorter-legged type, that would grade the produce 
of our lighter mares to a draft weight quicker. 
This demand resulted in the modern black Per- 
cheron of somewhat stouter build, deeper body, 
more weight, and as much quality as the proto- 
type ; but there was some sacrifice of style, stand- 
ing or going, with somewhat less attractive action. 



HORSE 



HORSE 



479 



The modern Percheron approaches more closely 
the essentials of a draft horse to meet modern 
markets, but the old type had some qualities, such 
as style, endurance and activity, which were diffi- 
cult to retain in a shorter and stouter built horse 
of more weight. 

The present-day Percheron's excellencies are to 
be seen in the active temperament, intelligent 
head, deep body, wide muscular croup and clean-cut 
legs of the typical representative. The joints are 
usually clean and hard, and the legs invariably 
show an abundance of quality that guarantees dur- 
ability ; but frequently the set of the legs and, 
particularly, the shape of the hind-quarters, is at 
fault. A croup too sloping, with deficiency in 
muscle below, cannot give the greatest pulling 
power, especially when associated, as it often is, 
with legs that are improperly set, being either too 
straight, sickle-hocked or otherwise cramped in the 
hind-quarters. The Percheron is rarely deficient in 
quality and activity, and when the weight is suffi- 
cient to meet the demands of the modern draft- 
horse market, a draft horse of unusual excellencies 
is the result. The action of the Percheron is almost 
always quick enough for a draft horse, and the 
feet are generally picked up with snap at the walk; 
but these should not be allowed to overshadow 
desirable mechanical action, which is straight 
and distance -covering, although less showy and 
attractive. 

In size, the Percheron ranges from fifteen and 
one-fourth to sixteen and one-half hands, and from 
1,500 to over 2,000 pounds in weight. There are a 
number of medium size, although the largest take 
rank with the largest of any of the draft breeds. 
In France there is a type smaller in size than the 
medium. These are popular for general traffic and 
for bus and tram use in cities. The demand in the 
United States is for the larger types. 

History. 

France has long been noted for good horses. The 
horses of France, like those of other countries, were 
first improved for the purpose of war. The Flemish 
blood was largely drawn on in early times and 
importations of oriental blood were made at a 
very early date. This blood was infused with the 
native horse stock of France, which may have been 
Flemish in its origin. The oriental blood imparted 
a degree of refinement and finish that has ever 
since characterized the modern draft-horse stock 
of France. 

Since 732, when the French defeated the Sara- 
cens and captured their horses, infusions of Ara- 
bian blood have been made, and the subsequent use 
of Arabian stallions on the native mares continued 
as late as 1820. In this way, a foundation was 
laid for a breed of horses possessing activity, 
quality and strength. The extension of railroads, 
reducing the use of the omnibus, seems to have 
diverted the breed towards a heavier type. This 
led to the use of Flemish stallions. The conditions 
of La Perche being favorable for the growth of 
strong active horses, the breed started in this way 
Bade very rapid progress. There are some features 



of French management that may have had an 
influence also in directing the development of the 
breed. It is a common practice to work the stal- 
lions, and this may have been a factor of some 
influence on their dispositions, making them more 
amenable to work. 

It should be said that the French government 
recognizes several breeds of draft horses, but the 
Percheron and the Boulonnais are apparently the 
only two that may be considered pure, as they have 
studbooks separate from the others. In addition, 
there are the Breton, Nivernais and Ardennais, all 
of which may be recorded in the General Draft 
Studbook of France. [These breeds are discussed 
on pages 460^162.] 

In addition to controlling the matter of registra- 
tion, the French government has a system of inspec- 
tion, which in some degree assists its horse-breeding 
interests. The veterinary inspection, however, is 
limited to periodic ophthalmia or moon blindness and 
roaring or thick wind. Johnstone (The Horse Book), 
states that there are only two maladies for posses- 
sion of which approval, authorization or certification 
is refused in France — periodic ophthalmia and thick 
wind. This being so, the branding system carried 
out by the French government does not carry so 
much weight as is commonly supposed, for inspec- 
tion apparently only discriminates against these 
two diseases, and there is nothing in the law to 
prevent any breeder using such unsound stallions 
on his own mares. The author referred to states 




Fig. 477. Etradegant. Champion Percheron stallion at all 
leading live-stock shows in America in 1906. 

further, that when a stallion is pronounced free 
from the unsoundnesses named, he is branded on 
the neck under the mane with a five-pointed star. 
The colt must be over thirty months of age before 



480 



HORSE 



HORSE 



he can stand for public service, and the certificate 
of freedom from these diseases covers only one 
year. If the colt fails to pass inspection for these 
diseases, or if the diseases develop after the inspec- 
tion, then the letter "R" meaning refused, is 
branded over the five-pointed star. These are the 
only brands used by the French government. 

The French Percheron Society, however, uses a 
brand that is put on all stallions and mares recorded 
in its studbook. It is a monogram of the letters 
S. and P., the initials of the society. It is branded 
on the neck under the mane. 

After successfully passing the inspection, the 
horses are classified in three grades. The first are 
known as "subsidized" or "approved," and to such 
a cash bonus is awarded to keep them in France on 
the owner's farm, and available to outside mares. 
The other two are "authorized" and "certified," 
neither of which carries with it any subsidy. 

In America. — The first importation to America 
was made in 1839, by Mr. Edward Harris, of 
Moorestown, New Jersey. The next importation 
was made in 1851, by Messrs Fullington and Mar- 
tin of Milford Centre, Ohio. This importation was 
of far-reaching importance, although it consisted 
of but a single horse named "Louis Napoleon." 
This horse was sold and taken to Illinois in 1856, 
where he afterward passed into the hands of Mr. 
Dillon, of Normal, Illinois. "Louis Napoleon" stood 
fifteen and one-half hands high and weighed about 
sixteen hundred pounds. He was, perhaps, the most 
noted horse of the breed that has been brought to 
America. It is estimated that he sired over four 
hundred colts that were used successfully for stud 
purposes. In 1851 and succeeding years, other impor- 
tations were made which helped to lay the foun- 
dation of the breed in America. In 1870, M. W. 
Dunham, of Wayne, Illinois, took up the impor- 
tation, since which time he has imported and 
bred Percherons very extensively. Through his 
efforts the breed has gained much popularity in 
America. Many other importers might be men- 
tioned, but the list is now a long one, as the 
importations of horses of this breed have been very 
extensive. The Percheron breed has made rapid 
progress in popularity in this country. It is the 
most numerous and the most generally popular of 
any breed of draft horses in America. This is 
accounted for chiefly by the degree to which the 
Percheron is adapted for the work on the majority 
of our farms, as well as to produce an active draft 
horse for the market. 

Distribution, 

The Percheron breed has proved generally popu- 
lar in nearly all parts of the United States, par- 
ticularly in the farming regions where draft horses 
are raised for market. It is well adapted to farm 
conditions and meets with favor on the markets. 
Plumb (Types and Breeds of Farm Animals) quotes 
Weld as authority for the statement that in 1866 
there were fully 5,000 Percherons in this country. 
Illinois has been the chief center for the breed, with 
the adjoining states of Ohio, Iowa, Michigan and 
Wisconsin following with lesser numbers. The 



same author states that between i851 and 1883 
nearly 4,000 Percherons were imported or bred in 
the United States, and these were distributed about 
as follows : Illinois, 1834 ; Ohio, Indiana and 
Michigan, 577 ; Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota, 
424 ; New York, Pennsylvania and New Jersey, 
280 ; Missouri, Kansas and Nebraska, 186. These 
figures are an index of the relative extensiveness 
of the Percheron breeding interests today, although 
it is likely the western states carry more compared 
with the others than they did at that early time. 
The southern states have become an altogether new 
field for the Percheron, although not many of the 
breed have been brought into the South or into 
Canada, where the British breeds seem to be in 
more favor. Wilcox (Farm Animals) has stated 
that there are 30,000 registered Percheron horses 
in the United States, which is a decidedly larger 
number than any other draft breed may claim. 

Uses. 

The Percheron has little use except as a draft 
horse and as a producer of grade draft horses. The 
usefulness of this breed for draft purposes is so 
well known that it is unnecessary to dwell on that 
feature. But it is well to call attention to the fact 
that a large proportion of our draft teams contain 
Percheron blood, and that the results which follow 
a cross of a pure-bred Percheron stallion on a mare 
of other draft breeds, or even on the heavier types 
of our common mares, are most excellent. 

Organizations and records. 

In France, the interests of this breed are in the 
hands of Societe Hippique Percheronne. It was 
organized in 1883, and in that year published its 
first studbook. The Percheron Society of America 
has published nine volumes of the Percheron Stud- 
book of America, the first two volumes, however, 
having been published by the Percheron-Norman 
Horse Association. The Percheron Registry Com- 
pany has published three studbooks. 

There have been many dissensions among the 
importers and breeders of French draft horses, 
leading to the formation of several societies and 
studbooks. It becomes necessary to discuss these, 
not because of any desire to state which were right 
or which were wrong, but solely for the purpose 
of explaining the status of the societies and stud- 
books at present representing the breed. 

The first importations of draft horses from 
France to America were almost universally called 
Normans. There was no apparent reason for the 
name, for none of them came from Normandy. 
This name at that time was intended to embrace 
all the breeds of draft horses in France. Those 
importers bringing horses from La .Perche, con- 
sidered the horses from that district the typical 
draft horses of France. The French government 
had not at that time established the Percheron 
studbook (its publication was begun in 1883), con- 
sequently there was more room for the discussion 
of the claim at that time than there is now. In 
1876, when the importers of the French draft 
breeds organized and issued the first studbook 





Plate XVI. Small horses. Shetland pony stallion. Cowboy and broncho, a typical western outfit 



HORSE 



HORSE 



481 



under the editorship of J. H. Sanders, a compromise 
was effected by the adoption of the title Percheron- 
Nornian Studbook. Some of the members withdrew, 
forming another association, which published the 
National Register of Norman horses, and this was 
afterwards changed to the National Register of 
French Draft Horses. In this studbook are 
registered all importations that are registered in 
the General Draft Studbook of France. The Per- 
c heron-Norman Studbook was changed to the Per- 
cheron Studbook, and it is based on the Percheron 
Studbook of France which, since 1885, has accepted 
for entry only horses whose ancestors are reg- 
istered in the book. As the present studbooks 
stand, only pure-bred Percherons may be recorded 
in the Percheron Studbook, while in the Register 
of French Draft Horses all the draft breeds of 
France, including Percherons, may be admitted. 
From this unfortunate diversity of studbooks, the 
Percheron Studbook had reached the point of being 
recognized as the distinct representative of the 
Percheron breed, when internal dissension arose 
over the powers vested in the secretary. The out- 
come has been a division into three associations 
that have published or intend to publish studbooks. 
The American Percheron Horse Breeders' and 
Importers' Association was organized in 1902, but 
in 1905 tiis name was changed to the Percheron 
Society of America, with headquarters at the Union 
Stock Yards, Chicago. Also in 1904, the Percheron 
Registry Company was organized with head- 
quarters at Columbus, Ohio. In 1905, the American 
Breeders' and Importers' Percheron Registry was 
organized, with headquarters at Plainfield, Ohio. 

Literature. 

Charles Du Hays, The Percheron Horse, New 
York (1868). [For further references, see page 
416.] 

Ponies. Figs. 478-486. 
By S. B. Elliot. 

The dividing line between the horse and the 
pony was vague and undefined until the Hackney 
Horse Society was established in England in 1883. 
All horses measuring fourteen hands or under were 
then designated ponies, and registered in a separate 
part of the studbook. This standard of height was 
accepted and officially recognized by leading agri- 
cultural and horse-show societies in England, and 
subsequently in America. In 1905, the American 
Hackney Horse Society increased the height of 
ponies to fourteen hands one inch, and in the case 
of polo ponies the limit of height had previously 
been raised to fourteen hands two inches. 

Adverse climatic conditions, promiscuous breed- 
ing and privation have had much to do with the 
development of most breeds of ponies. Distinct 
types of ponies are found in almost every coun- 
try, the chief types being the Arab and his near 
allies, the Turks, Barbs and Persians, the Mongo- 
lian, Japanese, Korean, Burma and Manipuri pony, 
Sumatra and Java pony, Russian, Scandinavian or 
Norwegian pony, the Celtic or pony of Iceland, 

C31 



the ponies of the British Isles, and, in America, 
the ponies of the western states. While some of 
these, perhaps, are only of remote interest in 
America at present, it has been thought best to 
discuss most of them briefly. The following index 
will aid in finding the separate discussions. 

lNMX . Paee 

Polo pony 482 

Mustang, Bronco or Indian pony 483 

Other American ponies 484 

Ponies of the British Isles 484-488 

Shetland pony 484 

Welsh pony 486 

Exmoor and Dartmoor ponies 487 

New Forest pony 487 

Hackney pony 487 

Ponies of Scotland 488 

Galloway . . •. 488 

Connemara, or pony of Ireland 488 

Celtic, or pony of Iceland 488 

Arabian pony 488 

Russian pony 4 V 8 

Scandinavian or Norwegian pony 488 

Miscellaneous ponies 489 

Use and value of the pony. 

The usefulness and value of the pony is just 
beginning to be appreciated in America. Ponies 
cost much less to feed, consume less and thrive on 
rougher food than the large horse, and they will 
travel as far ; many, in fact, will outdistance the 
large horse. The thirteen-hand pony will do a 
horse's work on half his feed and requires less 
attendance. Ponies have better feet, legs and 
wind, and are less susceptible to disease than large 
horses. They stand more hardship, recover more 
quickly from fatigue and live longer. They have, 
moreover, much greater intelligence, and for this 
reason are much less likely to take fright at 
objects on the road. 

The principal cause of the marked superiority in 
constitution of the present-day pony over the 
horse, and of his greater intelligence, is accounted 
for by his having to shift for himself on the hills 
and wastes, and this hardiness and intelligence is 
transmitted to generations born in domestication. 
The horse reared in captivity with everything done 
for his comfort, has not the same toughness as the 
pony ; no demand is made on his intelligence, and 
his mental faculties remain, to a great extent, 
undeveloped. In the pony, unsoundness of wind 
or limb is almost unknown. For generations ponies 
have been accustomed to pick their way up and 
down stony precipitous hillsides. Their feet and 
legs consequently are of the very best, and they 
are remarkably sure-footed. 

History of horses in warfare is replete with ac- 
counts of the endurance of ponies and their ability 
to thrive on poor and scanty food. Sir Walter Gil- 
bey, in "Ponies, Past and Present," gives an inter- 
esting account. Sir Teddy, a twelve -hand pony, 
raced with the London mail coach to Exeter, a 
distance of 172 miles. He was led between two 
horses all the way, and carried no rider, perform- 
ing the journey in 23 hours and 20 minutes, beating 
the coach by 59 minutes. Mr. J. C. Appleby, in 



482 



HORSE 



HORSE 



his book, "Nimrod," mentions the fact that dur- 
ing the drawing of the Irish lottery the news 
was conveyed by express from Holyhead to Lon- 
don, chiefly by ponies, at the rate of nearly twenty 
miles an hour. Mr. Whyte, in his "History of 
the British Turf," gives an account of a thirteen- 
hand three-inch mare belonging to Mr. Daniel 
Crocker, that in April, 1754, traveled 300 miles on 
Newmarket Heath in 64 hours and 20 minutes, 
which was 7~hours and 40 minutes better than the 
time for which she had been backed to perform the 
journey, namely, 72 hours. On one of the days, 
Tuesday, April 23, she went 108 miles. The day 
before and the day after she covered 96 miles each 
day. She was ridden by a boy who weighed 65 
pounds, and this did not include saddle and bridle. 
In our own country there are many accounts of 
endurance of western ponies. 

Nor is it only in endurance that the pony excels. 
His greater stamina is also evidenced in his length 
of life. The following instances in which ponies 
have attained to great age are cited by Sir Walter 
Gilbey : " Mr. Edmund F. Deane, of Gaulstown Co., 
Westmeath, lost a pony in December, 1894, which 
had reached the age of 39 years ; in 1896, Mrs. 
Pratt, of Low Pond House, Bedale.Yorks, lost a pony 
mare aged 45 years ; on Christmas Day, 1863, there 
died at Silworthy, near Clovelly in North Devon, a 
pony that had arrived within a few weeks of his 
sixtieth year. Accounts of ponies which lived, and 
in some cases worked, until they reached 40, 38, 
37 and 35 years also recur to mind." 

Ponies in America are used chiefly for children's 
purposes and for playing polo. In Europe, in Eng- 
land particularly, they are used for a much greater 
variety of purposes. Some are used in coal mines, 
but a great many more are put to use above ground. 
Large numbers are employed on light delivery 
wagons. Green grocers, fish mongers, market men, 
small merchants, all make use of them for delivery 
purposes. Country gentlemen, doctors, land agents, 
in fact all persons having occasion to travel use 
ponies a great deal. There is good reason for stat- 
ing that ponies could be used to far greater advan- 
tage in America than they are at present. For light 
work they could be used in many places instead of 
large horses at a considerable saving. Ponies in 
America, the western ponies in particular, have 
long been used for saddle purposes, but ponies as a 
first mount for children are just beginning to be 
appreciated. 

The Polo Pony 

The increasing popularity of polo is attracting 
much attention to ponies suitable for playing the 
game. Polo originally was an oriental game, being 
the national game of the Manipuri, from whom the 
Europeans first learned it. It was first introduced 
into India proper in 1864, and was first played in 
England by the officers of the 10th Hussars in the 
year 1872, on their return from service in India. 
It is now played in France and other parts of 
Europe, and is becoming very popular in America. 
The best type of ponies for playing the game are 
scarce and very costly. 



This pony that is in such demand and brings 
such a high price, is really not a pony but a small 
horse. He does not necessarily belong to any 
distinct breed, and is generally a cross. The regu- 
lation height is fourteen hands two inches, and he 
must be a powerful, speedy, sound, handy animal, 
with great staying power and courage, high in 
front, with sweeping shoulders and good strong 
hocks. The necessary speed and courage are rarely 
found except in those ponies that have a prepon- 
derance of race-horse blood in their veins. He 
must be able to carry 160 to 200 pounds weight, 
make incessant turns, twists and stops at full 
speed, and make short spurts of hard galloping, all 




A light-weight western polo pony. Battledor, 
fourteen hands, one inch. 

of which take more out of a pony than would a 
race out of a race horse. 

The Thoroughbred race horse has the speed and 
courage, but rarely the strong hind-quarters and 
the power necessary to enable him to stop quickly 
and turn sharply at the gallop. The Arab, while 
having great staying power, is rarely sufficiently 
speedy ; and the Mustang has not the speed or the 
courage to make a good polo pony, even if he had 
the other qualifications. The best polo pony seems 
to be one that is three-quarters Thoroughbred. As 
laid down by Mr. E. D. Miller in his book, "Modern 
Polo," the polo pony should be a Thoroughbred out 
of a mare by a Thoroughbred, — that is, it should 
be three-quarters Thoroughbred race horse. 

In America, the ponies used to play the game 
are secured chiefly from the West, and the demand 
for ponies here is not yet anything like what it is 
in England. The supply is entirely inadequate to 
meet the demand, and polo ponies are sought for 
the English market not only in America, including 
Canada, Mexico and Argentina, but in every corner 
of the horse-breeding world, principally in Egypt, 
Syria, Barbary, Russia, France, Persia, and South 
Afric.. While the ponies thus secured are not 
equal in speed, endurance, or courage to the 
English or American race horse, the best, when 
trained and fitted, command very high prices. The 
prices may be said to range anywhere from $300 
to $3,000. In fact, there is no limit to the price, 
as those who play the game, are, as a rule, men of 
means to whom a really good animal is cheap at 



HORSE 



HORSE 



483 



any price. The exacting qualifications, however, 
make first-class polo ponies rare. 

Breeding polo ponies at present is somewhat of 
an experiment and presents many difficulties, the 
chief being the limit of height. All breeding of 
horses goes to prove the impossibilty of insuring 
the progeny of any given size. In America, the 
western pony mare is bred to small Thoroughbred 
stallions, and in a very few cases to Arabian horses. 
In England, to keep the size down, pure pony blood 
as foundation stock is being used to found a breed 
of polo ponies, the fillies being bred back to stallions 
of the same breed as their sires, the produce of 
which will be three-quarters Thoroughbred. The 
Thoroughbred race horse of late years has been in- 
creasing in height and small ones are likely to be 
only runts whose produce is likely to exceed the 
limit in height. The Arab in many ways is desir- 
able, as he has the constitution, the endurance and 
the strength, but not the speed. The Arab, more- 
over, is more likely to be of the right size, and by 
reason of his great antiquity and the fixed char- 
acter of the breed, he impresses more certainly and 
more markedly his likeness on his stock than any 
other breed. 

There is generally a good demand for ponies that 
have been discarded from the game because of defi- 
ciency in speed, courage, or other essential qualifi- 
cations. They make good hacks and often good 
saddle ponies for children and young persons. The 
pony Battledor (Pig. 478), with her fore-legs band- 
aged, as in playing the game, is a type of light- 
weight western polo pony. 

A polo pony studbook has been started in Eng- 
land, and there is every reason to suppose that one 
will be started in this country in the near future. 

The Mustang. 

The ponies of the western states of America, the 
Mustangs, are in the case of those of the south- 
western states apparently of Moorish origin, corn- 



meaning rough or wild. The pony of the north- 
western states and Canada, termed Indian pony, 
appears to be of Norman origin, although often 
these two breeds are more or less mixed. Very 





Fig. 479. A typical Bronco. Nigger. 

ing into this country by way of Mexico and having 
been brought over originally by the Spaniards. To 
these ponies the term Bronco is often applied, 
which is derived from the Spanish word " bronco," 



Fig. 480. A bucking Bronce. 

many of the small horses at the present time in the 
western part of the United States have been crossed 
more or less with the American trotter, the English 
Thoroughbred or the Arabian horses. These still are 
known as Broncos, although in recent years they 
are more commonly termed " cow ponies," from the 
use that is made of them in herding and driving 
cattle on the ranges. 

The Bronoo. Figs. 479, 480. 

The Broncos, like all horses in a semi-wild state, 
have good constitutions, and the best of feet, but 
because' of inbreeding and want of selection, may 
not be good in general conformation. " In general, 
the Bronco is an exceedingly hardy, wiry little 
animal, possessed of considerable endurance. In 
the best types the head is small, clean-cut and 
refined, with bright, piercing eyes, small ears and 
attractive appearance, although many individuals 
have ill-formed heads. The neck of the better class 
is of medium length, well crested and very well 
carried. The body is short, deep and muscular. 
Broncos are frequently ridden day after day for 
weeks at a time, without shoes, over the rough, 
rocky soil, carrying a heavy man and a cumber- 
some stock saddle. They weigh approximately 850 
pounds, and are possessed of enormous strength for 
their size and weight." (W. L. Carlyle.) 

These ponies of the Southwest, as a rule, do not 
exceed thirteen and one-half or fourteen hands in 
height unless cross-bred. Some of them are hand- 
some, graceful creatures, but they do not compare 
favorably with the best American horses, or with 
imported European ponies, nor are they as good as 
the more northern Indian pony. They stand a great 
deal of hard work, however, and if broken young, 
could be made very serviceable. It is to be regret- 



484 



HORSE 



HORSE 



ted that this race of exceedingly useful and 
picturesque animals is decreasing, caused by the 
demand for a larger and more fleet horse by the 
cowmen and by crossing with Standardbred and 
Thoroughbred sires. The Bronco in the wild state 
can be ridden down and captured without much 
difficulty by good, domestic horses, even when car- 
rying the weight of a rider, whenever it can be 
approached sufficiently close to allow anything like 
an equality in the start. 

The Indian pony. 

The pony of the northern states and northwest 
of Canada is a better animal than that of the 
southern states, although often they are inter-bred. 
The northern pony rarely exceeds thirteen hands, 
almost never fourteen, unless he is cross-bred, and 
is more compact, better ribbed up and a better 
boned pony than the Bronco. He is short in barrel 
and strong in limb, has very good feet, and often 
has considerable hair on his legs, heavy mane and 
tail, all of which would seem to indicate his Nor- 
man origin. These ponies are very hardy, and while 
not fast, will cover long distances with ease. They 
are, moreover, more intelligent, have better dispo- 
sitions and display more courage than the Bronco. 

Uses. 

In the West these ponies are used for saddle 
purposes, especially for cow-herding, although they 
are fast being replaced by better horses. Ponies of 
both types are brought east and used in cities 
in delivery wagons and for light driving pur- 
poses, or as saddle ponies. The best of them are 
sometimes used as polo ponies. They are not bred, 
as a rule, except in the western states on large 
ranches, it being more profitable to raise other 
breeds of horses or ponies in the eastern states, 
where the cost of feed is so high. These ponies are 
used as foundation stock from which to breed a 
more improved type of pony or horse, the mares 
being bred to Hackneys, trotting, carriage, Thor- 
oughbred race horses and Arabian stallions, often 
with a view to getting polo ponies. It is difficult, 
however, to get any pony or horse of much value 
from one cross. 

Other American Ponies. 

Aside from the Mustangs of the western states, 
there are in North America the Sable island ponies, 
the ponies found on the coasts of the South Atlan- 
tic states, and the Creole ponies of Louisiana. 

The Sable island ponies rarely find their way into 
the United States, principally because of the duty. 
They are few in number and run wild, and are not 
bo good as some other breeds from which selection 
can be had on the British islands. The Sable is a 
small pony much like the Celtic. 

Ponies of South Atlantic states. — The ponies found 
along the coast of the South Atlantic states have 
been known to exist there for many years. They 
are apparently of Spanish origin, although some- 
what smaller than the ponies of the western states. 
Little effort has been made to improve them and 
they are not superior in any way to the Mustangs. 



The ponies of Louisiana, sometimes known as the 
Creole ponies, also appear to be of Spanish origin. 
They are somewhat smaller and finer in bone than 
the ponies of the western states, but are little dif- 
ferent in other respects. 

The Ponies of the British Isles. 

Ponies have been known to exist in the British 
islands from the earliest times. They were there 
at the time of Julius Cassar's conquest and he 
spoke highly of them. The ponies of the west of 
England are said to have been brought there by 
the Phoenicians when they came to trade for tin. 
The ponies of the northern part of the British 
isles, including the Shetlands, have many charac- 
teristics in common with the Scandinavian pony, 
and were probably introduced by the Scandinavian 
invaders some time prior to the fifteenth century. 

Owing to the land system of the British isles, 
dating back to the feudal times, large estates have 
been held in one family for centuries, and the 
highest intelligence has been given to agricultural 
pursuits, to the breeding of horses as well as other 
animals, regardless of monetary considerations. 
The finest types of horses from the Shire and 
Clydesdale to the Shetland pony are secured from 
here for every part of the world. While, with the 
exception of the Hackney, the ponies of the Brit- 
ish isles, like all other ponies, were originally the 
product of their environment, by improved meth- 
ods of breeding, careful selection, the introduction 
of superior alien blood, and better keep, they have 
been greatly improved until the various breeds of 
ponies are unrivaled for symmetry of form, action 
and disposition. It is from these ponies largely 
that American breeders have to select their foun- 
dation stock. 

The principal ponies of the British isles are the 
Welsh, Exmoor and Dartmoor, New Forest, the 
Scotch ponies, the Connemara or pony of Ireland 
and the Shetland pony. The last is discussed first 
because of its relative importance in America. 

The Shetland pony. 

The Shetland pony, the smallest of all ponies, is 
in many ways the most important in America. 
While in England and other countries he has been 
used extensively in the coal mines, in America his 
use is practically restricted to that of children, and 
as a child's pony he has no equal. Children and 
Shetland ponies seem to have for each other a 
natural affinity. Every child desires a pony, and as 
a considerable proportion of Americans have the 
means to gratify their children in such a desire, the 
Shetland pony is in great demand. It is imported 
in considerable numbers, and many are bred here. 
There are also many in America that are cross-bred. 

The Shetland islands are situated to the north of 
Scotland, from which they are separated by about 
150 to 200 miles of very rough and dangerous sea. 
There are some 120 islands, many of which are un- 
inhabited, merely affording pasturage for a few 
sheep or ponies. The existence of two or three dis- 
tinct types of ponies on private estates has given 
rise to the untrue statement that a more or less dis- 



HORSE 



HORSE 



485 



tinct type of the Shetland exists on each of several 
of the islands. There are no trees nor shrubs on 
the islands, the surface being a succession of hills 
of rock formation with peat and decayed vegetable 
matter in the basins and a light covering of soil on 
which heather and scanty grass grow, affording the 
only pasturage for the ponies. 

Although far to the north, the climate is greatly 
moderated by the surrounding waters of the gulf 
stream. There is consequently much mist and pre- 
cipitation of moisture, that accounts largely for 
the Shetland's very long, fine hair which in wet 
weather mats and is almost waterproof. This heavy 
coat is the Shetland's only protection against the 
inclement weather, as it is not housed, but is born, 
lives and dies in the fields, the hillsides and stone- 
walls being the only shelter from the winds that 
are constantly blowing, and which in winter are 
very penetrating. 

Description. — The limit of height established by 
the Shetland Pony Studbook Society is ten hands, 
two inches. Ponies over this height cannot be reg- 
istered, although in America the Shetland Pony 
Club has increased the height to eleven hands two 
inches. The average height of the pure Shetland 
may be said to be nine to ten hands. The size is 
more or less a result of the feed, and when food is 
supplied in abundance there is a gradual increase 
in size in successive generations. This increase is 
less apparent in highly bred ponies. The weight of 
mature Shetlands should approximate 325 to 375 
pounds, for ponies of average height. The best 
specimens are compact in build, having deep body, 
heavy muscular quarters, short legs, short, broad 
back, deep, full chest, good bone, short, muscular 
neck, small head and ears, prominent eyes, and are 
very docile in disposition. In color, they are com- 
monly brown, black and bay. There are other colors, 
such as dun, chestnut, gray and a few with white 
markings. Piebalds are not considered desirable, 
although there is a demand for broken colors in 
America. 

The coat of the Shetland pony is a revelation to 
those who are not familiar with him. The young 
ponies under two years of age, in particular, have 
very long, shaggy coats. Towards spring the hair 
loses its luster and has a very rusty, shabby 
appearance. Owing to the hair being very fine and 
matted; it is shed in patches, often hanging in tag- 
locks, which makes the pony the very roughest and 
shaggiest little creature imaginable. Once he has 
shed, his coat is fine and glossy and he is much 
more active in his movements. The mane is gener- 
ally heavy and long, and adds much to the attrac- 
tiveness of a well-kept pony. 

The Shetland pony combines with the highest 
order of equine intelligence a disposition wonder- 
fully free from vice and trickiness. 

The Shetland stallion Howard B (Pig. 481) won 
first prize in the Shetland stallion class at the 
World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in a class 
of nineteen, the largest class of Shetland ponies 
that has been exhibited to date in this country. 
The color of this stallion, while much sought after, 
is very unusual. 



History. — Ponies have been known in the Shetland 
islands from the earliest times of which there is 
record. From the finding of the Bressay stone 
recently, there appears to be good evidence that 
they were there prior to the Norwegian invasion in 
872. According to some early writers, the Scan- 
dinavian invaders introduced the foundation stock 
prior to the fifteenth century. 

The government returns for 1891 gave the 
number of horses, which included ponies, in the 
Islands as 4,803, but because of the demand of 
recent years the ponies are steadily decreasing. 
While on a tour of the Islands in 1906, the writer 
made a careful estimate of the number of ponies, 
and could not account for over 4,000 of all ages 




Fig. 481. Shetland pony stallion. Howard B, nine hands, 
three inches. 

and sexes, and he doubts whether there are much 
over 400 foals produced on the Islands annually. 
In America there have been registered in the stud- 
book about seven thousand of these ponies, and as 
the studbook has been open for about twenty years, 
this number includes those that have died in that 
time. The Shetland pony may be considered to be 
comparatively rare. 

Feeding and care. — In the winter time, it is usual 
to feed the ponies. In April they are turned on 
common pasture lands to shift for themselves. In 
the autumn, the ponies come down from the hills 
and feed on the patches of fresh grass which have 
been preserved around the cultivated areas. In 
severe winters, when feed is scarce, they eat the 
seaweed. Contrary to the popular impression pre- 
vailing in America, the ponies do not run wild. 
They are all definitely owned and cared for more 
or less. There are few large herds. Most of the 
ponies are held by the crofters or farmers in small 
numbers. 

Uses. — In the Shetland islands, the ponies are used 
little. They are sometimes employed in carrying 
peat from the hills to the crofts, and are the most 
wonderful weight-carriers in the world, a nine-hand 
pony being able to carry a full-grown man over 
rough ground for some distance. They are wonder- 
fully hardy and will cover surprising distances. In 
the coal mines many of the ponies travel upwards 
of thirty miles a day, drawing a load of 1,200 to 
1,400 pounds (on rails). In America, as has been 
said, the chief use of the Shetland is as a child's 
pony and for light driving. Shetland ponies are 



486 



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very salable, the demand being far in excess of 
the supply. The smaller sizes are most popular 
in England, but not in America. They bring good 
prices, about as much at maturity as the average 
large horse, and are easy and inexpensive to raise. 




5-/.-£ .' '£ ■ .' "=3>- ••2-,"'/i^S-' S! 



Fig. 482. Welsh mountain pony stallion. Greylight, 
twelve and one-half hands. 

They break easily and are a constant source of 
usefulness and pleasure, as well as an ornament to 
any farm. 

Organizations and records. — The American Shet- 
land Pony Club was organized in 1888. The office of 
its secretary is at Lafayette, Indiana. Seven vol- 
umes of the American Shetland Pony Studbook have 
been issued. The Shetland Pony Studbook Society, 
with the secretary at Aberdeen, Scotland, is the 
official organization of the breed in Scotland and 
Shetland. 

The Welsh pony. 

The Welsh pony is more numerous than any 
other breed that comes from the British isles. It 
is difficult to discover the exact number, as there 
appear to be no statistics on the subject. He 
wanders over the hills and waste-lands of all the 
twelve counties of Wales, and also on the borders 
of Shropshire, Hereford and Monmouth. Inured 
from the earliest foalhood to the roughest and 
poorest pasturage, he is as sure-footed as the goat, 
has good shoulders, strong back, neat head, and 
the best of legs and feet. Many of the best Hun- 
ters in England trace their origin on the side of 
the dam to a Welsh mare. The breed has been 
improved from time to time by the introduction of 
superior alien blood, chiefly Thoroughbred, Arabian 
and Hackney. 

The Polo Pony Society make two divisions of 
Welsh ponies, those of North Wales and those of 
South Wales. By the description given in Vol. 5 
of the studbook of this society, the ponies of 
North Wales do not exceed twelve hands two 
inches. This refers undoubtedly to the Welsh pony 
in a pure state, as the writer has seen many Welsh 
cobs bred in Wales from Welsh mares and Hack- 



ney stallions that were fourteen hands and over 
in height. The pony of North Wales has straight 
legs, well-set-on tail and good shoulders. 

The pony of the South Wales division seldom 
exceeds thirteen hands, and in a pure state is about 
twelve hands. The writer has seen many of them 
not over eleven hands. It is likely to be low at the 
withers, and have faulty hind-quarters, the rump 
being steep and the hocks sickled, although these 
defects are being overcome by improved keep of 
the young ponies and better breeding. The color 
of the Welsh pony most preferred is bay or brown. 
Gray or black is allowable, but dun, chestnut or 
broken color is considered objectionable. 

The strength and endurance of these Welsh 
ponies is remarkable. They have legs that work 
cannot seem to destroy, and have wonderful carry- 
ing power. It is not uncommon in Wales to see a 
man weighing upward of 200 pounds riding one of 
these little ponies. As a rule, they have good car- 
riage and action, and make desirable ponies for 
children who have had some experience in horse- 
manship. In England, they are used largely as a 
hack and by tradesmen. There are breeders using 
this pony as a basis from which to breed polo 
ponies, crossing with small Thoroughbred race horse 
or Arab stallions. 

In America, Welsh ponies are used principally 
for children's purposes. Many are imported and 
a number are bred here. Now that the pony is 
becoming more popular, and the demand is increas- 
ing, the breeding of the Welsh pony should prove 
very profitable. 

The pony Greylight (Fig. 482) is a fine specimen 
of the Welsh mountain pony. Among other prizes 
won in Great Britain, he has won first at the Royal, 
first at Bath and West, and first at the Welsh 




Fie. 483. A champion Welsh pony mare. Tit Bits, twelve 
hands, one and one-half inches. 

National. The Welsh mare Tit Bits (Fig. 483), a 
beautiful specimen, has won a large number of 
prizes. 

The organization interested in the improvement 
of these ponies is the Welsh Pony and Cob Society, 
with headquarters at Greenfield, Penybont, Rad- 
norshire, Wales. At Dresent there is no society in 
America. 



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487 



Exmoor and Dartmoor ponies. 

The ponies from those districts in England known 
as Exmoor and Dartmoor are much fewer in num- 
ber than most of the other breeds in the British 
isles, and are rarely imported into this country. 
They range in height from eleven to thirteen hands 
two inches. The original color of the Exmoor was 
a buffish bay with mealy nose. It is supposed to 
have been brought to England by the Phoenicians 
when they visited the shores of Cornwall to trade 
in tins and metals. 

Studbook No. 5, of the Polo Pony Society, con- 
tains a description of the Exmoor pony. The average 
height is given as twelve hands. The best of 
the Exmoor ponies have strong backs and loins 
and good substance. They are generally bay 
or brown, with black points, wide foreheads 
and nostrils, mealy noses, sharp ears, good 
shoulders and backs, short legs and good bone. 
They are very tough and hardy, and have been 
known to cover long distances. Youatt states 
that in the year 1860, a farmer who weighed 
196 pounds rode an Exmoor pony from Bris- 
tol to South Moulton, a distance of 86 miles, 
beating a coach that traveled the same road. 

The official description of the Dartmoor 
ponies and those of North Wales is identical, 
with certain amendments in addition. Those 
ponies that are over fifteen hands would seem 
to be cross-bred, as the pure Dartmoor never 
exceeds thirteen hands. In color, the Dart- 
moor ponies are brown, black or bay. There 
are some grays. Other colors are considered 
objectionable. Efforts are now being made to im- 
prove them by the introduction of good stallions 
of the best pony breeds. 

The New Forest pony. 

Ponies have been bred in a semi-wild state from 
the earliest times in the county of Hampshire in 
England, a district covering some 92,395 acres, of 
which 44,978 are still unenclosed waste land. The 
greater part of this common land is poor and boggy 
moor. It is estimated that there are about 2,500 
of these ponies. Like most of the other ponies in 
the British isles, they have been much improved 
in recent years. Lord Arthur Cecil owns a large 
number, and he turns out with his mares thirty to 
forty good stallions every season. Many of his 
stallions are from the island of Rum, off the west- 
ern coast of Scotland, and are the original black Gal- 
loway, found in a wild state on the island in 1840, 
by his father, the late Marquis of Salisbury, and 
have been kept almost pure. In 1888, Lord Arthur 
secured the whole stock of these Rum ponies. They 
are inclined to be a little coarse in the head, but 
this defect is disappearing with breeding and good 
keep. Most of the Rum ponies are black, although 
some are bay or brown ; many of them have the 
hazel eye, although this is not unknown in the 
Exmoor and Welsh ponies also. 

The New Forest pony, because of not having had 
to endure the severe climate of the hills, is likely 
to be less hardy than the hill ponies. The height, 
as given by the Polo Pony Society, is twelve to 



thirteen hands. The writer has seen some of these 
ponies in England, and they are not equal to many 
of the other breeds, but Lord Arthur Cecil is very 
enthusiastic about them, and is doing much to im- 
prove them. They are likely to be low at the 
withers and not good in the hind-qiiarters, being 
droopy and cow-hocked. The cross of the vigorous 
Rum pony, however, will do much to correct this, 
as he is very strong in these points, having excel- 
lent hind-quarters and good shoulders. Aside from 
the Rum ponies, Thoroughbred and Arabian stal- 
lions are also being used, with marked improve- 
ment. 




■^-■•Sir.-s-., 

Fig. 484. English West Mooreland Fel pony stallion. Mountain 
Hero II, twelve hands. 

The New Forest ponies are generally more 
spirited than most of the other British ponies. 
Like all ponies that have been brought up on poor 
pasturage, they improve wonderfully on good keep, 
and, with careful selection in breeding, astonish- 
ingly good results may be obtained. 

The organization concerned with the interests 
of this breed is known as The New Forest Pony 
Association. There is no organization in America 
for this breed. 

The Hackney pony. Figs. 470, 473, 485, 486. 

The Hackney horse has long been bred in Eng- 
land and owes his present status to the most care- 
ful methods of breeding, rearing and training. 
Contrary to the impression given by his name, he 
is not a hack, but is, on his native heath, the 
highest type of driving horse. In 1883, when the 
Hackney Horse Society was formed in England, 
the standard of height for the pony was established 
as fourteen hands, and a separate part of the stud- 
book was set aside for the registration of ponies. 
Subsequently, this height was increased to fourteen 
hands one inch, and about two years ago the same 
height was adopted by the American Hackney 
Horse Society, established in 1891. Inasmuch as 
the Hackney brings a higher price, both in England 
and America, than any other pony, he may be con- 
sidered the most valuable of all ponies. In America, 
as in England, judging from the demand and 
prices paid, he appears to be steadily growing in 
popularity. 



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[The Hackney pony is the small-sized Hackney 
horse. For fuller notes, see Hackney horse, pp. 464- 
468.] 

The ponies of Scotland. 

Because of the proximity of the Shetland islands 
to Scotland, there are many Shetlands there, as in 
fact there are in England, and many of the ponies 




Fig. 485. Hackney-Welsh pony. Montgomery George, 
thirteen hands. 

of Scotland are but a cross between the Shetland 
and a Welsh or some other pony. Many of the 
larger ponies of Scotland resemble much the Welsh 
cob. In times past a pony was often referred to as 
a Galloway. In fact, to this day the name is often 
seen. 

The Galloway pony. — The Galloway, so-called 
from the part of Scotland known by that name, 
was once very popular. Youatt, in his second edition, 
1846, describes it as thirteen to fourteen hands, 
sometimes more, bright bay or brown with black 
legs and small head. As the size was not considered 




Fig. 486. Hackney pony mare. Mayflower, thirteen hands, 
three inches. 

desirable, it was crossed with larger breeds, until 
now the original Galloway has entirely disap- 
peared. 

The Connemara, or pony of Ireland. 

The Connemara, or pony of Ireland, is found 
chiefly in the County Galway, Ireland. It is an ex- 
tremely wiry pony, showing a great deal of the 
Barb or Arab blood. It stands twelve to fourteen 



hands in height, sometimes more. Like other breeds 
that run practically wild in a hilly country, it is 
hardy, active and sure-footed. It has a thick and 
shaggy coat in response to the climatic condition 
of its habitat. In color, it is black, brown or 
bay and sometimes chestnut, betraying its descent. 
Often individuals are pacers. Since the middle of 
last century it has been allowed to deteriorate, but 
for some years past systematic endeavors to im- 
prove the breed by introduction of Thoroughbred 
and Hackney pony stallions have been in progress. 

The Celtic, or Pony of Iceland. 

The Celtic or pony of Iceland, the Hebrides, 
north of Ireland, and the Faroes, is a small-headed 
pony with prominent eyes, slender limbs and small 
joints. A typical Celtic pony is generally of 
yellowish dun color, with a dark dorsal band and 
with some indication of stripes on the shoulders 
and in the region of the knees and hocks. These 
ponies have a close resemblance to the Scandi- 
navian pony, and it is probable that they have a 
common origin. The Shetland, Welsh, New Forest 
and other ponies of the British Isles probably have 
a certain amount of Celtic blood, as ponies are fre- 
quently found of the former breeds with strong 
characteristics of the Celtic pony. 

The ponies of the Hebrides, the Faroes and the 
north of Ireland are little known in this country, 
but the Iceland ponies are sometimes imported into 
America, although few are bred here. They are 
strong, sturdy, useful little animals, rarely exceed- 
ing thirteen hands, often reaching only eleven and 
one-half or twelve hands. They are used for light 
driving purposes and as children's ponies, and in 
England often as pit ponies. 

The Arabian Pony. 

[The Arab pony is the Arab horse under the given 
height. For full discussion, see Arab horse, pages 
446-449]. 

The Russian Pony. 

Russian ponies are traceable to eastern origin. 
They are hardy, serviceable and often of beautiful 
appearance. They rarely exceed fourteen hands in 
height, many being but twelve to thirteen hands. 
They are not common in America, but they are 
often seen in England, where they are used for 
light driving purposes or in the pits. In Russia, 
they are used for trade purposes and many of the 
cavalry mounts are but ponies. They have great 
endurance, and the best of them are not surpassed 
in usefulness by any other breed. 

The Scandinavian or Norwegian Pony. 

The Scandinavian pony is closely allied to the 
Russian, and is evidently of the same origin. Not 
only have these ponies worked up through Russia 
to Norway and Sweden, but in the old days of the 
Vikings there is little doubt that many fine speci- 
mens of the Arabian were introduced into the 
country. Like the Russian, the Norwegian pony is 
practically unknown in America, but many of them 
are imported into England where they are used 



HORSE 



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489 



generally for light driving purposes or in the pits, 
some being used as polo ponies. 

Miscellaneous Ponies. 

The Mongolian, Japanese, Korean, Burma and 
Manipura, Sumatra and Java ponies can be of little 
interest to American breeders. In common with all 
ponies they have to a greater or lesser extent the 
hardiness, endurance, sound feet and legs that are 
the inheritance of a half-wild existence under 
adverse conditions. These ponies are exceedingly 
rare in America, and we have many types much 
superior in conformation' and other desirable quali- 
ties nearer home from which to breed. 

L iterature. 

References cited in the text are to the following 
works : E. D. Miller, Modern Polo, W. Thacker & 
Co., London ; Hon. James Penn Boucaut, The Arab, 
the Horse of the Future, Gay & Bird, Strand, 
London (1905); Polo Pony Society, Studbook, Vol- 
ume 5 ; Youatt, second edition (1846) ; Sir Walter 
Gilbey, Small Horses in Warfare, Bart, Vinton & 
Co., London, E. G; Sir Walter Gilbey, Thorough- 
bred and Other Ponies, Bart, Vinton & Co., London, 
E. C; J. C. Appleby, Nimrod ; Mr. Whyte, History 
of the British Turf. Other references are here given, 
that are of interest : Catherine Sinclair, Shetland 
and Its Inhabitants ; L. Stejneger, ' Den Celtiske 
pony, tarpanen of fjordhesten,' Naturen (1904); 
M. Horace Hayes, Points of the Horse, W. Thacker 
& Co., London, E. C. (1897); J. C. Ewart, The 
Multiple Origin of Horses, Trans. Highland and 
Agricultural Society, Edinburgh (1904) ; W. Ridge- 
way, The Origin and Influence of the Thoroughbred 
Horse, Cambridge (1905); S. B. Elliot, M.D., The 
Shetland Pony, Bedford, Mass. (1906). 

Saddle Horse, American. Fig. 487. 

By David Castleman. 

The American saddle horse, as its name indicates, 
is a saddle horse developed in America. While it is 
adapted first of all for saddle purposes, it has. long 
since demonstrated its worth for light harness pur- 
poses. Its peculiar grace of motion and aptitude 
for the saddle gaits in their perfection, place it in 
the fore-front of horses used for saddle purposes. 

Description. 

The most outstanding characteristics of the 
American saddle horse are courage, docility and 
superb finish. His courage and spirit, coupled with 
his docility, give him his special usefulness on the 
battle-field, as well as in the harness. Breeders of 
this horse have held before them an ideal type, and 
it is not too much to say that this ideal has been 
approached somewhat closely. The ideal American 
saddle horse may be described thus : The nozzle is 
small and delicate, with distended and sensitive 
nostril. The head is bony, rather small, with gen- 
erally just an indication of a dish in the face ; the 
eyes full, round and prominent, and set wide apart. 
The small, pointed ears are set well apart, and are 
constantly played ; sometimes there is a slight cup 



to the point of the ear. The horse should bear an 
expression of courage and gentleness. Behind the 
ears is the fine muscular throttle, on which the 
head is set at a good angle. The neck is long and 
gracefully crested. The shoulders are sloping. 
There is good depth through the heart, a short, 
strong back, the barrel ribbed well back and quite 
as large around the last rib as at the girth. The 
horse is strong across the kidneys and the coupling 
is powerful. The quarters are level, strongly mus- 
cled and long from the point of the hip to the 
hock. The tail comes out well up, is carried high, 
and is heavy, long and flowing. The body is set 
on comparatively short legs. The bone of the 
leg is broad, flat and closely knit, and the tendons 
strong. The fore-arm is powerfully muscled and 
the fore-legs straight. The hind-leg is not so 
straight as in the Thoroughbred, and is well muscled. 
The legs are short from knee and hock to ankle. 
The pasterns are a little long and sloping. The 
feet are hard but elastic, heels well spread and well 
developed. The average height of the saddle horse 
is about fifteen hands two inches, and the weight 
approximately 1,000 pounds. 

History. 

The American saddle horse is the outgrowth of 
necessity. Before railroads were established in this 
country, and while traffic was by horseback over 
unbroken or almost impassable roads, there was a 
demand for a sure-footed, sturdy horse that could 
travel long distances at a steady rate of speed, 
and at the same time carry a pack or a rider. Out 
of this need grew the American saddle horse, very 
crude and undeveloped at first, but to be gradually 
molded, as necessity changed, into the magnificent 
type as he stands today. 

Virginia and the south Atlantic states had given 
much attention to racing, and at a very early 
date were breeders of the Thoroughbred. One 
source of importation was Canada. There they 
had raised a hardy little horse, said to be a 
cross of the French importations, generally with 
such stallions as could be secured from New York 
and New England. Incidentally, these stallions 
were most often of German and Netherland breed- 
ing. The Canadians had given much attention to 
the development of the pace or amble. Many of 
these Canadian horses drifted down into what were 
then the horse-breeding colonies. They had some- 
thing of the gait and stamina required, but lacked 
in both beauty and courage. Some of these Cana- 
dian mares were crossed with available Thorough- 
bred stallions to produce a saddle horse, with most 
satisfactory results, certain lines of Thoroughbred 
blood giving the best product. The most satisfac- 
tory lines of the Thoroughbred blood were selected, 
and all others rejected. 

The majority of the horses brought to Kentucky 
by the early settlers were these "saddlers," and 
many of them the best that had been produced in 
the older states. The natural character of the 
Kentucky country led to the concentration of the 
best of these new saddle horses within her borders. 
The importance that attached to the efforts of the 



490 



HORSE 



HORSE 



saddle - horse breeders in Kentucky, led to the 
name "Kentucky saddle horse" being applied to 
these horses. 

Imp. Hedgeford was a brown colt, foaled in Eng- 
land in 1825 by Filho-de-Puta, out of Miss Craigie 
by Orville. He was bred by a Mr. Mylton, im- 
ported in 1832 by William Jackson of New York, 
and taken to Kentucky, where he died in 1840. 
Among his get was th'e great Denmark, which was 
foaled in 1839, out of Betsey Harrison by Aratus, 
and bred by Samuel Davenport of Kentucky. He 
was a game and consistent four-mile race horse, 
but not remarkable for his speed. Denmark was 
bred to the Stevenson mare 43, a brown saddle 
mare by Cockspur, the latter a saddler of one-half 
or three-fourths Thoroughbred blood. In 1850, 
Gaines' Denmark 61 was foaled, out of the Steven- 




Fig. 487. A representative American saddle horse. 

son mare. He was the greatest of the sons of Den- 
mark. He served through the Civil war, along 
with John Dillard, another famous saddler. Nine- 
tenths of the successful modern sires trace directly 
to Gaines' Denmark. Following the war there 
came a craze for speed horses, and many of the 
best saddle mares were stinted to trotting stal- 
lions, much to the detriment of the saddle horse. 

In 1891, the American Saddle Horse Breeders' 
Association was organized. In its studbook were 
inserted the names of the " foundation stock." In 
most of these foundation stallions there was a 
strong admixture of Thoroughbred blood, and many 
of them trace their lineage through Denmark's 
dam. In 1901, after ten years of careful work, the 
list of foundation stallions was revised to include 
the following ten horses : Denmark, John Dillard, 
Tom Hal, Cabell's Lexington, Coleman's Eureka, 
Van Meter's Waxy, Stump-the-dealer, Peter's Hal- 
corn, Davy Crockett and Pat Cleburne. 

John Dillard was by Canada Chief out of Lady 
Jackson, which was a daughter of Blackburn's 
Whip, which was by Imp Whip, and he was by Imp 
Saltram. Imp Saltram got the Saltram mare, and 
she was the dam of Jenny Cockracy, which 



produced Betsey Harrison, the dam of Denmark ; 
Jenny Cockracy also produced Susette, the dam of 
Berthune, the sire of Van Meter's Waxy, another 
of the foundation list. This illustrates the con- 
stant interweaving of the same Thoroughbred blood 
that characterized the early breeding efforts. The 
same intricate inter-relationship could be traced 
for the other foundation stallions if space per- 
mitted. 

Tom Hal was a Canadian pacer imported to Ken- 
tucky. He was a blue roan, foaled in 1802, and 
lived to the great age of forty-one years. He was 
the founder of the Hal family of Tennessee, of the 
Blue Bull family of Indiana and the noted Tom 
Hal saddle horses of Kentucky. Among many 
others, he was the sire of the noted horse Bald 
Stockings 76, which was the first horse ever 
noticed to go the running-walk. The dam of 
Cabell's Lexington was by Tom Hal. Here we 
catch genuine Morgan blood, for Cabell's Lexing- 
ton was by Gist's Black Hawk, which was by 
Blood's Black Hawk, which was by Vermont Black 
Hawk. In Coleman's Eureka we again find Morgan 
blood on the sire's side and Thoroughbred blood on 
the dam's. He was a dark chestnut, sixteen hands 
high, and won about one hundred and twenty-five 
premiums in saddle and combined rings. Van 
Meter's Waxy was unquestionably a Thoroughbred 
horse. On the sire's side he traces to the two Barb 
horses sent to Thomas Jefferson by the Bey of 
Tunis. Stump-the-dealer was a Thoroughbred, 
tracing on the sire's side to Saltram and on the 
dam's side to Imp Diomed. He was a famous race 
horse. The Halcorn strain is recognized as a sep- 
arate and distinct saddle family. Peter's Halcorn, 
the head of the family, is described as a remarka- 
bly handsome bay stallion. Of the breeding of 
Davy Crockett we know nothing. He was imported 
to Kentucky from Canada and has been a great 
producer of saddle horses. He was characterized 
by power and endurance, and had large, yellow 
eyes which he frequently imparted to his get. 
Pat Cleburne is noteworthy for his production in 
the hands of Missouri breeders. 

This list might be greatly extended by the addi- 
tion of the noted horses of more recent years. 
Mention should be made especially of the famous 
sires Black Squirrel 58, Montrose 106, Black Eagle 
74, Chester Dare 10, Highland Denmark 730, Cecil 
Palmer 933, Bourbon Chief 976 and Dominor 2631. 

Distribution. 

The state of Kentucky justly claims to have been 
the nursery of the two American breeds of horses, 
— the American saddle horse and the Standard- 
bred trotter, although Tennessee, and more recently 
Missouri and Illinois, have been very instrumental 
in their development. The saddle horse has become 
distributed over most of the United States and parts 
of Canada. There are at least two very creditable 
studs in Canada and one in Mexico. Seven stallions 
have been sent to South America, two stallions to 
Porto Rico, five stallions to Cuba, one stallion to 
Hawaii, one to New Zealand and five to Japan. 
Three mares have been sent to England. It is 



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491 



probable that representatives of this breed have 
also reached other countries. 

Breeding. 

But little can be said on this subject that is not 
applicable to all pure-bred stock. The one endeavor 
since the foundation of the type has been to pro- 
duce a horse fitted in conformation and motion and 
intelligence for a definite purpose ; to breed a 
beautiful horse, with as nearly perfect motion as 
possible. To this end, breeders have bent their 
energies in using the process of selection and 
rejection. Out of the years that have passed, cer- 
tain lessons have been learned. The remarkable 
prepotency of the blood of Gaines' Denmark 61, in 
the male line, has been conclusively demonstrated. 
He is a reckless man who undertakes to produce 
the modern American saddle horse, with a stallion 
heading his stud which lacks the direct male 
trace to this greatest of the Denmarks. Fortu- 
nately, his blood has been so diffused that there is 
no danger of inbreeding. The years have also 
demonstrated that certain lines of blood have pro- 
duced great brood-mare families. The daughters 
of Peavine 85, Dave Alsin 775, Harrison Chief 
1606, Indian Chief 1718, and that exquisite son of 
Magic, Beauty 604, have produced very successfully 
when mated to stallions possessing a direct male 
lineage to Gaines' Denmark 61. Not yet has the 
Chief family produced an acceptable sire. 

The general rules followed in the production of 
the present-day American saddle horse may be 
stated thus : (1) Have the stallion trace directly to 
Gaines' Denmark 61. (2) Have in the brood-mares 
as many crosses as possible of the proved great 
brood-mare sires. (3) Line-breed to the proved 
great brood-mares of the breed, and remember 
that of these, Nannie Garrett 472 stands easily 
first. 

It seems hardly necessary to add that the ques- 
tion of individuality is even more pertinent here 
than in other breeds. No horse of this breed can 
carry such superior blood lines as to warrant over- 
looking inferior individuality. The ideal must be 
definite and must be adhered to. 

Feeding. 

It has been learned from the breeders of 
Thoroughbreds that the essential growth of a horse 
is mainly in the first year of his life. Hence, we 
antedate his birth and keep his dam in prime con- 
dition. For twenty-four hours after his birth, the 
dam has no food, but a bucket of water with the 
chill taken off is kept constantly before her. At 
the expiration of the twenty-four hours, the 
attendant should -begin to feed both foal and dam. 
By the time the foal is seven days old, he and his 
dam are on full feed. When it is available, this 
feed consists of one-third wheat bran and two- 
thirds rolled oats. This, with either timothy or 
Burt oats hay, makes a well-balanced ration for 
mare and foal. This feed is placed in a trough low 
enough for the foal to reach and eat with his dam. 
By the time he is three days old, he will have 
learned to eat, and then he must be fed regularly. 



Whatever food is available for the mare and foal, 
it should contain a liberal proportion of protein. 

It may be admissable for the writer here to give 
a warning, even though it may seem to be unnec- 
essary. Both alfalfa and clover are dangerous if 
fed to breeding animals. This statement is made 
out of personal experience in breeding this horse. 
There is no better roughage for growing horses 
than clover hay. Alfalfa hay will do for horses if 
clover is not available, but its strong diuretic 
effect makes it necessary to watch it carefully. 

The saddle horse in motion. 

The methods of educating the saddle horse would 
carry us too far afield, but we may consider the 
motion of the educated horse. Beautiful as this 
horse is, he must be seen in motion to be appre- 
ciated. [For further notes on gaits, see pages 
423, 424 and 427.] 

The flat-footed walk should be prompt, brisk, 
elastic, "dead in line" and fast. Speed is important 
and should be equal to at least three and a half 
miles an hour. Horses will occasionally be found 
that will walk at the rate of four and a half miles 
an hour, but the lower estimate is good walking. 
It may generally be assumed that a horse is walk- 
ing properly if all four shoes may be seen from 
behind him, and the feet on the same side are in 
line. 

The trot should be true, "dead in line," well under 
the horse, balanced, prompt, and with both shoul- 
der and stifle put well into the motion. Unless the 
shoulder is put well into the motion, the mere play 
of knees yields a racking, uncomfortable ride. 
Unless the stifle is brought into full play, the 
recovery is necessarily slow. This is not only a bad 
fault, but gives one an idea that the horse is going 
one gait in front, and another behind. To use a 
trade expression, "the horse is going in two pieces." 
For a comfortable ride, knee and hock action must 
be equal ; and, given this equality, it cannot be too 
high. With all this, the ideal saddle horse must 
accomplish one more thing with his trot : he must 
trot with all four legs under him — the trot must 
be gathered ; he must come up into the bit, and 
still not pull an ounce. The trot of the ordinary 
horse is straggly and too much extended. The men 
who best accomplish this "gathering" of the trot 
are the most successful educators. 

The canter. — This gait, in its modern development, 
is a thing of beauty. The old " 'lope" or gallop, 
which seemed to ride one down hill, is relegated 
with the side-swiping pace. The canter of today is 
high, bounding, elastic, gathered slow, and right 
under the horse. At this gait a horse's hocks should 
be right under him, the motion should come almost 
entirely from the front, while , the quarters are 
sparingly used. The horse should lead with either 
foot, and change lead at command with such ease 
that no signal can be detected. His quarters should 
be so thoroughly flexed that they are always turned 
toward the center of the circle in which he may be 
supposed to be cantering. That is, when the horse 
is leading with the right foot his quarters should 
be well under him, and in to the right. In other 



492 



HORSE 



HORSE 



words, the horse's body should take the curve of 
the circle in which he is supposed to be cantering. 
This is the only possible way to get a comfortable 
and pleasing canter. At the same time, the rider 
should gently raise the horse, with an almost 
imperceptible pressure on the bit, at each upward 
bound. This is the canter in contradistinction to 
the gallop, and the American saddle horse seems 
almost to do it naturally. 

The slow gait may be any one of three, that is, 
(1) the running-walk ; (2) the fox-trot ; (3) the 
stepping-pace. 

( 1 ) The running-walk. — This is the intermediate 
development between the flat-footed walk and the 
rack. The motion, rhythm and recovery are identi- 
cally the same. It is a "single-foot," just as are the 
flat-footed walk and the rack. But the tempo is 
greater than in the walk, and less than in the rack. 
It is much the most graceful of the slow gaits, and 
the easiest on both horse and rider. At this gait a 
horse can cover mile after mile, up and down hill, 
without distressing either himself or his rider. A 
speed of six to eight miles an hour is not unusual, 
and occasionally a "running-walker," is found that 
can do nine miles or better. Not all members of 
this breed can be taught to go the running-walk 
well, and for that reason it has been decreed that 
either the fox-trot or the stepping-pace may be 
accepted as a substitute. 

(2) The fox-trot. — This may be best designated 
as a mongrel gait. It is not so graceful nor so easy 
as either the running-walk or the stepping-pace. 
At this gait, the horse goes a jog-trot in front and 
paces behind. 

(3) The stepping-pace is nearly as graceful a gait 
as the running-walk, and when well done is quite as 
easy on the rider and only slightly harder on the 
horse. It is not the side-swiping pace of the har- 
ness horse. At this gait the horse is going the 
running-walk with his fore-feet and pacing with 
his hind-feet. 

The rack. — This gait is the highest development 
of the flat-footed walk. It is nothing but the flat- 
footed walk developed to high speed. The rhythm 
and motion are identical, and the old name of "sin- 
gle-foot " was an aptly descriptive term. The feet 
hit the ground in succession, one at a time. It is 
the flashiest and most attractive gait a horse can 
go, and while tiring to the horse, there is no gait' 
more delightful to the rider. 



As a cavalry horse. — In both the Civil and Span- 
ish-American wars the American saddle horse has 
been put to the test, and in both cases the testi- 
mony has been to his unsurpassed excellence as a 
cavalry horse. His endurance, combined with his 
smooth, fast walk, enable him to stand the hard 
strains with the minimum of fatigue to himself 
and his rider. He is reliable on the field and quick 
to adapt himself to the maneuvers. 

As a commercial horse. — The same qualities that 
adapt the American saddle horse for cavalry pur- 
poses make him valuable commercially wherever 
horses are kept under the saddle. His winnings in 



the show-ring attest his popularity. In the ten 
years, 1896-1905, at the national horse show in 
Madison Square Garden, New York City, the Amer- 
ican saddle horse won twelve out of a total of 
eighteen championships open to all breeds of horses 
that wear the saddle. His show-ring winnings add 
to his commercial value. Within a recent year, 
the following sales were made : The Moor, a three- 
year-old stallion, was sold for $7,500 ; Tattersall 
and Mate, a pair of geldings, sold for $6,000 ; 
Eugenia and Magna, a pair of mares, brought 
$5,000 ; American Girl, a four-year-old mare, sold 
for $5,000. Prices up to $1,000 for a single horse 
are not uncommon. 

As a gaited horse. — The demand for gaited horses 
is met by members of this breed. Saddle horses of 
other breeds do the three natural gaits, the walk 
trot and canter. The American saddle horse is dis- 
tinctive in that he can be readily taught to go the 
five gaits, the walk, trot, canter, rack or single-foot, 
and the running-walk, fox-trot or slow pace. The 
gaits are largely a matter of training with any 
horse, but the American saddle horse may be said 
to have an inherent tendency and aptitude to 
master the gaits more quickly and perfectly than 
horses of other breeds. 

As a harness horse. — The American saddle horse 
has also a place as a light harness horse, as is indica- 
ted by the following examples : Emily 855, World's 
Fair Champion at Chicago in 1893, has frequently 
gone a mile in 2:35 to 2:50. Hitched double with 
Dorothy 1210 (winner of seventy-two blue ribbons 
in succession), the pair have driven a mile in 2:52. 
Rex Arbuckle 1467, champion light harness horse 
at the Kentucky State Fair in 1906, has driven a 
mile many times in better than a "forty" gait. 
This same stallion has won prizes in many five- 
gaited rings. Among others, John Dillard F. S. 
should be mentioned as a notable sire of the dams 
of light harness racers. 

As a hunter. — Many of these American saddle 
horses have been educated as hunters. A notable 
example was Copeland 1153, whose name was 
changed to Pisgah. This horse won many ribbons 
in hunter rings. 

Organizations and records. 

The organization devoted to the interests of this 
breed is the American Saddle Horse Breeders' Asso- 
ciation, with headquarters at Louisville, Kentucky. 
When this organization was first effected, in 1891, 
it had the name National Saddle Horse Breeders' 
Association. The change was made to the present 
name in 1899. The Association has published six 
volumes of its register, containing 6.327 horses. 
It has on its files at the present time additional 
registrations sufficient to bring the total number of 
registered animals up to a little more than 8,500. 
At this writing, the Association is engaged in a 
revision of its register. 

Literature. 

Literature relating to the training of horses, that 
may be of interest, is cited on page 424. [For 
further references, see page 416.] 



HORSE 



HORSE 



493 



Shire Horse. Figs. 41, 488, 489. 

By John A. Craig. 

The Shire horse is recognized as one of the lead- 
ing breeds of draft horses. The best type is specially 
adapted for breeding the heaviest class of draft 
horses, suited for slow work, when weight and 
strength are prime essentials. For hauling large 
loads on lorries through crowded city streets, 
without jerking but steadily progressing, weight 
and strength are the main factors, and it is because 
of the possession of these qualities that the Shire 
maintains its position as a draft horse. A medium- 
weight horse may succeed in pulling more than one 
of heavier weight if per- 
mitted to rush at it ; but to 
start a load steadily and keep 
it moving slowly, and re- 
peating this frequently, as 
must be done on crowded 




Fig. 488. First prize aged Shire stallion. Arrowside Duke. 
International Live-stock Exposition, 1906. 

streets, weight must supplement strength. Herein 
lies the reason for the popularity of the Shire for 
drayage purposes in England, where it originated. 

Description. 

In general characters, this breed is very like the 
Clydesdale, being, perhaps, a little shorter in the 
legs, and slightly larger. The common colors are 
bay, brown or black, with white markings on the 
face and on the legs below the knees and hocks. 
Other colors are found but are not common. In 
conformation, the Shire is generally low, broad and 
stout, being heavy in build and slow in movement. 
The shoulder is likely to be too straight, making 
the action in front short and stilted, although it is 
generally considered that more power in the collar 
compensates for the deficiency in action. The body 
of the typical Shire is of large girth, deep and 
strongly coupled, with broad back. The quarters 
are heavily muscled in the best type. Owing to their 
weight, it is to be expected that some of them are 
subject to the criticism of being deficient in quality 



and too sluggish in temperament. In general, they 
may be considered to be of heavier weight than the 
Clydesdale, although the difference is not likely to 
be great between representative animals, as the 
following weights and measurements of two prize- 
winners will indicate : Vulcan (4145), a Shire 
stallion that was champion at the London Shire 
Show, in 1889 and 1891, when eight years old 
weighed 2,240 pounds in show condition ; height, 
17 hands ; girth, 8 feet 7 inches ; around fore-arm, 
2 feet 7 inches ; around bone below knee, 12 inches. 
Flashwood (3604), a Clydesdale stallion that was 
first at the Glasgow Spring Stallion Show, in the 
same years and months that Vulcan was first-prize 
stallion at the London show, and at the same age 
(eight years), weighed 2,240 pounds ; height, 17 
hands ; girth, 8 feet ; around fore-arm, 20 inches ; 
around bone below knee, 11 inches ; above hock, 
21J inches ; and below hock, 12J inches. In the 
best types the legs are strong, bone flat with a 
" feather " of fine hair on the rear of the cannons, 
below the knees and hocks. The feet are large and 
somewhat flatter at the heel than is desired. 

History. 

The Shire is considered to be descended from the 
old war horse of Great Britain and has been 
referred to as the War horse and the Great horse 
in Great Britain. It is reported of Ca?sar, that 
when he invaded Great Britain, 55 B. C, he was 
impressed with the excellence of the horses that 
were attached to the war chariots of the Britons. 
The breed attained its greatest development in the 
lowlands of England, in Lincolnshire and Cam- 
bridgeshire especially. Other nearby counties con- 
tributed more or less to the development of the 
breed. In early times, heavy active horses were in 
greatest demand for war purposes, and this led to 
the importation of heavy horses from Flanders and 
Normandy. Large importations of the heavy Black 
horses of Flanders were made as early as the 
eleventh century, and in succeeding years in the 
reigns of King John, Edward II, and Henry VIII. 
One of the early improvers of the Shire was Robert 
Bakewell, who introduced blood of imported Hol- 
land mares in his breeding efforts. The develop- 
ment of the breed received much impetus in 1878, 
when the English Cart Horse Society was formed. 
The name of the society was due to the fact that 
the Shire was known primarily as a cart horse. 

The history of the Shire shows a slow but per- 
sistent development of an improved type through a 
great space of time. The improvement of action 
and quality have received most attention from the 
breeders, and the results, as shown in a modern 
Shire, have been marked. 

In America. — The progress of the Shire in 
America has been substantial but yet not so rapid 
as might be expected, considering the decided 
merits of the breed. This, in a measure, has resulted 
from the dislike of the American trade for hairy- 
legged horses deficient in quality. It seems that 
hairy legs are more or less characteristic of all 
heavy breeds of horses reared in low countries, and 
they have been a breed characteristic of the Shire 



494 



HORSE 



HORSE 



since its inception. At a very early time the hair 
was very abundant, and the writer has seen some 
of the old-time Shires with even the lock of hair 
growing from the region of the knee in front, and 
other locks growing from near the point of the 
hock. Coarseness and unusual profusion of hair 
indicate too much grossness of organization, 
although a fine feather finishes a heavy-bodied 
horse at the ground in a way that is usually pleas- 
ing to the eye. The first Shires to come to America 
showed these characteristics to an extreme degree, 
and the prejudice of the American trade has not in 
any degree abated with time. The first importation 
to reach America was in 1836, and was made to 
London, Ontario, Canada. The first Shires to come 
to the United States were imported in 1853, and 
taken to Aurora, 111. The importations since 
then have been mostly into the states of Illi- 
nois and Iowa, and at no time have been 
numerous, except, perhaps, between 1880 and 
1890. 

Distribution. 

This breed enjoys much prominence in Eng- 
land, as indicated by its prominence in horse 
shows. From there it has spread into most 
other English-speaking countries. Germany, 
Australia and Argentina have made importa- 
tions. In America, it is most popular in the 
north-central states. 

Uses. 

For draft. — Like the Clydesdale, the Shire 
is a heavy draft horse, slow-moving but sure 
and steady, and makes no claims for other 
uses, except for crossing on native draft stock 
and for improving other breeds with an injec- 
tion of its blood. 

For crossing. — The use of the Shire has been an 
important factor in improving our horse stock for 
draft purposes, as attested by the extent to which 
the best drafters of our modern markets have Shire 
blood on the maternal side. The Shire is credited 
with having produced the highest-priced gelding 
that has been sold by auction on the Chicago mar- 
ket, and many more of the best have traced to Shire 
blood on the side of their dams. Dr. Alexander is 
authority for the statement that a grade Shire 
gelding, weighing 2,210 pounds, sold for $660 on 
the Chicago market in 1904, which is the highest 
price paid on that market that has been reported. 
Our breeding stock have surely not suffered 
because of the use of Shire blood, and there is a 
feeling that if the Shire had been more liberally 
used our breeding mares would more surely pro- 
duce the highest-selling class of drafters. It 
remains to be said that the use of the Shire in our 
draft-breeding to such a limited extent may be 
due in a measure to the fact that the source of 
supply for importation is not so large as that of 
some of the other continental breeds ; and further- 
more, it is a difficult matter to induce the home- 
breeders to part with their very best types, so 
much desired in their native land for breeding 
purposes. 



Organizations and records. 

The first organization to care for the interests 
of this breed in England was the English Cart 
Horse Society, organized in 1878. Six years later 
it changed its name to the Shire Horse Society. 
It undertook the publication of a studbook, of 
which twenty-nine volumes have appeared. The 
American Shire Horse Association, with headquar- 
ters at Wenona, 111., was established in 1885. 

Literature. 

Sir Walter Gilbey, The 
Great Horse : the Shire, Lon- 
don (1899); same, The Old 




Fig. 489. A Shire colt. 

English War Horse, London (1888). [For further 
references, see page 416.] 

Suffolk or Suffolk Punch Horse. Figs. 490, 491. 

By John A. Craig. 

This breed of draft horses has not become so 
widely known as other European breeds, such as 
the Clydesdale or Percheron. It cannot be said to 
be as popular as either of these two breeds, yet it 
has many ardent admirers. It is bred in greatest 
numbers in its native district of Suffolk county, in 
the eastern part of England. It gets its name from 
the county and from the round, full-made type of 
body that characterizes the breed. 

Description. 

The Suffolk is about sixteen and one-half hands 
high, and weighs about two thousand pounds. The 
color is exceptionally uniform, and it is gener- 
ally some shade of chestnut. Breeders have long 
adhered closely to a chestnut color. In general 
type, it is a low-set, short-legged, deep-bodied, 
muscular horse, with clean bone and durable feet. 
The feet were once much criticized because of their 
flatness and brittleness, bv.t have undergone great 
improvement in these respects. The head is clear> 



HORSE 



HORSE 



495 



cut, with small ear, full forehead, and a more or 
less Roman nose. The neck is full, with a very 
strong crest, as a rule, in stallions. Too much 
thickness in the throat-latch sometimes results from 
undue coarseness of the neck. The shoulder shows 
good length and is of true draft form, not being 
too oblique. The chest is deep, wide and moulded 
with muscle. The body or barrel, one of the lead- 
ing points of merit in the Suffolk, is deep, round- 
ribbed, and specially well let down on the hind 
flank. This undoubtedly contributes to the strength 
of the assertion that it is an eBsy keeper, and 
possessed of unusual endurance. The legs, devoid 
of long hair, are clean-cut, cordy and well muscled 
at the arms and thighs. The degree to which the 
Suffolk is muscled in the hind-quarters, and especi- 
ally in the lower thighs, is one of the special fea- 
tures of the breed. Pulling contests at an early 
time were common among the adherents of the 
breed, and it is said that the ultimate outcome of 
these has been to develop the muscles of the thigh 
and the quarter much beyond what is commonly 
observed in the representatives of the draft breeds. 
The seeming lightness of limb, compared with the 
depth and weight of body, and fullness of neck, has, 
in many cases, given the Suffolk an appearance of 
being greatly lacking in the proper proportion of 
such parts. It is a free mover, and this, with its 
somewhat lighter weight, easy keeping and docile 
disposition, peculiarly adapts it for farm work, 
express-wagon work and drayage purposes, where 
a certain amount of weight may be sacrificed for 
activity and durability. Individually and, to a 
remarkable degree, collectively, the Suffolk is a 
superior model of the draft horse. 

History. 

The Suffolk can trace its history back to the 
dawning of the eighteenth century, and as early as 
1851 it carried off most of the prizes for draft 
horses at the Royal Agricultural Society Show, at 
Windsor. At that time it had a distinct lead over 
other British draft breeds, but it seemed to be 
content with home popularity. Volume one of the 
Suffolk Studbook is an exceptionally elaborate and 
interesting compilation of the early history of the 



ing in Sussex. His blood has been carefully pre- 
served, and only horses that are traceable to him 
are eligible for registration in the Suffolk Studbook. 
Outside blood was introduced in an effort to im- 




Fig. 490. Champion Suffolk stallion. Sud bourn Count (3257). 

breed and should be consulted. Mention should be 
made here, however, of the so-called " foundation " 
horse of the breed — the Crisp horse, foaled in 
1768, and owned by a man of that name resid- 




Fig. 491. Suffolk mare. Nectar (4177). 

prove the Suffolk, but it had little effect. Docility, 
prolificacy and length of life characterize this 
breed. These horses have been much improved in 
the last thirty years. 

In America. — Although it was first imported to 
the United States in 1880, by Powell Brothers, of 
Pennsylvania, yet the progress of the breed does 
not seem to be at all commensurate with its merit. 
The importations have been very slow and very 
small. In 1888, Peter Hopley & Co., of Iowa, and 
Galbraith Brothers, of Wisconsin, made importa- 
tions, and these parties have since been the leading 
exponents of the breed in this country. A large 
importation is reported as having been made in 
1903. Some other importations have been made 
since. 

Distribution. 

This breed has found favor in a number of coun- 
tries aside from the United States and Canada, and 
is represented in Spain, France, Germany, Austria, 
Russia and Sweden on the continent, Australia, 
South and North Africa, New Zealand, Argentine 
Republic and other countries ; and it has been the 
self-evident merit of the breed that has been the 
cause of this wide distribution. The breed has 
suffered, in America, particularly, because of the 
need of more freely distributed information regard- 
ing its good qualities. 



For draft. — The Suffolk ranks well as a medium 
draft horse because of its free action and endur- 
ance. As an agricultural horse and as an express- 
wagon horse, the Suffolk grade is superior, while 
those individuals that meet the requirements as to 
weight can hardly be improved for the heavier 
draft purposes. 

For crossing. — The popularity of the Suffolk in 
this country has been held in check by the fact 
that it does not make so heavy a cross on the 
lighter native mares as the weightier representa- 
tives of the other draft breeds. Against this is the 
counter claim that it is very desirable for crossing 
on range mares, for the well-known even temper 



496 



HORSE 



HORSE 



and docility of the Suffolk is a valuable attribute 
to graft on to such parent stock. 

Organizations and reeords. 

The Suffolk Studbook Society is the publisher of 
the studbook for the breed in England. The first 
volume was published in 1880 ; and fifteen volumes 
have been issued to date. The breed is represented 
on this continent by the American Suffolk Horse 
Association, with headquarters at Janesville, Wis- 
consin. The first volume of the studbook of the 
latter association was published in 1907. 

Literature. 

For references, see page 416. 

Thoroughbred Horse. Pigs. 492-494. 
By Carl W. Gay. 

The term Thoroughbred, in its correct applica- 
tion, is restricted to designate the English race 
horse or runner, only. The incorrect use of the 
term, as synonymous with pure-bred, is so common 
as to lead to much confusion and misunderstanding. 
A "thoroughbred" trotter would be an anomaly 
and a "thoroughbred" Percheron impossible. When 
it is intended to indicate the total absence of alien 
blood, pure-bred is the proper adjective. Thorough- 
bred is a noun. 

There is no one best breed of horses, but because 
of a more general adaptability to a wider range of 
conditions and a consequent broader usefulness, or 
as marking some special achievement in the breed- 
ing art, we may justly assign to one breed more 
importance than to others. In consideration of the 
greater number of view points from which the 
Thoroughbred takes precedence over other breeds, 
one seems justified in proclaiming it the most 
important of all breeds of horses. Its right to 
superiority may be sustained on the basis of the 
following facts : It was the first breed improved 
and the one on which the principles of breeding 
have been most systematically practised ; barring 
the Oriental, from which the Thoroughbred is 
derived, his is the purest lineage possessed by any 
breed, and for it the first studbook for the record- 
ing of pedigrees was established ; Thoroughbred 
blood has been most freely drawn on in the im- 
provement of other breeds and types — in fact, there 
is scarcely a harness or saddle horse living today 
that does not owe its merit in a large measure 
to the Thoroughbred crosses in its ancestry ; the 
Thoroughbred has been a most important means of 
indulging a love of sport on the turf and in the 
field for three centuries. 

Description. 

The Thoroughbred conforms, in fact, is the truest 
exponent of the long, lithe, rangy, deep, narrow, 
angular type consistent with speed, and which is in 
such striking contrast to the low, broad, compact, 
and massive form significant of power in the draft 
horse. When it is borne in mind that locomotion is 
accomplished by the alternate flexion and extension 
of the articulations in the limbs ; that the propul- 



sion of the mass is by means of the muscular power 
of the hind-quarters, while the weight is sustained 
chiefly by the supportive action of the fore-limbs ; 
that an elongated, cordy muscle has a greater de- 
gree of contractility and consequently tends toward 
a greater length of stride and more rapidity of 
movement than the short, thick, bulky muscle 
essential to power rather than pace, the speed 
type which the Thoroughbred represents is better 
understood. It is possible, however, to enumerate 
certain characters that are more particularly and 
distinctly Thoroughbred than this type, which is 
more or less common to all speed horses. These 
characters are derived in part from the Oriental 
progenitors, while some may be regarded as strictly 
Thoroughbred in their origin. Most characteristic 
are the extreme refinement and clear definition of 
features, the small proportioned head and ear, the 
straight face line, the neat throttle, sloping shoul- 
ders, sharp withers, muscular quarters, and clean, 
hard, flat bone. These are associated with a low, 
pointing, close-to-the-ground way of going, which 
insures the greatest stride with the least effort. 
Then, in addition to a racy form, the Thorough- 
bred has a racy temperament, possessing a most 
highly organized nervous system. The character- 
istic "buck knees " are all too commonly noticeable 
in the Thoroughbred from the galloping yearling 
to the seasoned campaigner. Another objectionable 
feature frequently noticed in the breed is the ten- 
dency towards weediness, as it is termed, i. e., long 
legs and light body. The prevailing colors are bay, 
brown, and chestnut, with one or more white mark- 
ings. The most important modification in type 
during the development of the Thoroughbred is an 
increase in stature, which Sir Walter Gilbey esti- 
mates to have been one hand two and one-half 
inches from the year 1700 to the year 1900, the 
average height of the modern Thoroughbred being 
fifteen hands, two and one-half inches. The average 
weight may be given as about one thousand 
pounds. 

A detailed description of the Thoroughbred fol- 
lows :— Weight, 900-1,050 ; height, fifteen to six- 
teen hands ; color, bay, brown or chestnut, with 
more or less white in the face or on limbs ; a very 
"breedy" head, with sharply defined features, a 
straight face line, trim muzzle, large nostril, full, 
clear, prominent eye, broad forehead, neat ear and 
clean-cut throttle ; neck long and rather straight, 
giving a moderately low carriage of the head ; 
shoulders sloping and well finished at the withers ;. 
strong back, loin and coupling, altogether making 
a short top-line compared to the length of the 
under-line, although having length sufficient to 
insure freedom of stride ; a very deep fore-rib and 
chest, lung capacity being secured in this way 
rather than by thickness and fullness of chest ; 
croup long and a bit straight ; deep, full, muscular 
quarters and gaskins ; clean, smooth joints ; a 
broad, flat, bony leg of more quality than sub- 
stance ; oblique pasterns and a rather small foot of 
dense horn. A fine, smooth coat of hair with a 
total absence of any feather, and a soft, delicate 
skin with the superficial blood-vessels well marked, 



HORSE 



HORSE 



497 



complete a general appearance of quality and 
refinement. 

History. 

A knowledge of the early horse history of Great 
Britain is necessary for a complete understanding 
of the origin of the Thoroughbred. Three things 
are involved : the native foundation stock, the top 
crosses of foreign blood on this base, and the ideal 
in the minds of the breeders. It is interesting to 
note first, that there are no indications of any 
horses having been indigenous to Britain, although 
the most recent researches reported by Ridgeway 
indicate that horses of the north African type 
were in Ireland as early as the sixth century. The 
horses with which Britain was first stocked are 
generally held to have been derived from the pony 
types native to northern Europe, and consequently 
were small in stature. We know that the first 
efforts at improvement were in the way of 
increasing the size. The Norsemen were the first 
to introduce the war horse, and the blood of Nor- 
mandy and Flanders was thereafter drawn on in 
an attempt to produce horses of a sufficient size 
and strength to carry an armored knight. Among 
other edicts enacted in the reign of Henry VIII, 
was one limiting the size of sires to be used to not 
less than fourteen hands. 

The horse as a feature in the sports of the times 
is first mentioned in the latter half of the twelfth 
century, when races of a primitive character and 
mounted sports were conducted at Smithfield, as a 
recreation for the people. The first race reported 
was run between Richard II and the Earl of 
Arundel in 1377. Henry VIII was the first king 
who ran horses for his own amusement. In 1580, 
the horses of Great Britain were classified by 
Thomas Blundeville as follows : " a breed of Great 
Horses meete for warre and to serve in the field," 
" ambling horses of a meane stature for to journey 
and travel by the waie," " a race of swift runners 
to run for wagers or to gallop the buck and a 
breed only for draftes or burden." It is important 
to note that at this early time horses were exten- 
sively used for racing and hunting. They were 
undoubtedly the descendants of the Barbs and 
Turks, which are known to have been in Great 
Britain at an early date, the Arab not having been 
introduced until 1616. Racing increased in popu- 
larity under James I, who imported the first Ara- 
bian for the purpose of breeding horses of greater 
speed. After the example of James I, other and 
frequent importations of Arabians, Barbs, and 
Turks were made from the Orient and Spain. By 
the time of Charles I, the sentiment in favor of 
racing had become so strong that much concern 
was felt for the defense of the kingdom, as so 
little attention was then being paid to the 
production of the Great or War horse. 

The real era of the Thoroughbred is usually 
dated from the time of Charles II (1660-1685). 
He not only took an active interest in racing, but 
imported direct from the Levant. His most nota- 
ble importation was of the Barb mares, commonly 
known as the King's or Royal mares, which are 

C32 



regarded by some authorities as the foundation 
dams of the true blood horse. Others, however, 
doubt the accuracy of thus limiting the base of 
the breed. 

The three most important Oriental sires in the 
foundation of the Thoroughbred were the Darley 
Arabian, now known to have been a pure -bred 
Anazeh, imported in 1706 ; the Byerly Turk, 
imported in 1689 ; and the Godolphin Barb, 
brought in 1724 from Paris, where he was found 
hauling a water-cart, having been discarded, no 
doubt, by some member of the royal family to 
whom he had been presented. Eclipse, the greatest 
horse of his kind, is a direct descendant four gen- 
erations removed from the Darley Arabian, as 




Fig. 492. Thoroughbred sire, Banastar. Winner of Brooklyn 
handicap, 1889. 

were also Blaze, three generations removed, the 
foundation Hackney sire, and Imported Messenger, 
six generations removed, the foundation American 
trotter sire. From the Byerly Turk comes King 
Herod, another noted sire, while Matchem, a great 
race horse and successful sire, was a grandson of 
the Godolphin Barb. Furthermore, Justin Morgan, 
who shares honors with Imp. Messenger, already 
referred to as a foundation American sire, is said to 
be a direct descendant of Godolphin Barb. It is 
said that American Thoroughbreds, as a rule, are 
less remote from their Oriental ancestry than the 
average English horse, and that they follow more 
closely their type. 

Thoroughbreds have been bred for nearly three 
centuries under a most rigid system of selection, 
turf performance being the standard. The high de- 
gree of equine perfection exemplified by the best 
Thoroughbred individuals, as well as the prominence 
to which the breed has attained, can be attributed 
in large part, no doubt, to the fact that the destiny 
of the Thoroughbred has been cast with men who 
had unlimited resources on which to draw. The 
Thoroughbred has been given every chance, but he 
has been tried out in most severe and diverse 
ways, and has triumphed. 

Time and altered customs have wrought impor- 
tant changes in the system under which these 
horses are raced, with some corresponding modifi- 



498 



HORSE 



HORSE 



cation in type. Whereas, up to 1880 these races 
had been in four-mile heats, the custom now is to 
run dashes, carry less weight, and start as two- 
year-olds, a custom, which, like the horse, has come 
to us from England. The wisdom of the present 
course is doubted by some who hold the stamina 




Fig. 493. Hunter type. Part-bred horse. Chappie Lee. 

and weight-carrying ability of the old four-milers 
in higher esteem than the great flights of extreme 
speed for a few furlongs, shown by our modern 
sprinters. Conflicting opinions are expressed, too, 
with regard to the probability of these twentieth- 
century horses being capable of lowering the dis- 
tance-records of a century ago. Those who know, 
however, are reluctant to admit that the Thorough- 
bred of today is a degenerate in any sense, and, in 
support of their view, they maintain that in olden 
times the horses ran but a few races a year, with 
no handicaps, and they were especially trained for 
each race. Against this, the modern horse is credited 
with being kept in racing form nine months in the 
year, running many races in a single season, and 
these closely contested because of the number of 
contestants and the method of adjusting handicaps. 

The three classic events run in England are the 
Derby, the St. Leger, and the Oaks. The first Derby 
was run May 4, 1780, for a stake valued at fifty 
guineas, open to three-year-olds, colts to carry 
eight stone, fillies seven stone eleven pounds, over 
a distance of one mile. It was won by Diomed. 
The first and only American-bred horse to win the 
English Derby was Iroquois, a line descendant of 
Diomed, racing in the colors of Mr. Pierre Lorillard. 
This horse, the same season, won the St. Leger, a 
most notable feat in view of the fact that both 
Derby and St. Leger have been won by the same 
horse but nine times in over a century of racing. 

In America. — It is natural that this country 
should have been the first, after England, to take 
up the Thoroughbred and sytematically breed and 
race him. It was not long after the colonization of 
the southern provinces by the English gentry that 
there was established an American turf with its 
Thoroughbred studs. 

In connection with the introduction of the 



Thoroughbred into America, some mention of the 
so-called native horses should be made. While 
there is abundant evidence in the way of fossil 
remains of the presence and possibly the evolution 
of a prehistoric horse on the American continent, 
still there were no horses of any description found 
here by Columbus. He it was who on his second 
expedition made the first importation of which we 
have any record. These horses are thought by 
some to have perished soon after their arrival, 
while other authorities assert that they eventually 
gained the mainland and constitute a part of our 
foundation stock. Cortez, in his conquest of 
Mexico in 1519, is credited with having landed the 
first horses on American soil. In 1527, Cabeza de 
Vaca brought horses to St. Augustine, Florida, 
which were afterward liberated. Again, horses 
constituted a part of the equipment of De Soto's 
expedition in 1541, on which he discovered the 
Mississippi. Thus far these were all Spanish horses 
of Oriental extraction — the same original source 
from which the Thoroughbred sprang. In 1604, 
the French took horses into Nova Scotia, and four 
years later introduced them into Canada. Then 
followed the importation of one stallion and six 
mares into Virginia from England. Dutch horses 
arrived at New Netherlands in 1625, and in 1629 
the first horse to inhabit New England arrived at 
Boston from England. As early as 1678, there 
ranged over parts of the Mississippi valley vast 
bands of wild horses, the descendants of those 
escaped or liberated from early conquests and 
expeditions. 

In view of the character of the early settlers of 
Virginia, New York and New England, respectively, 
it is not strange that the cradle of the Thorough- 
bred in America should have been in Virginia. 
Horse-racing was not consistent with the Puritan 
traditions of New Englanders, and the Dutchman's 
horse in New York was essentially a beast of 
burden. It remained, therefore, for the cavaliers 
of Virginia, North Carolina and Maryland to 
become sponsors for this horse, which was later to 
play such an important part in- American sporting 
and industrial progress. 

The first race horse imported to America is 
thought to have been Bulle Rock, son of the Darley 
Arabian, brought into Virginia in 1730. The first 
racing organization of which we have record was 
formed in 1760 at Charleston, South Carolina. 
Subsequently there were brought over many of 
England's best horses, the most notable of which 
was Diomed, winner of the first English Derby. 
This horse, imported as a two-year old in 1799, by 
Colonel Hoomes, much against the advice of his 
counselors, is regarded as the real progenitor of 
the American race horse. In a regular line of 
descent from him come Sir Archy, the first truly 
American Thoroughbred ; Boston, his grandson, 
conceded to have been the greatest American race 
horse ; and, in turn, his son, Lexington, a scarcely 
less remarkable performer than Boston, and a most 
influential sire, especially through the female line, 
in the American trotting and saddle families, as 
well as of the Thoroughbred. 



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499 



The trend of Thoroughbred sentiment was first 
northward from its original seat, about the middle 
of the eighteenth century, centering later about 
the Union course on Long Island, then westward 
into Kentucky and Tennessee, where the first race- 
course was established at Lexington, some time 
previous to the organization of a chartered associ- 
ation in 1828. The environment of Kentucky 
proved so congenial to the horses bred there that 
it soon attained its premier position among the 
horse-producing states. Then, in the natural course 
of events, some of the best blood of Virginia and 
Kentucky found its way into California, and there 
were soon founded studs which later achieved 
national fame. The Civil war proved a serious set- 
back to the breeding operations then well under 
way, but the Thoroughbred soon recovered from 
this interruption, and with the reestablishment of 
affairs on a stable basis, became generally distrib- 
uted throughout the length and breadth of the land. 
While he is still more extensively bred in those 
regions where he first came to his own, there is 
hardly a state at the present time, the general 
horse stock of which has not been benefited by 
this blood. Notable patrons of the Thoroughbred 
in America have been Washington, Jackson, Clay, 
Jefferson, and John Randolph. 

The record, 1:35| for one mile straightaway, 
was made over the Monmouth track, New Jersey, 
by Salvator, as a four-year-old, in 1890. The record 
price for a Thoroughbred is $187,500, paid for Fly- 
ing Fox. The premier American sire of recent 
times is generally conceded to have been Hanover, 
owned by Milton Young, of Lexington, Kentucky. 

Distribution. 

The Thoroughbred has found its way into all 
countries where speed horses are popular. Other 
countries to follow the precedent of England in 
the establishment of the course and the patronage 
of the Thoroughbred, were America, France, Ger- 
many, Australia, and Argentina especially. 

Part-bred horses. 

In accord with the idea that the term Thorough- 
bred implies that a horse is totally of the blood, 
the term part-bred has become a common means of 
designating a horse that is not altogether, but only 
partly, of the blood. It is even customary further 
to indicate the proportion of hot or Thoroughbred 
blood, by applying the terms two-parts or half- 
bred to the get of a Thoroughbred sire out of a 
common bred mare, and three-parts or three-quar- 
ters bred to the individual whose sire was a Thor- 
oughbred, while his dam was two-parts bred as 
above. In those sections of the country where 
Thoroughbred sires have been available, horses of 
this fractional breeding are common, and in view 
cf the commendable movement of the American 
Jockey Club in establishing breeding-bureaus in the 
different states for the distribution of Thoroughbred 
sires, the part-bred horse may be expected to fill a 
still more prominent place in the future. As a mat- 
ter of fact, horses produced in this way have such 
a wide field of usefulness as to keep them in steady 



demand ; therefore this is a line of breeding that 
may be strongly commended to many farmers, who, 
with their present practice, have occasion to com- 
plain of the market. While these horses are pro- 
duced principally as green hunter material, the 
part-bred horse is a most versatile equine. It is 
questionable whether there is any type of horse 
that can fill more acceptably so many different 
vocations as he. While somewhat deficient in style 
and trotting speed, his substance and stamina make 
him a stout, all-day road horse. He can be easily 
schooled to the walk-trot-canter standard, while his 
greatest accomplishment is to take up one hundred 
and eighty to two hundred pounds weight and 
carry it safely for long distances cross country at 
considerable speed, doing all the jumping requisite 
to such a performance. It has been further demon- 
strated that the part-bred horse has a place on the 
farm. 

Uses. 

For sporting purposes. — There may be some 
question as to the propriety of claiming any real 
usefulness for a horse, the only purpose of which 
is to serve as an active factor in the sports and 
pastimes of nations. Be that as it may, no one 
can deny to the Thoroughbred full meed of praise 
for a most efficient service in his own peculiar 
field. The turf, originally an English institution, 
was early transplanted to other countries, and all 
peoples among whom flat-racing, steeple-chasing, 
hunting, and polo are in vogue, may be expected 
to testify to the usefulness of the Thoroughbred. 




Fig. 494. A Thoroughbred mare of the saddle type. 
Champion Jasmine. 

There is such diversity of opinion, even among 
authorities, as to the relative merits of the Thor- 
oughbred and the American saddle horse for sad- 
dle work, and the Thoroughbred and the part-bred 
horse as hunters, that the fairest way to treat 
them would be a review of the evidence on both 
sides. By his opponents the Thoroughbred is 
objected to as a saddle horse because of his dis- 



500 



HORSE 



HORSE 



proportionate height at the withers and croup, 
his unsymmetrical appearance from the saddle, 
his low "daisy cutting" way of going, which they 
assert is conducive to stumbling, and his erratic 
nervous temperament, which renders him untract- 
able under restraint. Opposed to these objection- 
able features are the spirit, the indomitable cour- 
age, speed and stamina, which are possessed by no 
other horse in the same degree. For riding to 
hounds the Thoroughbred is said by some to be ill- 
adapted because of his temperament, which makes 
him fretful at checks and difficult to control when 
running. Furthermore, the average Thoroughbred 
is not up to the weight imposed by many riders 
who care to indulge in this sport. On the other 
hand, his supporters maintain that his speed, 
stamina, courage, and nerve force may be relied 
on to bring one in safely at the death when others 
fail. It is said that he does not get "doppy" at 
his fences, but will jump, as well as run, on his 
courage when fatigued, and that altogether his 
performance is more in keeping with the sport 
than that of his colder-blooded contemporary. A 
logical conclusion seems to be that the Thorough- 
bred horse is best adapted to a thoroughbred 
rider. As stated by one authority, "Thorough- 
breds are horsemen's horses," and one who under- 
stands their disposition and eccentricities is not 
likely to be satisfied with any other kind of a 
mount ; while, for those less accomplished in 
horsemanship, and' satisfied with a more moderate 
ride, the horse which has his fire cooled to some 
extent by a dip of plebeian blood is more suitable. 
For crossing. — To estimate properly the full util- 
ity value of this race, it is necessary to consider, 
in addition to the service which individuals of the 
breed have rendered in performance on the flat 
and cross country, the great influence of the blood 
in union with that of other stocks. Notwithstand- 
ing the fact that this horse has been the creation 
of generations of sportsmen, with speed perform- 
ance the standard of selection, it is the potency of 
his blood when blended with common, native stocks 
which is of greatest value in the production of 
market horses for use outside the realm of sport. 
In all but the draft breeds the influence of the 
Thoroughbred may be demonstrated. In the heavy- 
harness division, the foundation blood lines of the 
recognized breeds are significant. The Hackney 
descends from Shales, a son of Blaze, Thorough- 
bred, out of a strong common mare of Norfolk. 
Thoroughbred sires have produced from native 
French mares the half-blood horses from which the 
French coach has been evolved. They are still 
called Demi-Sang (half-blood) in France. The Ger- 
man coach horse has less of the Thoroughbred 
character and foundation, but even here " the trail 
of the blood " may be traced. The Yorkshire coach 
horse represents a Thoroughbred-Cleveland Bay 
cross. The representative light-harness horse is the 
American trotter, and the two individuals accred- 
ited with being the foundation sires are Imp. 
Messenger, Thoroughbred, and Justin Morgan, said 
to be of Thoroughbred extraction. The American 
saddle horse, as a breed, is descendant from Den- 



mark, Thoroughbred, son of Imp. Hedgeford, and 
repeated infusions of Thoroughbred blood are still 
admitted. Furthermore, the ranks of the hunter, 
jumper, and polo pony classes, not breeds, but 
market types, are chiefly filled by either full- or 
part-bred blood horses. 

Ailments. 

It cannot be said that there are any diseases 
peculiar to Thoroughbreds, nor that they show a 
marked predisposition toward any of the affections 
to which all horses are heir. It is true the disease 
known as Osteoporosis, or, more commonly, "big- 
head," is frequently found in some of the large 
Thoroughbred breeding-studs. We have reason to 
think, however, that the disease is due rather to 
the conditions under which Thoroughbreds are 
especially likely to be kept than to the horse inde- 
pendent of those conditions. Thoroughbreds in 
training, especially youngsters, are prone to 
develop sore shins, which involve the fore-limbs in 
much the same manner that athletes are affected 
under similar conditions. The most common abnor- 
mality to which Thoroughbreds are subject is the 
peculiar attitude of the fore-legs termed "buck 
knees." In other horses, a similar condition results 
from hard road or track work, but in Thorough- 
breds this standing over may be noticed in year- 
lings that have had practically no work. It is said 
by some trainers that colts which show this ten- 
dency will stand up under severe training better 
than those which stand straight on their fore-legs. 

Organizations and records. 

The first publication of recorded pedigrees and 
performances was in 1829. The official organ and 
record of the Thoroughbred in England is the 
General Studbook of Great Britain. In this country, 
Thoroughbreds are registered in the American 
Studbook for Thoroughbreds, the official organi- 
zation being the American Jockey Club. 

Literature. 

Sir Walter Gilbey, Bart., Thoroughbred and 
Other Ponies; Horses Past and Present; Ridgeway, 
The Origin and Influence of the Thoroughbred 
Horse, Cambridge (1905); Trevethan, The Ameri- 
can Thoroughbred, New York (1905); Peer, Cross 
Country with Horse and Hound ; Ware, First Hand 
Bits of Stable Lore ; United States Department of 
Agriculture, Nineteenth Annual Report of the 
Bureau of Animal Industry. 

Trotting and Pacing Horse, American Standard- 
bred. Figs. 44, 476, 495. 

By John A. Craig. 

The trotting horse has entered more largely into 
the pleasures and uses of the American people than 
any of the other classes of light horses, although 
the gaited saddle horse has been to some extent a 
competitor in these directions in recent years. For 
trotting purposes on the track or on the road, no 
other strain or breed has approached the Amer- 
ican Standardbred trotter. Its development to the 




Plate XVII. Road ard speed horses. Morgan above; American trotter below 



HORSE 



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501 



present excellence is due wholly to the work of the 
American breeder, although most of the original 
material that entered into the foundation of the 
American Standardbred trotting horse came from 
outside sources. 

Description. 

There are many pronounced types among the 
Standardbred trotting horses. Some are speed mar- 
vels, as Lou Dillon, slim, graceful and of high 
nervous organization ; others are of the campaigner 
type, stronger-framed, fuller-muscled, of larger 
size, with controllable disposition, so as to be easily 
rated, and of remarkable strength and durability. 
Of such is Sweet Marie. The most successful blend 
of these two types is Cresceus (Fig. 495), both a 
speed marvel and a campaigner. A pen description 
of him would embody the attributes of the best 
type so far evolved. In general, such a horse should 
be about sixteen hands high, upstanding, well set 
up, and have that poise of body which horsemen 
refer to when they say a horse is " above himself," 
either standing or in action. The head, propor- 
tioned evenly with the other parts, is clean-cut and 
carried high. The neck has length and is muscular, 
making a noticeable crest in the stallion. The 
shoulder is deep, covered with muscle, and the chest 
is low and only moderately wide. The fore-leg is 
long from elbow to knee, and short from knee to 
fetlock. The knee is wide in front and sharp behind, 
and the tendon drops from there almost vertically 
to the pastern. The pasterns slope nicely, and the 
feet, both before and behind, are even in size, 
moderately large, and of a healthy, oily color. The 
back is well covered with muscle and is rounding, 
and the swelling muscles of the loin cause it to rise 
slightly ; those of the hind-quarters make the croup 
plump and the quarters full and deep. The leg is 
long from hip point to hock, and short from there 
to the pastern. The web of the hock is thin and the 
leg below decidedly fluted. The action should be 
clean, quick and frictionless. Above all, the dispo- 
sition should be easily controllable, and yet ever 
ready to race with zest. Good weights are 900 
pounds for a mare and perhaps 1,150 pounds for a 
stallion. The color is not fixed, but brown and bay 
are very common. 

History. 

In common with all breeds of light horses, the 
American Standardbred horse (the writer uses the 
word "breed" advisedly, for he will show that our 
horses officially known under this name are as much 
entitled to it as any other) traces back through the 
Thoroughbred to the Arab. The Arab is the original 
source of the Thoroughbred, and nearly every breed 
of light horses worthy of note has drawn so largely 
on these two that it makes the Darley Arabian, the 
Byerly Turk and the Godolphin Barb the triune 
root of all of them. [See the articles on the Thor- 
oughbred and the Barb and Turk.] 

Previous to the advent of these Eastern impor- 
tations, racing had not attracted much public 
patronage in Great Britain. A writer 1 refers to 
1 Light Horses : Breeds and Management. 



the time of their advent as follows : Byerly Turk, 
about 1689 ; Darley Arabian, early in the eight- 
eenth century ; Godolphin Arabian (probably a 
Barb), 1728. Trotting matches seem then to have 
been unknown, but it was about that time that 
marked the era of running races. In 1751, Reginald 
Heber published the first number of the Racing 
Calendar, and the light horse-breeding interests of 
Great Britain began to assume noticeable propor- 
tions. 

The Darley Arabian sired the first great Thor- 
oughbred or running horse in Flying Childers. 




Big. 495. American trotting horse. Cresceus, 2:02K. 
Owned by W. W. Savage. 

While Flying Childers was a stout race horse, yet 
it was through his brother, Bartlett's Childers, pro- 
genitor of Eclipse, that the most turf performers 
trace. Flying Childers sired Blaze, foaled in 1733, 
whose pedigree is given very completely by Cap- 
tain Urton (Newmarket and Arabia). This pedi- 
gree shows that Blaze was deeply bred in Oriental 
blood lines, and yet from him it seems a little 
stream of trotting blood emanates, which history 
pronounces to be the most ancient source of two 
modern breeds, — the American Standardbred horse 
and the Hackney. Perhaps the chief notoriety of 
Blaze in Thoroughbred circles was attained through 
his being the sire of the dam of Herod. He also 
had two sons of interest in this discussion, namely, 
Sampson and Shales. Sampson shows a derivation in 
type from other Thoroughbreds of the time, being 
considered a very large horse, 15.2 hands high, and 
said to be the largest-boned Thoroughbred horse 
ever bred. He was a noted and proved race horse. 
He sired Engineer, sire of Mambrino, sire of Mes- 
senger. He was also the grandsire of the dam of 
Useful Cub, that trotted seventeen miles in less 
than an hour. Shales, the other son of Blaze, sired 
Driver and Scott's Shales, both of which were trot- 
ters, and considered by careful investigators to be 
pillars of the Hackney. 

Messenger was imported in 1788. His line is an 
unbroken series of trotters. He sired Mambrino, 
which had about a dozen trotting sons, in three of 
which we are chiefly interested : Mambrino, Bishop's 
Hambletonian and the mare Silvertail. Mambrino 
sired Mambrino Paymaster, and Abdallah, the 



502 



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former the sire of Mambrino Chief, founder of the 
family of that name among Standardbred horses. 
Abdallah sired Hambletonian 10, the founder of 
the Hambletonian family in the Standardbred 
breed. Silvertail was the dam of One Eye, the dam 
of the Charles Kent mare ; and this mare was by 
Imported Bellfounder, which traces back through 
the Fireaways to Driver, the son of Shales, the son 
of Blaze. To get all this clear, the following chart 
is submitted : 



public in 1838, and for fifteen years raced the most 
successful trotters of her time. The almost equally 
famous mare, Green Mountain Maid (not to be con- 
fused with the mare of the same name that was 
Electioneer's dam), and Princess, another notable 
campaigner, were of this blood. Happy Medium 
might also be said to be an inbred Messenger. 
When we consider that his daughter, Nancy Hanks, 
2:04, was out of Nancy Lee by Dictator by Ham- 
bletonian 10, it is easy to understand how deeply 

Darley Arabian 



Flying Childers 

I 

Blaze 



Sampson — 

I 

Engineer 

I 

Mambrino 



Shales 



Useful Cub 



Driver Scott's Shales 

I 

The Fireaways 



Mambrino 



Hambletonian 
(Bishop's) 



Silvertail 



Mambrino Pay- 
master 



Mambrino Chief 11 



Abdallah 



One Eye 

I 

Chas Kent mare 



Pretender 



Bellfounder 5 



Achilles 



Fireaway 
(Triffit's) 



• Bellfounder 55 



Hambletonian 10 

With the advent of Messenger, the trotting 
instinct becomes decidedly more pronounced. The 
chief feature of his pedigree is that he was not 
only a Thoroughbred, but dips deep into the foun- 
tain sources of that breed. The records are preg- 
nant with the performances of his progeny and 
also attest to his value as a progenitor of trotting 
speed, through the get of his sons, and the degree 
to which their blood permeates the pedigrees of 
even our most notable of modern trotters. In the 
catalogue of the International Stock Food Farm, 
there appears an exceptionally erudite pedigree of 
Dan Patch 1:55|, the champion pacer of the world, 
and it is shown that he traces forty-three times to 
Messenger. The first noted performer of this strain 
was Topgallant. Paul Pry, a grandson of Messenger, 
was ridden by Woodruff 18 miles in a fraction less 
than 57 minutes. Lady Suffolk began racing in 



bred this remarkable trotter of our day embodies 
Messenger blood. 

Before taking up the influence of other Thor- 
oughbred sources, there are other scattering 
streams of Messenger blood that should be men- 
tioned. The Clay family, through the founder, 
Henry Clay, has a very distant infusion. The 
Morgan family, also, has a considerable infusion 
of Messenger blood. Among the old Canadian fami- 
lies having Messenger blood, one of the mort 
prominent is that of Royal George 9. Royal 
George's descendants today bear out the fact that 
the Messenger family was the most prolific source 
of trotting speed in Canada. Another Canadian 
family that runs into some of our best Standard- 
breds originated in the Bullock horse, which traces 
directly to Messenger. Strathmore (408), the 
founder of one of the very best families of the 



HORSE 



HORSE 



503 



Standardbred trotter, carried much Messenger 
blood. 

These references, showing the infusion of Mes- 
senger blood into the families of Mambrino Chief 
11, Hambletonian 10, Morgan, Clay and others, 
will enable one to form some idea of the degree to 
which Messenger blood forms a widespread founda- 
tion for the present Standardbred trotter. 

Other imported contributors. — Besides Messenger, 
several other imported Thoroughbreds have con- 
tributed to the breeding of the Standardbred 
trotter. Suffice it to mention Bonnie Scotland, 
Australian Trustee, Lapidist and Glencoe. The 
influence of these was chiefly through their Ameri- 
can-bred sons and daughters. 

Influence of American horses. — Let us now con- 
sider the status of the horses in use on this conti- 
nent as road horses or trotters, about the time 
(1788) that Messenger was imported. In the earli- 
est colonial days, most of the traveling was done 
on horseback, and a race most popular for journey- 
ing this way was the Narragansett pacer, bred 
most largely in Rhode Island. In addition, this 
pacer was the racing horse of the people of Rhode 
Island and Virginia as early as the last of the 
seventeenth century. Dr. McMonagle states : "The 
combination of these (Narragansett) with the 
French stock imported from France to Quebec, in 
1665, produced the Canadian pacers. Out of that 
combination we have the Pilots, which were taken 
to Kentucky and proved to be the producers of 
some of the best trotting horses there. From the 
same stock we have the Columbuses, which were 
taken to Vermont, where they produced trotters of 
which the fastest went in 2:19| — a daughter of 
Phil Sheridan, the most potent sire of the family." 
It seems clear to the above writer that the Narra- 
gansett pacer was largely the original source of 
the Canadian blood so largely taken to Kentucky 
and other states at an early day. 

Justin Morgan, the founder of the family 
of that name, was foaled in 1793 (some authori- 
ties give it 1789), and Pilot, about the first 
to attract the attention of the American public, 
was foaled about 1826. The Pilots, St. Lawrences, 
St. Clairs, Columbuses and Copperbottoms were 
taken from Canada at the beginning of the 
last century to Vermont, New York, Kentucky, 
California and other states that were trotting- 
horse centers at that early day, and blended well 
with the other families that were forming. The 
Morgans were well under way at this era. The 
three sons that formed leading branches of the 
family were Sherman, foaled in 1809, Bulrush, 
foaled in 1812, and Woodbury, foaled in 1816. 
Then, too, the Bashaws and the Clays were start- 
ing under way ; for Grand Bashaw was imported 
in 1820. He sired Andrew Jackson, foaled in 1827, 
which, in turn, sired Henry Clay and Long Island 
Black Hawk, both foaled in 1 837. The latter sired 
Green's Bashaw in 1855. Andrew Jackson ranked 
and was contemporaneous with Abdallah, the latter 
being foaled in 1823. A little later Mambrino 
Chief 11 was foaled in 1844, and five years later, 
in 1849, Hambletonian 10 was born. 



It is seen that about the middle of the past cen- 
tury the leading families of the Standardbred trot- 
ter had their inception, and the breed began to 
assume formation on this continent, for the chief 
families, the Canadian Pilots and others of that 
nationality, the Morgans, the Clays, the Mambrino 
Chiefs and the Hambletonians, were making it evi- 
dent that there were certain blood lines more pro- 
lific than others in producing trotting speed. 

Early trotting records. — The first trotting per- 
formance in America of which we have record is 
that of Yankee, at Harlem, New York, July 6, 1806, 
when a little less than a mile was trotted in 2:50. 
In 1859, Ethan Allen, of the Morgan line, trotted 
against Flora Temple, when the latter trotted a 
mile in 2:25. In the same year, Geo. M. Patchen 
beat Ethan Allen in 2:24, and in turn was beaten 
by Flora Temple in 2:21. Dexter, which began his 
racing career in 1864, defeated George Wilkes in 
2:22J. According to official records, Lady Suffolk 
was the first to trot below 2:30, in 1845, when she 
won a heat in a race in 2:29 J ; Pelham, breeding 
unknown, in 1849 reduced this to 2:28 ; Highland 
Man, of Thoroughbred breeding, in 1853 reduced it 
to 2:27 ; Flora Temple reduced this several times, 
finally bringing it, in 1859, to 2:19|; in 1867, 
Dexter reduced it to 2 :17£ ; and then Goldsmith 
Maid continued lowering it until 1874, when, going 
against time, she made a mile in 2:14. 

The Trotting Register. — About this time the 
greatest interest was being taken in trotting races 
and trotting families, and it was further added to 
by the founding and compiling of the American 
Trotting Register by John Henry Wallace, which 
was begun about 1865. Wallace's Monthly and the 
Yearbook also gave a great impetus to the study of 
the pedigrees of the Standardbred horse, and out 
of the racing and the data collected grew the 
enthusiasm for better breeding. 

It was not until Volume IV of the Trotting Reg- 
ister was published that the entries of stallions 
were made numerically. For that volume a stand- 
ard was prepared in which performance was given 
precedence and pedigree a minor place. Under this 
standard, Volumes IV to VII, inclusive, were com- 
piled. Various changes were made, from time to 
time, until we now have the following standard, as 
revised and adopted by the American Trotting Reg- 
ister Association, to take effect November 1, 1898: 

"When an animal meets these requirements 
and is duly registered, it shall be accepted as a 
Standardbred trotter. 

"(1) The progeny of a registered standard trot- 
ting horse and a registered standard trotting mare. 

"(2) A stallion sired by a registered standard 
trotting horse, provided his dam and granddam were 
sired by registered standard trotting horses, and 
he himself has a trotting record of 2:30 and is the 
sire of three trotters with records of 2:30 from 
different mares. 

"(3) A mare whose sire is a registered standard 
trotting horse and whose dam and granddam were 
sired by registered standard trotting horses, pro- 
vided she herself has a trotting record of 2:30 or 
is the dam of one trotter with a record of 2:30. 



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"(4) A mare sired by a registered standard trot- 
ting horse, provided she is the dam of two trotters 
with records of 2:30. 

"(5) A mare sired by a registered standard trot- 
ting horse, provided her first, second and third 
dams are each sired by a registered standard trot- 
ting horse." 

To assist still further in the establishment of a 
breed, the Register Association has made known 
(February 5, 1908) a contemplated change in the 
requirements for admission to the standard, looking 
to the elimination of all the foregoing rules except 
rule number one. 

Influence of the standard. 

At first, the importance of the standard, both as 
to performance and pedigree, had an undue influ- 
ence. If a horse was standard it was thought that 
that was all that was necessary, and if a sire suc- 
ceeded in piling up a large 2:30 list that was later 
considered the sum total. Now breeders are also 
considering the fact that a performance of 2:30, 
with improved tracks, sulkies and appliances, does 
not mean much, and they are considering the 
amount of extreme speed as a very desirable qual- 
ity, with a long line of producing lineage in the 
pedigree. At this point, the importance of the 
breeding of the dam and her value as a producer 
of speed entered into the operations of most breed- 
ing farms. In conjunction with this, the money- 
making value of colt trotters, because of the large 
stakes, began to receive more attention. Breeders 
also began to find out that a horse might be a fine 
"looker" and at the same time a good race horse or 
a getter of fine "lookers" and race horses. 

Present status. — This brings us down to the 
present era, during which the modern breeder seeks 
performance, individuality and pedigree, and it is 
all traceable to the several stages of evolution 
through which the breed has gone. To guide the 
beginner in breeding, it may be said that nearly 
all the families must necessarily be embraced in 
up-to-date breeding operations, for the history of 
the breed will show that they nearly all have 
desirable qualities that should be apparent in the 
modern representation of the Standardbred horse. 

Distribution. 

Other governments have recognized the worth 
of the Standardbred trotter, for recently those of 
Japan and China have made large importations. 
Extensive sales of Standardbred trotters of high 
merit have been made to prominent horse-lovers 
and breeders in Russia, France, Austria, Italy, Ger- 
many, England, Australia and the South American 
countries. 

Families. 

The origin and importance of the heads of the 
several prominent trotting families has been dis- 
cussed above. It remains only to call attention to 
the notable horses of each family. 

The Hambletonian family, through the male line, 
includes the following sons of Hambletonian 10, 
with mention of some of the most noted performers: 



(1) Electioneer, 160 in the list, and sire of many 
producing sons. Some of the holders of the fastest 
records representing this line of breeding, are 
Adbell, holding the fastest mile record, 2:23, for 
yearling trotting stallion ; Arion, the fastest mile 
record, 2:10|, for two-year-old trotting stallion ; 
Endow, the fastest mile record, 2:14f, for two- 
year-old trotting gelding; Fantasy, the fastest mile 
record, 2:08|, for three-year-old trotting mare, and 
also the fastest mile record, 2: 06, for four-year-old 
trotting mare. Boralma, which, with John Nolan, 
is joint holder of the fastest mile record, 2:08, for 
four-year-old trotting gelding; Major Delmar, the 
fastest mile record, 2:05£, for five-year-old trot- 
ting gelding; Bingen, the fastest mile record, 
2:06|, for five-year-old trotting stallion, held jointly 
with Ralph Wilkes. In addition, Sunol, 2: OS J, held 
the champion trotting record in 1891; The Abbot, 
2:03j, held the champion trotting record in 1900, 
and Palo Alto, 2:08f, was champion trotting stal- 
lion in 1891. In summing up the standing of the 
families in regard to the production of colt trotters, 
Volunteer, in a very able tabulation, 1 gives Elec- 
tioneer second place to George Wilkes, with thirty- 
three sires and seventy-one performers. 

(2) George Wilkes, 83 in the list, and sire of 
many notable producing sons. Some of the holders 
of the fastest records representing this line of 
breeding are Belle Acton, holding the fastest mile 
record, 2:20|, for yearling pacing mare ; Extasy, 
the fastest mile record, 2:10|, for two-year-old 
pacing mare ; Peter Sterling, the fastest mile 
record, 2:11 J, for three-year-old trotting gelding ; 
Hymettus, the fastest mile record, 2:08i, for three- 
year-old pacing gelding ; Palmyra Boy, the fastest 
mile record, 2:07i, for four-year-old pacing geld- 
ing, held jointly with King of Diamonds ; Brenda 
Yorke, the fastest mile record, 2:08|, for three- 
year-old pacing mare ; Online, the fastest mile 
record, 2:04, for four-year-old pacing stallion ; 
Coney, the fastest mile record, 2:02|, for five-year- 
old pacing gelding ; Searchlight, 2: 03j, joint holder 
with Audubon Boy of the fastest mile record for 
five-year-old pacing stallion ; and Ralph Wilkes, 
the fastest mile record, 2:06J, for five-year-old 
stallion, held jointly with Bingen. In addition, 
George Wilkes, 2:22, held the champion stallion 
trotting record, in 1868-71; Axtell, 2:12, held 
the champion stallion trotting record in 1889 ; 
Allerton, 2:09J, held the champion stallion trotting 
record in 1891; Dariel, 2:00j, is the fastest pac- 
ing mare, and Dan Patch, 1 : 55J (Fig. 476), is the 
champion pacing stallion. In the production of colt 
trotters, Volunteer gives this line first place, with 
forty-seven sires and ninety-eight performers. 

(3) Abdallah 15, 5 in the list, and sire of many 
notable producing sons. Some of the holders of the 
fastest record of this line are Pansy McGregor, the 
fastest mile record, 2:235, for yearling trotting 
filly, and Paul D. Kelly, the fastest mile record, 
2:20|, for yearling pacing colt. In addition, 
Cresceus (Fig. 495), 2:02J, is the champion 
trotting stallion, as well as holder of a great 
many world records for different distances and 

' Horse Review, January 28, 1908. 



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505 



heats. Nutwood leads all other sires as sire of 
producing brood mares. This line has been notable 
for the production of campaigners and race horses 
rather than for colt trotters, although Volunteer 
ranks it among Hambletonian 10's sons, with ten 
sires and sixteen performers. Such race horses as 
Robert McGregor, 2 : 17i, Cresceus, 2:021, Nut- 
bearer, 2:09J, winner of the fastest eight-heat 
race on record, and Highball, 2 : 06i, the fastest 
green gelding of 1907, and Nutboy, 2 : 071, Turley, 
2:07|, Robert Mac, 2 :08i, were of this line. Gold- 
smith Maid, 2 : 16 j, of this strain, the champion 
trotter in 1871-72, and again in 1874, when she 
reduced her record to 2 : 14, has been conceded to 
be the greatest campaigner of any time. 

(4) Happy Medium, 94 in the list, and sire of 
many notable producing sons. Nancy Hanks, 2:04, 
was the champion trotter in 1892, and Maxie Cobb, 
2 : 13J, was champion trotting stallion in 1884-89. 
In his table of sires of colt trotters, Volunteer 
ranks Happy Medium seventh among Hambletonian 
10's sons, with two sires and six performers. 

(5) Dictator, 52 in the list, and sire of many 
notable producing sons. Some of the holders of the 
fastest records in this line, are Directly, holding the 
fastest mile record, 2:07^, for two-year-old pac- 
ing stallion, and Directum (Fig. 44), holding the 
fastest mile record, 2:051, for four-year-old trot- 
ting stallion. In addition, Jay Eye See, 2:10, was 
champion trotter in 1884 ; Phallas, 2:13|, was 
champion trotting stallion in 1884, and Directum, 
2:051, was champion trotting stallion in 1893. 
This line is also noted for its number of race horses, 
trotting and pacing, for it includes Director, 2:17, 
Directum, 2:051, Direct Hal, p., 2:04J, Direct, p., 
2:05-i, and Norman B, 2:05|, winner of fastest 
four-heat race in 1907. In the production of colt 
trotters, the writer, Volunteer, in reference already 
given, places Dictator fourth as his rank among 
the sons of Hambletonian 10, with six sires and 
sixteen performers. 

(6) Strathmore, 62 in the list, and sire of sev- 
eral notable sons. Klatawath, 2 : 05J, is the holder 
of the fastest mile record for three-year-old pac- 
ing stallion. Lou Dillon, 1:58J, of this line is the 
champion trotter of the present time. This line 
ranks very high in producing brood mares. 

Among other noted sons of Hambletonian 10 are 
Egbert, 85 in the list ; Aberdeen, 52 in the list ; 
Harold, 45 in list (sire of Maud S, 2:08|, champion 
trotter 1883-5, and sire of Lord Russell, sire of 
Kremlin, 2:081, champion stallion in 1892); Vol- 
unteer, 34 in list (sire of St. Julien, 2:111, cham- 
pion trotter in 1880); Jay Gould, 29 in list and 
champion stallion in 1871-2. The Hambletonian 
family as a whole is given first place by Volunteer 
for siring colt trotters, with 106 sires of 223 per- 
formers to its credit. 

The Mambrino Chief family, through the male 
line, includes the following sons of Mambrino 
Chief 11, with mention of some of the most noted 
performers : 

(1) Woodford Mambrino, 13 in the list, and sire 
of several notable producing sons. Helen Hale is 
holder of the fastest mile record, 2:13J for two- 



year-old trotting filly, and John Nolan is holder of 
the fastest mile record, 2 : 08, for four-year-old trot- 
ting gelding. Alix, 2 : 03|, was champion trotter in 
1894. In the table that Volunteer has prepared, 
Prodigal is credited with eleven colt trotters, which 
places him in the lead of all sires of colt trotters. 
A striking feature of this line is the purity of the 
trotting gait, for there are but few pacers among 
them. 

(2) Mambrino Patchen, 25 in the list, sire of 
several notable producing sons. This line has a 
reputation, to which it is entitled, for having in 
its ranks a large number of producing brood mares. 
Many noted stallions, sons of George Wilkes, have 
Mambrino Patchen dams, a blend that has been pro- 
lific in speed. 

(3) Clark Chief, 6 in the list, sire of Kentucky 
Prince, 41 in the list, which in turn is sire of Dex- 
ter Prince, 62 in the list. Dexter Prince sired Ele- 
ata, 2:08|, Lisonjero, 2:081, and James L., 2:09i 

(4) Mambrino Pilot, 9 in the list, sire of Mam- 
brino Gift, Caliban, Hannis, and others. Mambrino 
Gift, 2 : 20, was champion trotting stallion in 1874. 

The Clay family is generally considered to start 
with Henry Clay, but it really traces back through 
the male line to Grand Bashaw, imported in 1820 
from Tripoli. The latter was fourteen and one- 
fourth hands high, but was reputed to be a horse 
of beauty and some speed for those early days. 
Grand Bashaw was bred to Pearl by First Consul 
out of Fancy by Messenger, and from this union 
resulted Young Bashaw, the sire of Andrew Jack- 
son. Andrew Jackson was a trotter of note in his 
day, especially as a two-miler. The Long Island 
Black Hawk line has given us Bashaw 50, 17 in 
the list and Wapsie, with 11 in the list. Bashaw 
50 is the sire of the dam of Joe Young, 2:18. Henry 
Clay sired Cassius M. Clay 18, which sired Geo. M. 
Patchen, 2 : 23J, champion trotting stallion in 
1859-60, and sire of four trotters. Perhaps the 
most prolific speed line comes through Cassius M. 
Clay 20, a son of Cassius M. Clay 18, for Harry 
Clay, 2 : 29, with four trotters in the list and sire of 
the dam of Electioneer, is by C. M. Clay 20, and 
Clay Pilot is also by the latter. Clay Pilot sired 
The Moor, 6 in the list, sire of Sultan, 2 : 24, 52 in 
the list, sire of Stamboul, 2 : 07J, sire of forty-eight 
trotters in the list. Stamboul, 2 : 07J, is generally 
conceded to have held the stallion record, but it was 
disqualified because of a small technicality which 
many did not accept. This family attains its noto- 
riety most largely through the remarkable great 
brood mares that are of this descent, among which 
may be mentioned Green Mountain Maid (by Harry 
Clay), dam of nine trotters, including Electioneer 
and Beautiful Bells, dam of eleven trotters and 
eight producing sires. 

The Morgan family takes its name from Justin 
Morgan by True Briton by Imported Traveller by 
Morton's Traveller, which traces in near and direct 
lines to the Byerly Turk, Curwen's Bay Barb, the 
Lowther Barb, Bloody Buttocks and the Godolphin 
Arabian. In his book, published in 1857, D. C. 
Lindsley describes Justin Morgan as about fourteen 
hands high and weighing 950 pounds. His color 



506 



HORSE 



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was dark bay, with black points. He was a very 
stylish horse, of indomitable, though easily con- 
trollable spirit. The three sons of Justin Morgan 
that were most prolific as sources of trotters were 
Sherman, Woodbury and Bulrush. Sherman sired 
Black Hawk 5, sire of 3 in the list, and also sire of 
Ethan Allen, 2 : 28, champion trotting stallion in 
1858. Ethan Allen sired Daniel Lambert, the sire of 
38 trotters in the list, including Ben Franklin, sire 
of 33 trotters in the list, and Aristos, sire of 30 in 
the list. Black Hawk 5 also sired King Herod, sire 
of Herod, 2:24i. Vermont Hero was also a son of 
Black Hawk 5, and he sired General Knox, sire of 
15 trotters, including Charles Caffrey, sire of 19 
trotters in the list. General Knox sired General 
Washington, sire of 15 in the list, including Poem, 
2:11J, with 24 in the list. Flying Cloud 134 is 
another son of Black Hawk 5, that sired Trojan, 
the sire of Ben Lomond, a producing sire. 

From the Bulrush line comes Old Morrill, sire of 
Young Morrill, sire of Winthrop Morrill, sire of 9 
in the list, including Draco, the sire of Draco 
Prince. Winthrop Morrill also sired Fearnaught, 
2:23J, sire of 5 trotters in the list, in turn the sire 
of Royal Fearnaught, with 25 in the list. The other 
son of Justin Morgan, namely, Woodbury, sired 
Morgan Eagle, whose son of the same name got 
Magna Charta, sire of 5 in the list. Woodbury also 
sired Barnard Morgan, which in turn sired Vermont 
Morgan, sire of Golddust, the founder of that strain. 
The fastest trotters of the Morgan line include 
Lord Clinton, 2:08f, Lamp Girl and Ethel Downs. 

While the Morgan family has produced consid- 
erable speed, yet its popularity is based chiefly on 
the endurance, beauty and style of its members. 
Pacers are exceptionally rare among them, and 
the purity of their action being bold, free and tire- 
less, is perhaps the most valuable attribute of the 
family. In this connection, it may be stated that 
the government, having recognized the tractable 
and energetic disposition of the Morgans, as well 
as their well-established reputation for endurance, 
has established a breeding station in Vermont in 
cooperation with the Vermont Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, with the object of "saving the Mor- 
gan." There are twenty-three horses in all in this 
stud, headed by the stallion General Gates by Den- 
ning Allen (the sire of Lord Clinton 2: 08|) and out 
of a Thoroughbred mare. Carmon, the stallion at 
the head of the stud at Fort Collins, Colo., in the 
efforts to establish a breed of American carriage 
horses, carries some Morgan blood. 

The blood of the Morgan horse has become rather 
widely scattered over America, although there are 
comparatively few Morgans available. Most of 
these are found in New England and other eastern 
states, although there are pure-blooded Morgans in 
parts of Iowa, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky and Mis- 
souri. The American Morgan Horse Register is 
published at Middlebury, Vermont. 

The Pilot family takes its name from old Pilot, a 
Canadian pacer from near Montreal, afterwards 
trained at both gaits. After passing through many 
hands and sojourning in Connecticut, New York, 
and Louisiana, he reached Kentucky in 1832. 



There he sired Pilot Jr., out of a mare of Thorough- 
bred breeding. He sired eight trotters in the list, 
but his blood was chiefly valuable through the 
female line because of the number of great brood 
mares he sired. Pilot Jr. sired Tattler, sire of 5 in 
the list, including Indianapolis, sire of 10, and 
Rumor, sire of 24 in the list. Another son of 
Pilot Jr. was Woodburn Pilot, sire of Argonaut, 
with 5 in the list. Among the brood mares sired 
by Pilot Jr., Miss Russell is most noted. 

Other families. — In addition to the foregoing 
recognized families, there are a number of others 
that have been very aptly termed the submerged 
families. Many of these are of Thoroughbred 
origin, but they are mostly of Canadian pacing 
origin. Among those of Thoroughbred breeding 
are American Star 14, sire of the dams of Guy, 
2:09|, Dexter, 2:17J, Robert McGregor, 2 : 17J, 
Aberdeen and other noted sires. Blackbird 401 is 
another Thoroughbred that enters into many trot- 
ting pedigrees. His son, Blackbird 402, sired 3 in 
the list, and another son, A. W. Richmond, sired 
Columbine. The Canadian pacing families are dis- 
cussed in more detail in the history of the Stand- 
ardbred pacing horse. 

Uses. 

For racing. — The Standardbred trotter occupies 
a position about equally divided between pleasure 
and utility. The degree to which the trotter em- 
braces the former field depends on the popularity 
of racing, both in the circuits and for matinee 
purposes. Trotting races are an adjunct of nearly 
every county fair, and occupy a prominent posi- 
tion at all state fairs. However much the attend- 
ant gambling may be deplored, the fact remains 
that trotting and pacing races are popular, and 
they also assist in developing a speedier and more 
durable breed of horses. The racing is under the 
jurisdiction of the National Trotting Association 
and the American Trotting Register Association, 
the rules governing the races, under the auspices 
of either, being almost identical ; and they prevail 
at all race meetings and on all tracks o\ er which 
officially accepted records are made. 

For matinee racing. — After having finished their 
racing career and having reduced their records so 
that their money -winning capacity is reduced, 
many trotters are purchased for matinee racing in 
our larger cities. This sport has grown in popu- 
larity to such an extent that a national League of 
Amateur Driving Clubs has been formed. 

As a roadster. — It is as a roadster that the trot- 
ting-bred horse is most useful. This demands a 
horse of medium height, 15.2 to 16 hands, of grace- 
ful lines, without the least tendency to coarseness 
in any part. Quality of bone, cleanness of limbs, 
defined tendons and all other characteristics that 
forecast durability, should be very much in evi- 
dence. With it all there is a refinement of form 
that differentiates this type from the coach or 
heavy-harness class. Easy, elastic action and an 
ever-present willingness to cover the ground in 
jaunty style are desirable characteristics. At an 
early day, the Thoroughbred was recommended 



HORSE 



MULE 



507 



strongly for crossing on common light mares, and 
such breeding resulted, in many instances, in road- 
sters noted for their ability to cover long dis- 
tances at the trot, and to continue it day after 
day. The Morgan horse, however, was soon recog- 
nized as the strain possessing the highest type of 
roadster characteristics, chiefly because of its in- 
domitable perseverance and endurance, its willing- 
ness, and the style and buoyance with which it 
stood the strain of continuous road riding. The 
roadster, in addition to having style, action and 
durable individuality, must be in type in harmony 
with the light harness and light, easy-running road 
rigs now popular. A heavy, slow, but maybe 
stylish-moving horse is as much out of place be- 
fore a road rig as a slim racer-like horse would be 
in heavy harness. While there are many speedy 
trotters that are far from pleasurable road horses, 
because the ability to go fast for a short distance 
is not the chief requirement of a road horse, yet 
the result of the continuous racing which the 
trotter has undergone, undoubtedly has given it the 
durability and the " do or die " spirit that is a valu- 
able attribute of the roadster. At this day some 
speed is required of the roadster. 

As heavy harness horse. — Of recent years, atten- 
tion has been drawn to the fact that some families 
of the American Standardbred horse have shown 
marked excellence for heavy harness use. During 
the time when the horse-shows were perhaps most 
popular, about 1890, the breeding of the trotting 
horse was under a depression. For that reason, 
many stallions, well bred in trotting lines but of 
heavy harness conformation and action, were pur- 
chased at gelding prices and shown in heavy har- 
ness classes at the leading horse-shows. Undoubt- 
edly they may properly be called freaks, for they 
were not bred for this purpose, but that does not 
dispose of the worth of the acquisition. The trot- 
ting-bred heavy harness horse and high stepper 
became a strong competitor of the Hackney, and 
in some instances defeated the latter in these 
classes. The result has been that the government 
has realized the possibility of establishing a family 
or, in time, a breed of heavy harness horses as an 
offshoot of the Standardbred trotter. The Colo- 
rado Experiment Station is conducting the work 
under the auspices of the Department of Agricul- 
ture at Washington. Carmon 32917, a grandson 
of Robt. McGregor, 2 : 17i, is at the head of the 
stud. Previous to purchase by the government, he 
had been a prominent winner at leading horse- 
shows in the harness classes under the name of 
Glorious Thunder Cloud. 

For breeding "cow ponies." — At this point, to 
indicate further the versatility of the Standard- 
bred trotter, it will not be out of place to mention 
the fact that on many of the large cattle ranches, 
where "cow ponies," as they are called, are in 
heavy demand, the Standardbred trotter is being 
used as a sire in preference to the Thoroughbred. 
The reason for this preference was given the 
writer to be the better disposition of the Standard- 
bred as compared with the Thoroughbred, said to 
be a result of the restraint under which the trot- 



ting horse has been held, and the necessity of a 
trotter having a controllable disposition. 

Organizations and records. 

The National Trotting Association was organized 
in 1870. The office of the present secretary is 
at Hartford, Conn. The American Trotting Asso- 
ciation was organized in 1887, and has headquar- 
ters in Chicago. The American Trotting Register 
appeared in 1868, with J. H. Wallace as pub- 
lisher. The first volume contained some 3,000 
entries. Wallace also established the Yearbook, 
now in its twenty-third volume. The Register, 
the Yearbook, and Wallace's Monthly were dis- 
posed of by Mr. Wallace to the American Trot- 
ting Register Association, in 1891, and the latter 
now publishes the Register and the Yearbook. As 
has been said, a League of Amateur Driving Clubs 
has been formed, with headquarters in Boston. 
This league publishes a yearbook, giving a sum- 
mary of matinee races and the time made. The 
first volume includes the races of 1901-2. 

Literature. 

Busby, The Trotting and Pacing Horse in 
America, New York (1904) ; Helm, American Road- 
sters and Trotting Horses, Chicago (1878); Lins- 
ley, Morgan Horses, New York (1857); Lowe, 
Breeding Race Horses by the Figure System, New 
York (1898); Marvin, Training the Trotting Horse, 
New York (1892); Merwin, Road, Track and Stable, 
Boston (1893); Splan, Life with the Trotters, Chi- 
cago (1889); Woodruff, The Trotting Horse of 
America, Philadelphia (1868). [For further refer- 
ences, see page 416.] 

MULE. Figs. 496, 497. 

By Charles Wm. Burkett. 

The mule is a draft animal. It is not a true 
breed, but is a hybrid, a cross between the horse 
and the ass. An offspring of the male ass or jack 
and the mare is known as a mule, while the progeny 
of a stallion and a female ass is designated as a 
hinny. 

Description. 

Of these two classes, the mule is the more valu- 
able, since there is greater size, to which are added 
style, finish, strong bone, and other requisites that 
go to make the animal so valuable for draft pur- 
poses. From this description it follows that the 
hinny is smaller in size, somewhat unsightly in 
form, lacking in finish, and adapted to environ- 
ments that call for lighter work and effort. Still, 
the hinny is able to endure drudgery and hardship 
equal to and often greater than the mule. 

Like all other animals, the mule and the hinny 
naturally inherit qualities from both parents. 
With the former, the body follows the maternal 
type, but closely adheres to the paternal side in 
the head, foot, ear and bone. The voice of the mule 
is not like that of the jack, as popularly sup- 
posed, but slightly resembles it. From the paternal 
side come also patience, endurance, faithfulness and 



508 



MULE 



MULE 




Fig. 496. 
A good representative 
of the large heavy 
mule. 



ability to do hard work and much of it ; and from 
the mother come those qualities that have made 
the horse so prominent and so famous, namely, 
courage, hardiness and strength. 

Points of the ideal type. — The mule that most 
nearly approaches the ideal type follows the horse 
closely in all points of symmetry of form. The 
body, however, is commonly 
more cylindrical and some- 
what smaller than the body of 
the horse, a factor not alto- 
gether in favor of the mule. A 
large body, therefore, is more 
desirable than a small body ; 
but largeness of body must not 
be confused with paunchiness, 
for this is always objection- 
able. The type in which the 
body conforms as nearly as 
possible to that of the ideal 
draft horse should be selected. 
Producers of mules are realiz- 
ing that a critical trade is de- 
manding mules of a superior 
conformation in the region of 
the body, much more so than 
this same trade demanded a 
few years ago. 

Mules that most nearly meet 
the ideal type possess fine, 
hard legs, showing superior- 
ity with every movement. The 
bones should be smooth and dense ; the tendons 
should show considerable prominence; and the mus- 
cles must be well developed. While the feet of the 
mule are narrower and longer than those of the 
horse, a large foot is always to be desired. 

History. 

The mule has been known from the earliest 
times, some of the old Roman writers having dis- 
cussed the mule in their descriptions of Roman 
agriculture. 

In America. — In America, the mule has been in 
use from colonial days. As early as 1591, jacks 
were brought to this country by the Spaniards. 
The first of the kind, no doubt, went to Mexico. 
With a more settled condition in our country, and 
a demand for better work animals, the mule came. 
One of the first men to engage in the production of 
mules was General Washington (see page 276). The 
superior qualities of the mule were early recog- 
nized by southern planters. During the first half 
of the nineteenth century mule-breeding extended 
cer much of the country. 

Distribution. 

The mule is distributed throughout the world. 
An English writer describes the geographical dis- 
tribution as follows : " The mule line extends north 
from the equator, including Africa and Europe, up 
to 45° of latitude, and in Asia and North America 
as far as 35°. On the south side of the equator we 
can include most of Africa, the northern part of 
Australia and South America, as far south as 35°. 



Within this vast radius hundreds of thousands of 
mules are bred each year. Many of the mules are 
big, heavy animals, with great power and bone, 
and stand sixteen to seventeen hands high." 

In America. — Mules are now found in use in 
every state in the Union, but more largely in the 
southern states. The table below shows the ten 
states having the largest numbers of mules, accord- 
ing to the census of 1900 : 

Missouri 242,095 

Tennessee 238,976 

Mississippi 206,678 

Georgia 205,832 

Alabama 187,375 

Kentucky 169,955 

Arkansas 166,267 

Louisiana 141,645 

North Carolina 132,534 

South Carolina 116,849 

Kentucky and Tennessee have been noted from 
early days as mule-breeding centers. To these 
states, many noted jacks have gone, not native 
only, but those representing the best of the Anda- 
lusian, Catalonian, Majorcan and the Maltese types. 
During recent years, it has been learned that 
while soil and climate may influence quality in the 
individual, care in the selection of feeds and in the 
breeding types are also fundamental among the 
requisites of successful mule production ; and hence, 
where these latter are heeded, mules may be pro- 
duced. Consequently, Texas, Georgia, Missouri, 
Kansas, and Oklahoma, as well as many other states, 
are vying with Kentucky and Tennessee in produc- 
ing mules of high quality that find favor in all 
parts of the 
world. 

In 1906, the 
estimated num- 
ber of mules in 
the United 
States was 3,- 
404,361, valued 
at$334,660,000, jm 'W J 
an average val- ft/Sfcfrjil'l ,WSlW 
uation of nearly ' 
one hundred dol- 
lars per animal.' 

The breeds of 
jacks. 

Up to the time 
of the Civil war, 
but two breeds 
of jacks were 
used, the Maltese 
and the Spanish. 
The Andalusian 

and Catalonian pjg 497 A matched mule team, 
from the main- 
land, and the Majorcan, from the island of Majorca, 
were formerly known as Spanish. So great has 
been the demand for jacks of Malta that practi- 
cally all have been exported, and now but f aw are 
left on the island. 

The jacks of Italy have not been successful as 




MULE 



MULE 



50D 



mule-producers id this country, and consequently 
have entered but slightly into the mule stock here. 
At the present time, there are three noted breeds 
of jacks : the native, the Poitou, and the Cata- 
lonian. In regard to favor and importance, perhaps, 
these breeds should be ranked as mentioned here. 
Many of our noted mule-breeders prefer native 
jacks to those of foreign breeds. The native jack 
produces a good finish, a good form, strong legs, 
broad hocks, and is already peculiarly adapted to 
our environments. Besides these qualities, he ex- 
tends to his progeny immunity from diseases to an 
unusual degree, and an exceptionally long life. 

The Poitou jack is a French breed of Spanish 
origin, and is ranked by some breeders as first 
among jack breeds. He is liked especially for agri- 
cultural use, because of the size of his limbs and 
feet. The legs are short and straight with plenty 
of bone, while the pasterns are short, as required 
of a draft animal. The legs are flat and hard, 
whilst the feet are large and more expanded than 
those of any other breed of jacks. In this respect, 
the Catalonian jack is not equal to the French 
breed, although the Catalonian is finer in limbs 
than the Poitou. 

With the Poitou jack, both the head and ears are 
enormous ; in fact, French breeders are inclined to 
regard these as of very great importance, — more 
valuable than the smaller kind. The neck is strong, 
thin and broad. There is a want of withers, but 
this is true of all jack races. The broad chest and 
enormous legs of the Poitou jack promise much in 
mule-breeding. 

The Poitou jack varies from thirteen and one- 
half to fifteen hands, which is about the height of 
native, Catalonian, and other Spanish breeds. The 
height of a jack is not nearly so important as the 
character of the head, ears, legs, feet and barrel. 
If height can be secured from the dam, it is better 
to sacrifice height in the jack, in order to get other 
and more desirable qualities. The breed is of less 
importance than individual qualities. 

Prices for individuals of the Poitou breed are a 
little higher, perhaps, than for either the Catalonian 
or native, but it is possible to get a good Poitou 
jack for $1,000 to $1,500, although some have 
sold at $2,500 to $3,500 each. 

Raising. 

The raising of mules is demanding more atten- 
tion from year to year. Some of the reasons for their 
increasing popularity may be briefly summarized as 
follows : (1) It costs less to breed and raise a mule 
to a suitable size than a horse. (2) Less time is re- 
quired to prepare a lot of mules than a lot of colts 
for the market. (3) Young mules may be sold 
readily at any period, and in any amount. (4) 
Mule colts uniformly command a higher price than 
horse colts of similar relative quality and value. 
(5) Mules are subject to fewer diseases and less 
liable to serious accidents. 

The type of jack to use. — The jack for mule pro- 
duction should be at least fifteen hands high and 
should carry a maximum weight. By this is not 
meant that the ja?k must be fat ; rather, large 



size, that with it may go heavy bone, a broad chest, 
and great strength in the region of the hips. Con- 
nected with size will usually be found a rather 
large head, somewhat heavy and coarse, and not of 
the best quality ; but it is better to sacrifice quality 
here so as to secure weight and substance, requisites 
of the first importance with the mule. A large 
heavy foot is desirable also, and to these qualities 
should be added all the style that is attainable. 

The kind of mare to breed from. — A common error 
is to suppose that as soon as a mare becomes 
diseased and unfit for horse-breeding she may be 
used for the production of mules. Perhaps this 
accounts for so many inferior mule colts. It mat- 
ters not how superior the jack may be, unless 
the dam is equally sound, and of equally good con- 
formation, one will seldom succeed, if ever, in pro- 
ducing colts of high quality and of great useful- 
ness. A mare that is sound and free from blemishes 
is to be chosen. She must possess good length, with 
a large well-rounded barrel ; her head must be fine 
and clean, and attached to a neck of desirable pro- 
portions ; her chest should be broad, her hips wide ; 
and, finally, her style, bearing, and breeding should 
be of high order. 

For the production of large mules, large draft 
mares only will serve. One may take good grade 
mares of the Percheron, Clydesdale, or Belgian 
breeds ; either is good and all are satisfactory. 
These are the breeds most commonly used, but 
grades of any of the draft breeds will do. 

Color. — Perhaps color is but a play of the fancy. 
Still, in the case of the jack it suggests lineage 
and purity of breeding. Generally speaking, a dark 
color is preferable, if not altogether demanded of 
the jack. Black, with white points, is the best 
fashion. With mares, let the color be dark also : 
bay, black, brown or chestnut. Good color in the 
dam will help with good color in the colt, a matter 
of no small importance if a discriminating public is 
to be catered to. Otherwise, one need not bother. 
There is no special merit in the color, and the 
breeder must be careful not to sacrifice quality and 
size and substance for color. 

Feeding. 

There is a prevailing opinion that mules may be 
fed on less food than horses of the same size and 
weight ; but this is an error. While it may be true 
that the mule will utilize inferior feeding-stuffs to 
a better advantage than his more aristocratic 
associates, still, to do the work that he is called on 
to do, demands for the mule a quantity of food 
equally as great as that of his horse relatives. The 
mule has marked preference for certain foods, or a 
marked dislike for other foods, a discrimination 
even more sensitive than that of the horse. 



Market classes of mules. 

Mules are generally grouped into four general 
classes on the larger mule markets. 

(1) Sugar and cotton mules. — The first class that 
may be mentioned is the cotton and sugar mules. 
While these are raised in the West, a great ma- 
jority of them find their way into the southern 



510 



MULE 



MULE 



states, where they are used on cotton-farms or 
sugar-farms. It is a good class of mules that goes 
into this section. They are large, heavy, and of 
splendid type. On the Kansas City market the 
cotton and sugar mules stand fifteen to sixteen 
hands, while the Chicago market calls for a some- 
what higher animal. The cotton or sugar mule 
that stands sixteen hands should weigh 1,050 to 
1,350 pounds. 

The class of mules that is used on the sugar 
plantations is of the best quality, owing to the fact 
that the sugar plantations are worked by wealthy 
syndicates that could not afford to use poor mules. 
It shows a very smooth finish, a marked refine- 
ment about the head and neck, and a fine quality 
of bone. In fact, no class is superior to the 
sugar mule in smoothness and finish and polish. 
The sugar class of mules shows also greater uni- 
formity in quality, height and weight than do 
those used for any other purpose. Cotton mules, 
as a rule, are poorly graded, and lack the uni- 
formity observed in the sugar class. Both cotton 
and sugar mules begin service, usually, at three 
or four years of age, although some at five years ; 
but they are at their best age when six to nine or 
ten years of age. 

(2) Lumber mules. — For the necessities of the 
woods, where mules are used in great numbers for 
purposes of lumbering, a very heavy, strong and 
rugged animal is needed ; hence, we find the lumber 
mules extremely tall and large, usually fifteen to 
seventeen or more hands in height. Quality is not 
of so much importance as the ability to do hard 
and rough work, and a lot of it ; therefore, weight 
is especially essential when heavy logs are to be 
moved. There is great variation in this class 
of mules, everything being sacrificed excepting 
capacity to do hard work, ruggedness to endure 
hardships and fatigue, and size and height to 
supply power. 

(3) The general-purpose mule. — The general-pur- 
pose mule is more or less familiar to the reader. 
This animal is seen wherever railroad construction 
is in progress ; he is often observed on the farm ; 
he is found on the roads wherever heavy hauling 
is being done, in the cities, in towns, along rivers. 
One of the requirements of this class is that it 
be rugged, strong, and capable of doing hard work. 
It is this class that competes with the ordinary 
draft horse, and compared with the average draft 
horse it is superior for many kinds of work. In 
height this class ranges from fifteen to sixteen 
and one-half hands. The weight varies from 1,000 
to 1,400 pounds. The Chicago market grades the 
general-purpose mule a little heavier and a little 
higher than either the Kansas City, the St. Louis, 
or the St. Paul markets. 

(4) The mine mule. — Mine mules are generally 
classed as either pitters or surface mules. They 
grade into the smallest of these four groups, stand- 
ing ten and one-half to fifteen hands high, are 
chunky and hardy, and possess a heavier bone in 
proportion to size than those of the other classes. 
The white mule is never used in the mines, for the 
reason that it tends to frighten other animals ; 



hence, dark bay or black are the only colors 
desired for this purpose. Those mules selected for 
the pits are of heavy bone and of good weight, 
capable of long, steady pulls with rather heavy 
loads. The surface class, while heavy, are some- 
what taller than those in the pit, and may be 
lighter in bone. 

Use. 

The mule is a draft animal, found wherever 
drudgery is performed and strenuous effort de- 
manded. If the earth on which the feet must go is 
broken, marshy and wet, there you will find the 
mule in use ; if climates are hot and sultry and 
harmful to health ; if paths are precipitous and 
dangerous, requiring surefootedness and steadiness; 
if bold courage and large demands are made, it is 
the mule that is drafted into service, because it is 
well known that he will be found equal to meet the 
occasion. He is found in the cotton-fields of the 
Black-belt, in the sugar-fields of the South, on the 
stiff prairie lands of the West, on the difficult 
mountain trails. The mule has been born and bred 
to this environment. In it he serves better than 
any other beast of burden, for he asks less and 
does more ; because he enjoys immunity from dis- 
ease in a large measure ; because his span of life 
is many years ; and because his demands on his 
master are few, simple and reasonable. 

The mule has also a place as a saddle and a car- 
riage animal, notably in parts of the South and the 
central West. 

Disease immunity. 

The mule shows considerable disease immunity, 
which gives him a marked advantage over the 
horse. While it is not true that he is exempt from 
disorders or complaints, as has been said at times, 
it is to be said to his credit that he is not so liable 
to disease or disorders as the horse, and even when 
affected with certain ailments he is likely to be 
less disabled than the latter. 

Organizations and records. 

It has been within the last fifteen or twenty 
years only that a national society in America has 
undertaken to advance the interest in jacks, jen- 
nets, and in mule-breeding. An American associa- 
tion, called the "American Breeders' Association of 
Jacks and Jennets," has published to date six stud- 
books. The first one appeared in 1891. The number 
of jacks and jennets registered to date is about 
1,700. The office of the secretary is at Columbia, 
Tennessee. 

Literature. 

Harvey Riley, The Mule ; Tegetmeier and Suther- 
land, Horses, Asses, Zebras, Mules and Mule Breed- 
ing; Burkett, Our Domestic Animals; Plumb, Types 
and Breeds of Farm Animals ; Feeding Horses and 
Mules, Bulletin No. 72, Florida Agricultural Exper- 
iment Station; Feeding Farm Horses and Mules, 
Bulletin No. 189, North Carolina Agricultural 
Experiment Station. [For further information, con- 
sult the references cited on page 41(5.] 



OSTRICH 



OSTRICH 



511 



OSTRICH. Struthio, spp. Struthionidce. Figs. 
498-500. 
By Watson Pickrell. 

The ostrich is the large African running-bird. 
It has been successfully domesticated in America 
and elsewhere for its feathers. Most of the ostriches 
in America are from South Africa, and are of the 
species Struthio australis. There are a few from 
North Africa of the species S. Camelus. 

Description. 

The ostrich is very much the largest of any 
existing bird. A full-grown fat ostrich will weigh 
375 to 450 pounds, and will stand eight feet high, 
but can easily reach to a height of ten or eleven 
feet. "There are no true down feathers but the 
contour-feathers are soft and lax, with free barbs 
and no aftershaft, and are distributed uniformly 
over the skin. On the body the plumage is black 
or tdackish, with the quill plumes of the wings and 
tail white. The head and neck are nearly and the 
legs quite naked." Wings and tail are not promi- 
nent, and the former are not used for flying but 
are of much assistance in running. The plumes are 
very pretty. The neck is long, upright and curved, 
and the head small. The speed of the bird is great. 

History. 

About the middle of the nineteenth century, the 
inhabitants of the South African colonies saw the 
ostriches fast disappearing. They enacted laws 
restricting their slaughter, and later passed laws 
prohibiting their slaughter altogether. For ages 
there have been ostriches kept in captivity in 
menageries and zoological gardens. About 1865, 
persons in South Africa began to domesticate them 
for feathers. Before they were domesticated, 
nearly all the ostrich feathers of commerce were 
taken from dead birds. 

In America. — The first ostriches imported for 
farming in America were introduced by Doctor 
Sketchley in 1882. He left South Africa with two 
hundred, and landed in California with twenty-two. 
In 1884, fifty-five ostriches were imported, and in 
1886, forty-four more, all from Africa to Califor- 
nia. In 1901, there were twelve ostriches imported 
from Nubia ; six went to California and six to 
Arizona. All of the ostriches in America came 
from these importations. 

Ostrich-farming in America is really only in its 
infancy. It has been only twenty-six years since 
the first ostrich-farm was started. The early 
attempts met with varying degrees of success. 
The pioneer breeders in this county had to get 
most of their knowledge from their own experience. 
In fact, more than half the ostriches now in the 
United States are the progeny o'f a single pair 
owned in Arizona in 1891. Great progress has 
been made in the last five years, and there are 
now 2,500 ostriches on farms in the United States. 

Distribution and adaptation. 

Ostriches thrive best in a warm, dry climate, 
but can be grown in any of the southern states 



and territories in this country. In a moist climate 
they should have protection from cold and rain. 
Of the ostriches in America, over two-thirds are 
in Arizona, and the remainder in California, Florida 
and Arkansas. Salt River valley, Arizona, is 
thought to be the best place in the United States 
for ostrich-farming. They are also found in Egypt, 
North and South Africa, and Australia. 

Raising. 

The description of methods which follows is 
based almost entirely on the experience and obser- 
vation of the writer, and applies especially to 
ostrich-farming as practiced in Arizona. 
Ostriches come to maturity when about 
four years of age. The female matures 
six months to a year before the male, but 
she will seldom lay a fertile egg until she 
is three and a half years old. The nest is 
a round hole in 
the ground 
which the male 
scoops out with 
his feet. At first, 
the female may 
not take to the 
nest, but may 
lay her eggs on 
the ground, 
whereupon the 
male will roll 
them into the 
nest. Generally, 
after the male 
has put three or 
four eggs into 
the nest, the female will lay there. In about thirty 
days she will lay twelve to sixteen eggs, and will 
be ready to begin incubation. 

Incubation under domestication is effected in two 
ways : (1) By natural and (2) by artificial means. 
Some growers prefer the first method, others the 
second. Either has been found to yield satisfactory 
results with fertile eggs. About forty-two days 
of very careful attention are required for good 
results. 

(1) In natural incubation, the male takes a 
prominent part, covering the eggs fifteen or six- 
teen hours out of the twenty-four. He will usually 
go on the nest about five o'clock in the evening 
and remain there till eight or eight-thirty the 
next morning, the female taking her turn during 
the day. It is thought that the color of the sexes 
has had something to do with developing these 
instincts. The male, being black, is not so easily 
seen at night, and the female, being drab or nearly 
the color of sand, can not be seen so readily in 
daylight. The male usually begins sitting three or 
four days before the hen stops laying. If the 
weather is cold during the laying period, the male 
may often be found covering the eggs at intervals 
during the night to prevent their becoming chilled. 
The birds are also very watchful during the warm- 
est season to prevent the eggs from becoming 
overheated by the sun. Often, in the heat of the 




Fig. 498. Four-year-old male ostrich. 



512 



OSTRICH 



OSTRICH 



day, one or the other of the old birds may be 
found sitting on its ankle joints with both wings 
extended to shade the eggs from the sun. The care- 
ful ostrich-farmer should make this work unneces- 
sary by providing artificial shade during the hot 
season. The birds sit very much closer to the nest 
during the first half of the incubation period, the 
internal heat of the eggs making this less neces- 




Fig. 499. Ostrich chicks just from the shell. 

sary during the last half. As is usually the case 
with all eggs in a dry climate, the shell of the 
ostrich egg becomes dry and hard, and very diffi- 
cult for the chick to break. When the time arrives 
for the liberation of the young, they will be heard 
to chirp and to move in the shell. The parent 
bird seems to understand the situation, and will 
often crack the shell with its breast-bone, some- 
times taking the young bird by the head and draw- 
ing it out of the shell. Sometimes three or four 
days elapse between the hatching of the first and 
the last eggs in the nest. During this time one or 
the other parent bird takes care of the chicks, 
while the other is attentive to the nest. Owing to 
liability of injury to the young birds by reason of 
anxiety of the parent birds, it is a good practice 
after the first eggs have hatched to remove the 
remaining eggs to an incubator. 

(2) Artificial incubation can be performed suc- 
cessfully with any good, well-regulated machine 
that will hatch eggs of common fowls, provided, of 
course, it is constructed on a large enough scale to 
accommodate ostrich eggs, which are five inches in 
diameter and seven inches long. It has been found 
best to use an incubator that will hold only thirty 
to thirty-five eggs, as, in case of a blunder or an 
accident to the incubator, the loss will be com- 
paratively small. The incubator should be heated 
two or three days before the eggs are put in, to 
see that everything is in proper working order. 
The incubation should be started at a temperature 
of 101° Fahr. In three weeks this temperature 
will be slightly increased by the heat generated in 
the eggs themselves. Every egg should be turned 
at least once or twice a day. To be on the safe 
side it is well to adopt the rule of turning the eggs 
three times daily. 

The regulation of the temperature is not the 
only thing to be considered in hatching eggs in an 
incubator. The question of moisture presents a seri- 
ous problem. Inside the shell of the egg are two 
fibrous coats, one of which adheres closely to the 
shell and the other incloses the contents, they being 
separated at one end of the egg by a small air space. 
This air space should be closely watched by the 
attendant, as its size indicates the moisture condi- 



tion of the egg. If this space becomes abnormally 
large, small pans of water should be placed in the 
incubator ; if it becomes too small, the moisture 
should be reduced. An intelligent and watchful 
attendant will experience no difficulty in this mat- 
ter. Moisture pans are seldom required before the 
fourth week. 

In a warm climate, the incubator house should 
be so constructed as to be as cool as possible, and, 
at the same time, free from drafts and not subject 
to sudden changes. During the period of incuba- 
tion the attendant should observe the growth of 
the embryo at least once every two days. 
This he can do by shading the egg with the 
open hand and holding it to a lighted candle. 
Careful observation will enable him to detect 
and remove the infertile eggs by the end of 
the second week ; but whenever there is 
room for doubt, the egg should be allowed 
to remain longer, perhaps to the end of the third 
week, when the internal heat of the eggs will be 
sufficient to indicate, unmistakably, the live eggs. 
Near the end of the sixth week the eggs should be 
watched more closely. By placing an egg to the 
ear one can hear the unhatched chick scratch the 
inside of the shell and chirp ; also, the air space 
will be observed to become filled up. It is then 
time to crack the shell and thus aid the chick in 
liberating itself. 

It is not well suddenly to transfer a newly 
hatched chick from the incubator temperature of 
101° to that of the open air. A well-ventilated 
brooder kept at 90° Fahr., is the proper place for 
the first twenty-four hours, after which the tem- 
perature may be brought gradually to that of the 
outside air. The chicks should never be allowed 
to become damp or cold, and they should not be 
fed for the first three or four days, but they may 
be allowed to pick up sand or gravel. Dry feed is 
preferable for the first week. Cracked wheat and 
moistened bran are excellent, but the chicks should 
never be given feed that has begun to sour. The 
inclosure should always be kept clean. At the end 
of the first week, green alfalfa cut very fine may 
be fed, but not too freely at first. It should not be 
allowed to become dry. Fresh feed should be the 
ostrich-farmer's watchword at all times. 

Young ostriches, like young chickens, should be 
housed and protected from cool drafts until they 
are two or three months old, the length of time 
depending somewhat on the climatic conditions. 

Ostriches are called "chicks" until six months 
old, or as long as they have their first crop of 
feathers. From then until one year old they are 
called "young birds," and from one to four years 
they are known as "plucking" or "feather" birds. 
It is difficult to determine the age of an ostrich 
when it is more than three and one-half years old. 

Handling. 

Young ostriches are usually kept in troops of 
twenty-five to fifty. When they are one year old, 
the males should be separated from the females. 
When they are three and one-half years old, the 
birds should be paired off, each pair or set of a 



OSTRICH 



OSTRICH 



513 



cock and two hens being placed in a separate 
enclosure, which, in case the birds are to graze on 
alfalfa or other green food, should be large enough 
to furnish theni sufficient food. If they are fed on 
dry feed, the enclosure need only be large enough 
to allow plenty of exercise. 

The usual way to fence an ostrich farm is to use 
a woven wire for the outside fences, about five 
and one-half feet high, and with meshes small 
enough to keep out wolves and dogs. The fences 
used to divide the farm into small paddocks may 
be about five feet high and need not extend nearer 
than eighteen inches to the ground. Paddocks for 
chicks should be enclosed with woven wire, which 
should extend to the ground but need not be so 
high. 

Ostriches are easily moved from one field to 
another by one person going ahead, calling them, 
and toling them on with grain, while another fol- 
lows on a horse. The birds are very timid and do 
not like to be driven unless some one goes ahead of 
them. After ostriches are over one year old, no one 
should go among them without a brush or stick in 
hand, as at times they will want to fight, and a 
person going among them is liable to injury unless 
he has something with which to drive or frighten 
them away. 

Feeding. 

One of the very best feeds for ostriches is alfalfa. 
When pastured or fed on green alfalfa they are 
always healthy. Where good alfalfa pasture has 
been available, the birds bred in America have 
grown larger than those first imported. The writer 
has known troops of more than one hundred to be 
kept on alfalfa for three or four years without a 
death. Ostriches thrive well on any green forage, 
and they prefer the kind they have been taught to 
eat. Birds fed on hay, when turned out, often re- 
fuse to eat grass until they become very hungry. 

For dry feed, alfalfa or clover hay cut up, mixed 
with bran and moistened, is excellent. An ostrich 
will consume about three pounds of hay and one 
pound of bran daily. It should have gravel and 
broken bone at all times. Ostriches may be fed 
any kind of grain — corn, wheat, barley, oats or 
peas. Some farmers feed a little grain while the 
birds are nesting. Ordinarily, however, if ostriches 
are in good flesh and have plenty of good, green 
feed they need no grain. If fed much grain, they are 
likely to become cross and hard to manage. They 
also become liable to digestive troubles. Good nutri- 
tion is most important, as the quality and produc- 
tion of feathers is thereby enhanced. 

Although African writers assert that ostriches 
will live for years without water, American farm- ' 
ers find that they drink water freely every day if 
it is supplied to them. 

Plucking. (Fig. 500.) 

The ostrich is plucked the first time when six 
months old, and should be plucked about every 
eight months thereafter during its lifetime. The 
only feathers removed are those of the wing and 
the tail. The process of plucking consists in cutting 

C 33 




Fig. 500. Plucking an ostrich'. 



the tail feathers and one row of the largest quill 
feathers in the wing with pruning shears, and 
drawing by hand those of the remaining two or 
three rows in the wing. Two months later the 
quills of the cut feathers may be removed. 

At plucking time the ostriches are driven in 
from the pasture and placed in a small pen sur- 
rounded by a tight board fence five or six feet high. 
The plucking-box is about four feet high, twenty 
inches wide, and three and one-half feet long, open 
at one end and closed with a door at the other. An 
ostrich is caught 
and a hood placed 
over its head ; an 
old black stocking 
makes a very satis- 
factory hood. The 
hooded bird is very 
easily handled. It is 
placed in the pluck- 
ing-box with its 
head next to the 
closed door. The 
plucker stands be- 
hind the bird while 
removing the feath- 
ers. This is neces- 
sary, because the 
ostrich can kick or 
strike very hard, 
but it always 
strikes out in front 
and never behind, so that the plucker is perfectly 
safe if he stands in the rear. 

When removing the feathers from the ostrich, 
the pluckers usually tie in a bunch the feathers of 
each length as they are taken from each bird. 
When through plucking, the feathers are placed 
on a grading table, having enough compartments 
in it to hold all the grades and lengths of feathers, 
which are many. The size of each compartment is 
about four inches wide and four inches deep, and 
the length varies from four to thirty inches. In 
sorting, the feathers of the male are kept separate 
from those of the female. The former are the most 
valuable. 

Grades of feathers and their value. 

Manufacturers in this country usually request 
that the feathers be graded as nearly as possible 
as they are in the London market, where nearly all 
the feathers of the world are marketed. A London 
report shows the following classification : White, 
femina, bayocks, black, drabs, floss, spadones and 
boos, with numerous subdivisions or grades. 

The value of the American feathers depends on 
the London market. In an American factory they 
will bring 15 per cent more than the London price, 
plus the freight charges. In January, 1907, "white 
primes" and "blood feathers" — the most valuable — 
sold in London for thirty pounds sterling ($146) 
per pound. It takes about ninety of the largest 
feathers to weigh a pound. The " white primes " 
and "blood feathers" are taken from the males, as 
well as most of the "white firsts," although occa- 



514 



OSTRICH 



PETS 



sionally a female bird will have what the feather 
men call a "first white." The black feathers are 
plucked from the male birds and the drab from the 
females. "Spadones" are chick feathers of the first 
plucking. "Boos" are tail feathers. "Bayocks" 
(mixed colors) come mostly from the male birds. 
The shortest drab feathers, which are frequently 
used m making feather dusters, are worth about 
four dollars per pound. An average ostrich will 
yield one and one-half pounds of feathers annually, 
worth twenty to twenty-five dollars per pound. 

The United States is one of the largest consum- 
ers of ostrich feathers in the world. America 
imports about two and a quarter million dollars' 
worth of raw or unmanufactured feathers annually, 
which is more than one-fourth of the world's supply. 
The feathers produced in America are fully as good 
as those coming from Africa, and it is said that 
they are broader and finer looking, although some 
manufacturers contend that they are not so strong 
and tough as the wild feathers. 

Uses. 

The value of the ostrich as a domestic bird 
depends on its production of feathers for ornamen- 
tal purposes. It is hardly probable that the rela- 
tions between supply and demand will so change as 
to make the ostrich more valuable as a source of 
food in the form of meat and eggs. The flesh of the 
domestic ostrich, however, is said to be much 
relished by those who have eaten it. The eggs are 
fine for making omelets and are good scrambled. 
One egg will make as much omelet as two and a 
half dozen hen's eggs. An ostrich has been known 
to produce over three hundred pounds of egg food 
in a year. There is no regular market for young 
birds or eggs except for farming purposes, the 
only sales being to persons who desire to engage in 
the ostrich business. 

Longevity. 

Nothing is positively known as to how long an 
ostrich will live. Some writers assert that it will 
live one hundred years. Ostriches which are known 
to have been in captivity for forty years, are still 
breeding and producing feathers. It is the experi- 
ence of Arizona farmers that among birds having 
good nutritious green feed, deaths seldom occur 
except as the result of accident. A dog or other 
small animal will sometimes frighten an ostrich 
and cause it to run into the fence, which may result 
in a broken leg. When this happens, the bird may 
as well be killed, as few, if any, ever recover from 
such an injury. Ostriches are exceptionally free 
from disease. 

Literature. 

Mosenthal and Harting, Ostriches and Ostrich 
Parming (1887); Martin, Home Life on an Ostrich 
Farm (1891); Duncan, Report United States De- 
partment of Agriculture, 1888; Paul, Ostrich Farm- 
ing in California, Cosmopolitan Magazine, Vol. XI, 
New York (1891); Newton, Dictionary of Birds, 
New York (1896), which contains numerous ref- 
erences. 



PETS. Figs. 501-523. 
By C. H. Ellard. 

The subject of pets is of widespread interest and 
includes a large variety of animals. The most 
common and important of these in America are 
dogs, cats, rabbits, cavies or guinea pigs, mice, 
rats, squirrels, pigeons, bantams and cage-birds. 
The extent to which pets are kept is greatly in- 
creasing. The localities where they seem to be 
most numerous are about the manufacturing towns 
of New England and the middle Atlantic states, 
thinning out as the West is approached. Statistics 
indicate that there are more pets in the state of 
Pennsylvania than in any other state. 

It is not the province of this Cyclopedia to dis- 
cuss at length the subject of pets, as they are 
scarcely to be considered farm animals. For that 
reason, the accounts here given must be brief. Farm 
dogs are considered on pages 383-389 ; cats on 
pages 299-301 ; Belgian hares on pages 412-415, 
and pigeons and bantams in their agricultural 
relations in the following pages under Poultry. 

Dogs. 

The dog, since the earliest time, has been more 
or less a help to and companion of man. It has 
gradually become useful in many fields, and now is 
the most universally kept pet, with the exception, 
perhaps, of the canary and the cat. Hunting dogs 
were evidently the first to be used and trained by 
man. Of these, the setters, Pointer and spaniels 
are the breeds now recognized other than the 
hounds. These are all strong, speedy dogs, pos- 
sessed of unusual intelligence in the work of the 
huntsman. There are three varieties of setters 
recognized today, — the English, the Irish and the 
Gordon ; all are similar in shape, and differ chiefly 
in color. 

The setters. — The English setter is a trim, strong, 
speedy dog, with rather long hair and with the 
feathering that characterizes the setter, — that is, 
a fringe of longer, rather wavy hair along his 
lower outline, his back being smooth. The English 
setter is usually black and white, or liver and 
white. The Irish setter is red, the only reason for 
calling him Irish seemingly being the color, 
although that kind of dog was used considerably 
by Irish landlords. The Gordon setter is a bit 
heavier than the others and is black and tan. 
Good specimens of these latter dogs are not very 
plentiful and are striking in appearance. 

The spaniels embrace a number of different va- 
rieties, and to this type of dog the setters belong ; 
in fact, the spaniels were known in early times as 
the setting spaniels. The Cocker spaniel is the most 
widely bred of all the varieties, and some very 
handsome specimens of it are seen in our large 
dog-shows. It comes black, red and parti-colored, 
and an occasional one of some other color appears. 
It was originally used for hunting small game but 
is now chiefly a house dog. The spaniel has a mel- 
low, large, brown eye that is very expressive and 
rather an important characteristic, as is also the 
feathering of the legs, as in the setter. The Field 



PETS 



PETS 



515 



spaniel is of about the same style as the Cocker, 
and, indeed, is really a larger Cocker. It is longer, 
and hence appears lower, heavier built but not 
clumsy. This variety is not very widely bred in 
America, but there are a few studs of repute in 
England. The Clumber spaniel has most of the char- 
acteristics of the other spaniels, but the "stop," 
the indenture at the union of the forehead and 
muzzle, is deeper. The dog is shorter than the Field 
spaniel and larger than the Cocker. The Irish Water 
spaniel is a dog used by the water-fowl huntsman, 
and is a sturdy intelligent "retriever." Several 
studs are maintained in Canada, but few are bred 
in the United States and few are seen at the dog- 
shows. The dog is covered with a long, brown, 
slightly curling coat, of which there is not enough 
for his face and tail, both of which are practically 
bare. To these varieties may be added the more 
unusual Sussex and Norfolk spaniels, few of which 
are bred in America. 

The Pointer and "Retriever" is the outcome of 
a need for a dog trained for wing shooting. It is 
more of a hound than a spaniel, and is rather com- 
mon, especially in regions where there is much 
shooting. It is usually a straight, short-haired dog 
with a predominance of white, spotted and marked 
with black or liver. 

The Chesapeake bay dog is bred for water shoot- 
ing along the bay, the name of which it bears, and 
up into Ohio and along the Potomac. It is sym- 
metrically built, with only moderate " feathering " 
as compared with the setter. It is strong, and of 
about the color of wet sedge-grass. 

The Dalmatian or Coach-dog was, perhaps, origi- 
nally a hound from Dalmatia, but most of the hound 
characteristics are gone in the modern Coach-dog. 
It is spotted with black on a white ground, and is 
peculiar and striking when ideally marked. It is a 
running dog, and hence is lightly but strongly 
built. Its endurance is sometimes wonderful. It is 
a stable dog, and is alert and discriminating. It 
should approximate fifty 
pounds in weight. 

For the Collie and the 
Sheep-dog the reader is 
referred to the special 
articles on pages 383- 
389. 

The bulldog (Fig. 501) 
originated in the brutal 
bull-baiting contests, in 
which the dogs were 
trained to pull down the 
bull by the ears. To do 
this, a heavy, tenacious 
brute was necessary. 
Later, the " nose-hold " was tried, and as it worked 
better than the "ear-hold," the dogs were trained 
for this. As a smaller dog of greater agility was 
necessary for the latter, the bulldog decreased in 
size. Bulldogs are particularly homely, with their 
huge, heavy head, broad shoulders, bow-legs, and 
the hind-quarters and loins a trifle higher than the 
shoulders. As a rule, these dogs are under-shot, and 
show their teeth more or less. They are renowned 




Fig. 501. BuMog. 




for their faithfulness, tenacity of hold and watchful 
care of property. They have been bred for a long 
time simply as a fancy dog, and a kink was bred in 
their tails to keep these down. The French bulldog, 
while not so lively and alert as the Boston, is a very 
popular house dog. It has a broad, square jaw and 
large, dark eye. It is seldom over twelve inches 
high and should be smaller than the Boston. It is 

usually of a 
darker brindle 
than the Bos- 
ton, although 
the latter is 
being shown in 
black and white. The 
French bulldogs are 
generally of uniform 
color. Their ears are 
erect. Recently they 
have enjoyed the envi- 
F.g.502. Foztemer. ab l e place at the crest 
of the wave of fashion in dogs. 

The terriers were used for a long time for the 
hunting of foxes, badgers, rats and other small 
game and vermin. Of these, the little Fox terrier 
(Fig. 502) is the most popular. It was bred as early 
as 1802. It should show a predominance of white, 
marked with liver or black. The nose should be 
black, the skull flat, rather narrow and decreasing 
toward the eyes. The ears should be V-shaped and 
always have a forward fall, pointing toward the 
tapering muzzle. It should be over-shot slightly, 
but the teeth should come together with the upper 
ones just on the outside. The neck and body should 
be trim and muscular, without coarseness. The tail 
should be carried high but not over the back nor 
curled. The Fox terrier is a lively, active, intelli- 
gent dog, that makes an excellent watch-dog and 
companion. It is an indefatigable ratter and ver- 
min exterminator. It is very widely bred. Recently 
there has been bred the Wire-haired Fox terrier. 
This is similar in all respects, except the coat, to 
the smooth-haired variety. In all probability it was 
the original Fox terrier. The Airedale terrier was 
probably produced by the crossing of the grizzle 
and tan terriers with other dogs of the vicinity in 




Fig. 503. Bull terrier. 

Yorkshire. It has a stronger jaw and muzzle than 
the Fox terrier and the ears are wider. The cross of 
the bulldog on the terriers gave the Bull terrier. 
(Fig. 503.) It was first noted as a distinct breed about 



516 



PETS 



PETS 



1820. It has a wide brisket, rather long, very muscu- 
lar jaw and a rather round head, an appearance due 
largely to the huge jaw muscles. It grows to very 
good size and is usually heavily built, but not in the 
least awkward. It possesses many of the traits of 
the bulldog, and the activity of the terrier tribe. 
With these terriers, the old Black-and-tan terrier, 
the Bedlington terrier and the Irish terrier might 
be classed. The Skye terrier is a rather large dog, 
weighing over twenty pounds and covered with long 
hair of a bluish tint. Its ears are either erect or 
fallen, the former being a bit more correct. It is 
a long, low dog, and a great favorite as a house 
pet with those who can care for its coat. The 
Scottish terrier is a long, low grizzly little dog of 
very ancient lineage, but only very recently seen in 
America. It is prick-eared, nine to twelve inches 




Fig. 504. Greyhound. 

high, and gives the impression of an oddity in dog- 
dom. It is an active hunter of rodents and other 
vermin. The Welsh terrier is medium sized, being 
between the Irish and the Fox terriers. It is 
usually black and tan, but not necessarily. The 
Boston terrier is essentially an American dog, hav- 
ing been produced, it is said, by the crossing of 
the small bulldog and the Bull terrier, and display- 
ing the best qualities of each. The skull should be 
square, practically the same width at the ears and 
at the eyes. The nose should be black and the face 
marked with a white blaze ; a white collar and four 
white feet are ideal, but color is not an essential 
feature. The color is usually one of the three brin- 
dies on the remainder of the body. The eyes, ears 
and back are covered with golden seal or mahogany 
brindle. Occasionally a black or a black brindle is 
seen, and less often a fawn color with a brown nose. 
This is, perhaps, the most popular dog of the day, 
sharing honors with the French bulldog. The Mal- 
tese terriers are small, pure white dogs with drop 
ears, like some varieties of the Skye. Their coat is 
long, straight and silky, reaching to the ground. 
They are always small and never should exceed 
the twelve-pound limit set for " toys." The York- 
shire terrier is a pigmy in the terrier family, pro- 



duced from the same general crossing that gave 
the English fanciers the Airedale. Its coat is long, 
straight and even, of a bright steel-blue color, with 
tan markings. The Yorkshire is raised as a pet 
to a large extent abroad. Not a very large num- 
ber are seen in this country, but some are in 
evidence. 

The Great Dane is a strong, speedy dog, with 
more of the lithene"s of the Greyhound than heavi- 
ness of the Mastiff. The minimum size is thirty 
inches and one hundred and twenty pounds for 
males, and two inches and twenty pounds less for 
females. As much greater height as possible, retain- 
ing type, is sought by breeders. Great Danes are 
of several colors, the gray, red, black or patched 
being the most desired, although an occasional fawn 
or white one is seen. 

The Mastiff is one of the very oldest types of 
dogs. It is massive, combining great courage 
and docility, and built after the bulldog type. The 
nose is blunt and square, making a muzzle about 
one-fourth the total length of the head. It is not 
nearly so popular as formerly. 

The St. Bernard in America is a purely fancy 
dog, different in type from that used at the Hos- 
pice. It is a symmetrical, massive dog, with a 
square muzzle, black nose and usually a white blaze, 
The coat is long and not so thick as that of the dog 
used at the Hospice. 

The Newfoundland dog has very largely disap- 
peared from view. It originated in Newfound- 
land. It is black, at least twenty inches high, and 
is a water dog. The coat is thick and long, the 
head slightly domed, with rather a pronounced 
"stop." 

The hound family includes a number of dogs of 
peculiar development, built to run and pull down 
the quarry. These dogs follow mostly by scent, 
although in the Greyhound and some others, sight 
seems often to play an important part. The Grey- 
hounds (Fig. 504) are slender, strong dogs, with a 
muscular but graceful body, long, tapering muzzle, 
lined with the sharpest teeth and manned with strong 
jaw muscles. They are a very early type of dog. The 
Wolfhound is much like the Greyhound in build, the 
head being a little longer and narrower and show- 
ing more of the Roman nose. It stands twenty- 
eight to thirty-one inches high. The Russian Deer- 
hound is the most common of this family of dogs. 
There is also the Irish (now being promoted by 
Irish fanciers) and the Scotch Deerhounds. The latter 
is rare in America. These have long shaggy coats 
and are heavier than the Greyhound. The Whippet 
is closely related to the Greyhound, and is, indeed, 
a small Greyhound in type. It is trained for racing. 
These dogs are lined up and started like race horses, 
and without rider or other incentive on the course, 
fairly fly to the finish. In the Bloodhound we have 
the exaggerated type of hound, with its peculiar 
accuracy of scent, its hanging lip and dewlap, and 
the falling under-eyelid, the pendulous ears and 
strong, thick-set body on rather short legs. The 
head is the most important part of the show Blood- 
hound. As a watch-dog, it has a reputation for vigi- 
lance and discrimination. The Foxhound is perhaps 



PETS 



PETS 



517 



the commonest of the hounds in America, and has the 
misfortune of having no very distinctive type. It is 
kept mostly in packs on southern estates, and is used 
for the hunt either of the anise bag or of a real "Rey- 
nard." There are two breeds, known as the English 
and the American, but as the type is not distinct- 
ive, differentiation is difficult. The Foxhound ranges 
from twenty-one to twenty-four inches high, and 
should not weigh more than sixty pounds. The 
Beaglehound is the smallest of the hound family, 
excepting the dwarf Basset and Dachs. Beagles are 
raised and trained in large numbers in various 
parts of America, where they are also often called 
rabbit hounds. They are distinct in type, with a 
fairly long, slightly domed skull. They come in 
several colors, in which white is a common admix- 
ture. The Italian Greyhound is a small golden fawn 
dog of the same general character as the larger 
dog, but of even greater symmetry, with a pranc- 
ing action of limb that carries with it the impres- 
sion of unusual grace. 

The Poodles, with their curly and corded "locks," 
form a family of dogs very tractable indeed, and 
are invariably the mainstay of exhibitors of trained 
dogs. They are chiefly bred as house-dogs or for 
fancy, and in either case always apparently come 
up to the expectations of those who fancy this 
type of dog. 

The Pomeranians are, perhaps, a development of 
the hounds of Italy or Greece. They were also 
known as the "Spitz." They are a fad and win 
many prizes at shows. The larger specimens are 
about fifteen to twenty inches high, and the small 
ones not more than ten inches and often less. They 
have a long fine coat and lots of it except on 
the face, where the hair is short. The tail is well 
covered with long hair and is usually curled. They 
have a quick, fox-like appearance and manner, that 
often grows into a snappish disposition. 

The Pug is a dog of oriental origin, from all that 
can be gathered, and is useful only as a pet. It 
is a square little dog, with a large proportion of 
individuality. 

The Griffon, with wiry coat and rough head, 
the King Charles, with its out-of-proportion head, 
short face and large eyes, but pretty manner, the 
Blenheim and Pekinese, are all ladies' dogs ; and 
while pets to which many a woman devotes her 
energies, they are not possessed of any very re- 
markable gifts of intelligence nor are they a very 
safe dog when children are about. 

Rabbits. 

The domestic rabbit is bred in many varieties in 
America. All varieties except the Imperial and the 
Silver-brown are represented among the hutches of 
the fanciers in the American Fur Fanciers' Associa- 
tion. Each variety has a type of its own, distinct- 
ive in shape, carriage, size, and often in color. 

The raising of pet stock brings fair monetary 
returns. While there is but small profit in raising 
rabbits for the foreign element's market, and cavies 
and mice for the bacteriological laboratories, there 
is much more in the raising of good pure-bred 
fancy stock ; and few fanciers with an exhibition 



record and a reputation for " square dealing," fail 
to pay their feed bills and make a little profit. 
Most fanciers combine the two practices, disposing 
of the poor specimens or " culls " to the market- 
man or dealer at market price and selling the 




Fig. 505. A prize Angora doe. "Snowball." 

better specimens to new fanciers or others wishing 
good standard-bred stock. 

Belgian hare rabbit. — This was the most popular 
of the rabbit family. It is discussed at length on 
pages 412-415, and will not be considered here. 

Angora. — The aristocratic Angora (Figs. 505, 
506) is, perhaps, second in popular favor and 
fancy. It is one of the most attractive and hand- 
some varieties of the rabbit family. These rabbits 
are grown in France for the wool they produce, 
the length and fineness of texture in reality taking 
their coats out of the fur class. The Angora wool 
used for babies' caps is made from the wool gathered 
from the nests of these rabbits, for which cotton 
wool is substituted. France has regular farms 
devoted to this enterprise. No similiar use is made 
of the Angora rabbit in this country. 

The Angora should be rather large, with its 
head and body almost obliterated in outline by the 
woolly coat. The feet and legs are completely 
hidden, and good specimens show a heavy coat of 
wool all over. The chest develops a huge fluff or 
apron, into which the rabbit delights to sink its 
chin, and as the fur on its cheeks and neck comes 

forward about 
the face, it loses 
all rabbit ap- 
pearance except 
for the ears. 
These should be 
short, wide and 
covered with 
fur. The tips are 
usually topped 
by little tufts of 
wool that give 
them the appearance of being tasseled. The Angoras 
are bred in uniform and broken color. Of the 
former, the white or albinos seem to be the most 
nearly perfected so far, usually producing larger 
coats and larger specimens. There are also blues, 
fawns, blacks and yellows. 

Flemish Giant. — Next to the Belgian hare rab- 



I 




Fig. 506. Angora doe with Dutch 
markings. 



518 



PETS 



PETS 



bit, the commercial spirit would place the Flemish 
Giant (Fig. 507) ; in fact, its place is before the Bel- 
gian hare in the estimation of many persons. As 
its name implies, it is the giant of the race. It was 
introduced into England by the present secretary 
of the National Flemish Giant Club of that country, 
in the early " eighties." It was then a huge, sandy 
gray rabbit, but today, a dark steel gray is the 
proper color and sandiness is a disqualifying mark. 
It was brought to America during the Belgian 
hare craze, as were several other types, and much 
crossing was done to increase the size of the 
Belgian. 

The Flemish should be a dark steel-gray, with as 
even and deep a color over all parts of the body as 




Fig. 507. Young Flemish Giant doe, typical for shape and 
color. A sixteen-pound specimen. 

possible. The under-body and under-tail are excep- 
tions to this. They should be white or at least of 
a light slate-color. The back, sides and chest 
should all be wavily ticked, but not so much so as 
to be smudgy. They should be bright in color, but 
not light gray nor sandy or brownish. In almost 
all specimens a little brownish patch appears at 
the neck, just back of the ears. The feet too often 
show a little inclination to ruddiness. They often 
reach sixteen and occasionally twenty pounds in 
weight. 

The Dutch rabbit (Fig. 508) is one of the oldest of 
all the varieties. It has changed much in type, but 
the present-day Dutch has the same general mark- 
ings as the original, those of the Dutch Belted 
cattle, approximately. The eye and ear are included 
in a patch of color on the cheek, while a V-shaped 
white patch should separate these between the 
eyes, and in a hair-line between the ears join the 
white collar that includes the fore-feet, chest and 
neck. Just back of this is the saddle, of the same 
color as the cheeks, and covering the rest of the 
body except the hocks, which should also be white. 
These and the saddle 
should be level all 
around. To reach the 
ideal in the markings 
of the Dutch rabbit 
is no mean task, and, 
abroad, twenty 
pounds is not thought 
exorbitant for anearly 
perfect one. It is bred 
extensively by farm- 
ers' boys throughout the country, in a more or less 
haphazard way. 

The Dutch rabbit was introduced with the Bel- 
gians from abroad, when the latter were used as 




Fig. 508. Dutch rabbit. 




Fig. 509. English rabbit. 



foster mothers to rear the young of other rabbits 
whose quality is not discernable at birth. The 
Dutch rabbit is growing rapidly in popularity. 

The English rabbit (Fig. 509) or, as it was known 
at first, the " spotted " rabbit, is the Dalmatian of 
the rabbit fancy. It 
has what is known 
as the "butterfly" 
snout, a nose mark- 
ing which, viewed 
directly in front, 
looks like a spread- 
ing butterfly. The 
back is to have an 
unbroken herring- 
bone marking following the spine. The sides should 
be spotted, running from the shoulders to the 
thighs and widening, but each spot clear and dis- 
tinct. The cheek should have a spot and the eye 
a circle of color with a spot just clear of it. The 
ears should be the same color as the spots. 

These rabbits come in black, blue and tortoise, 
the black usually presenting the most effective and 
pleasing combination with the white, which the 
rest of the fur other than the spots should be. 
There are three studs of these rabbits in this coun- 
try, from which they have spread rapidly. All the 
originals were imported within the last decade. 

The Himalayan rabbit (Fig. 510) has been fifty 
years or so in the making. It is probable that from 
black or silver-gray rabbits an albino has sprung 
with colored extremities. This has been inbred and 
developed until we have our present-day pretty little 
rabbit that, it is said, furnishes a great deal of arti- 
ficial ermine. The entire body is white, eyes pink, 
but the ears, nose, feet and tail are nearly black. 

The statement 
is often made 
that it came 
from the Hima- 
layaa moun- 
tains, but the 
evidence seems 
rather to sup- 
port the origin 
in the breeders' 
art. It should 
be compact, 
with fine - cut 
limbs, but not 
chubby like the 
Dutch nor yet racy like the Belgian. Particular 
care has to be used in the amount of light admitted 
to the hutches. It does not develop its full color 
in the dark, and direct sunlight fades the black 
extremities. It must also be kept carefully dry, as 
accumulation of moisture and manure soon fades 
the leg color. 

The Lop-eared rabbit was one of the earliest of 
all fancy rabbits. There are perhaps a -half-dozen 
breeders of this variety in America. The main 
desire of the fancier of "Lops" is to get great 
length of ears combined with breadth and thick, 
tough, leathery substance. The ears grow very 
rapidly, and in three or four months nearly reach 




Fig. 510. A Himalayan rabbit. Winner 
of special prizes, Madison Square 
Garden, 1907. 



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519 



their maximum, although they grow slightly until 
a year old. It has been raised on the island of Jersey 
to measure thirty-one inches across the head from 
tip to tip of ears. The greatest width seen in this 
country is about twenty-one or twenty-two inches. 
For the most part it lacks in substance and width 
as well as in length. The " Lop " is a big, heavy- 
boned animal, with rather an awkward, unwieldy, 
mulish appearance. 

The Silver-grey rabbit is as old, if not older than 
the "Lop." It has been raised in England for its pelt 
for a period of time covering several generations. 
The fur is close and of the sheen and brilliancy 
of silver. The coat is an admixture of white and 
black hair, with an even and uniform ticking 
all over the animal. One of the prime requisites of 
a good Silver-grey rabbit is the evenness of his 
coat, which should show no streaks darker or 
lighter than the rest of the body. It is a chunky, 
compact little rabbit. It is bred in this country in 
grey and fawn. 

the Tan rabbit is the product of the breeders' 
art, devoted to developing a little wild hedgerow 
rabbit into one of the handsomest of the race. It 
is either black or blue in body color (by blue is 
meant a grey-blue, a cadet-blue, sometimes called 
maltese in cats, although the latter is darker than 
the blue in rabbits). The eyes are surrounded with 
circles of rich tan, as are the nostrils. The outer 
and inner margins of the ears, the under jaw or 
jowl, the chest and inner parts of the legs, the 
belly line at the side, should all be of rich tan 
color ; and a handsome combination of color it 

makes. The 
type is cobby 
and should be 
small. There are 
but few studs 
of Tan rabbits 
in America 
worthy the 
name. There 
are, however, 
some good 
Tans bred in America. When it is at all near the 
ideal, it is one of the prettiest of the rabbit family. 
The Polish rabbit, often miscalled .the English or 
common rabbit, is a sprightly, bounding, little ball 
of fur. It is the toy of the rabbit family and the 
smaller it can be bred the greater its value. It 
differs from the common rabbit in other particu- 
lars than size. The ears should be very short and 
very closely set, so that when turned back the 
flanges meet. The eyes should be red, not pink. It 
should have a very small ball-like body, with limbs 
as delicate and fine-boned as possible. These rab- 
bits are bred almost wholly as pets and have of 
late been enjoying a very extensive "boom" in 
England. There are but two studs known in this 
country, and both are in New York. The Polish 
rabbit was exhibited at Madison Square Garden for 
the first time in December, 1907. 

Imperial rabbit. — To the above varieties might be 
added the Imperial rabbit, lately introduced in the 
English fancy, but not bred in America at all so 



ffitl 




Fig. 511. Broken color Peruvian cavy, 
showing ' 'sweep ' * and mane. 




Fig. 512. Abyssinian cavy. 



far as known. It is all blue and of the same type 
as the Tans in general, lacking the markings, of 
course. 

Cavy. 

The cavy is a little pet more commonly known 
by its misnomer, guinea pig. It was introduced 
into England, it is said, by some sailors on their 

return from a 
South Amer- 
ican voyage, 
where they 
found the na- 
tives making 
a domestic pet 
of it. The nat- 
uralist gives 
us a list of 
several varie- 
ties of this species found in South America. The 
domestic cavy has been kept and bred in England, 
France and now in Germany and America, to a 
very large extent, as a pet and as a hobby for those 
interested in stock-breeding. 

There are three main varieties recognized by the 
standards of the various associations in each coun- 
try. These are the Peruvian or long-haired cavy, 
the Abyssinian or rough-coated cavy, and the 
smooth or English cavy. . To these might be added 
the Angora, or what is now really a Peruvian sport 
and called a "silkey" or pseudo-Angora. The real 
Angora cavy, according to French authorities, has 
disappeared. The geographical names used have no 
significance as to origin in any of these varieties. 

The Peruvian cavy (Fig. 51 1) is said to be the result 
of a cross of the Angora on the Abyssinian, and its 
general type bears this out to a certain degree. It 
has an exceeding long coat, completely obliterating 
the general contour of the body. The young show 
more or less rough rosettes in their coats, but as 
these lengthen with age the rough spots are over- 
whelmed with the long silky tresses. The fancier 
divides the coat into three main parts, viz., the 
"sweep" or hair over the loins and haunches ; the 
mane, that on the shoulders ; and the head furnish- 
ing, which includes the parts that grow from the 
forward part of the shoulders, the neck, the fore- 
head and about the face. The latter should com- 
pletely hide the head and face when in condition, a 
quality much 
sought by the 
breeder of 
this variety. 
An individual 
possessing it 
scores highly 
i n competi- 
tion. The 
mane should 
be long, thick 
and heavy, 




Fig. 513. Atortoise-and-whitecavy. Win- 
ner of many prizes, including Madison 
Square Specials, 1907. 



and often is even harder to secure than head fur- 
nishing. The sweep is the easiest point in which to 
excel. In caring for the coats of these pets, one 
has to be careful to have no litter likely to tangle 



520 



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the coat. When the coats get so long as to drag 
along the floor of the hutch they must be rolled up 
and tied on papers to keep them from wearing off. 
The Abyssinian cavy (Fig. 512) is the rough-coated 
member of his tribe. He should present a coat radiat- 
ing from centers all over the body ; the greater the 
number of radiating centers the more valuable the 
specimen. The coat should be harsh and wiry, and 
so specimens are bred where the average tempera- 
ture is cool. This cavy needs no especial attention 

other than 
cleaning and 
feeding, ex- 
cept to give 
the coat an 
occasi onal 
brushing to 
keeptheroset- 
ting as dis- 
tinct as pos- 
s i b 1 e. It is 




Fig. 514. Black Dutch cavy. 



bred in broken and uniform colors, the coat often 
taking the pattern of the Dutch marking ; and 
many handsome tortoise-colored ones are bred. 

The smooth or English cavies are bred in a variety 
of colors, both uniform and broken. The species 
shows a strong tendency to a broken-colored coat, 
and it was only by persistent line-breeding that 
uniform coats were secured. The first good ones 
were the red, then black appeared, and now we 
have cream, fawn, both golden and silver, agouti, 
white, chocolate, and the near future will probably 
se» a blue. These have all been produced by per- 
sistent work on the part of fanciers. 

Mice and rats. 

Mice are, perhaps, the smallest pets we have and 
also the ones with the most enemies. These little 
fellows are fast becoming favorites. They are bred 
to a very great extent for biological research. 
The period of gestation is twenty-one days and the 
young grow very quickly, breeding when they are 
eight to twelve weeks old. They are bred in a large 
variety of colors, from the pink-eyed white to the 
pink-eyed silver. There are black-eyed white, yel- 
low, fawn, agouti, tan, chocolate, red, black, Dutch- 
marked, broken-colored, and oftimes a remarkably 
variegated type. 

Rats should be classed with the mice, although 
they are not bred so widely nor are they so popu- 
lar. There are several varieties besides the white 
rat, but they are not nearly so various in their 
range of colors as the mice. Black rats, the so- 
called Japanese rats, white with black face, shoul- 
ders and a black stripe following the spine to the 
tail, brown and Irish, are about the extent of pres- 
ent varieties. 

Squirrels. 

Squirrels can hardly be considered domestic pets 
as yet, usually being captured young and not bred 
in captivity. The pets acquired from the wilds 
must needs be gradually accustomed to their new 
surroundings and the confinement. Squirrels and 
similar animals should have quarters calculated to 



simulate their natural environment as nearly as 
possible. 

Pigeons. [See article on pigeons and squabs under 
Poultry.] 

It is fairly well demonstrated that the origina- 
tor of all domestic pigeons is the little rocky pigeon 
common from Norway to India. From it the vari- 
ous types of wild and domestic pigeons have been 
developed, influenced largely by environment, but 
more by the mind and hand of man in selection and 
breeding. Pigeons, perhaps, of all domestic animals 
have the longest and most brilliant history. Darwin 
asserts that pigeons have been domesticated for 
5,000 years. The actual records are available to 
show their domestication prior to 1600. In 1676, a 
Latin book on "Ornithologie," by Willoughby, men- 
tions several varieties of pigeons. In 1678, this was 
published in English. In it seventeen varieties were 
enumerated, some of which are still with us, giving 
them a straight English history of over two cen- 
turies. This early writing was followed by John 
Moore's "Columbarium or Pigeon House" in 1735, in 
which many of the modern varieties are described. 
From then to the present, successive treatises have 
appeared, so that the pigeon has not been neglected. 

The amateur pigeon men in America are well 
organized and each variety has its own club, to 
which most of the reliable breeders of the variety 
belong. Every poultry-show includes pigeons as 
part of its exhibit. 

The Pouter (Fig. 515) is usually the leader. Its 
history dates back to before the beginning of the 
seventeenth century. It is characterized by the 
peculiarity of inflating its crop until it is almost 
" out of sight," except for crop and legs. In 1735, 




Fig. 515. Pouter pigeon. 

Moore speaks of Pouters as having a twenty-inch 
body, although the average was seventeen to eight- 
een inches, and legs nearly seven inches long, the 
average length then being six and one-half to six 
and three-fourth inches. These pigeons now have 
feathered legs, and are, perhaps, not so popular as 
they were. There is a smaller variety known as 
Pigmy Pouter that has the same characteristic of 
inflating itself. 



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521 



The Carriers were first described by Willoughby 
in 1677. These pigeons originally were brought 
from Persia, and are remarkable for the length and 
strength of beak and the carunculation of bare 
skin about its base and about their eyes. They are 
rather monstrous-looking birds. They are bred by 
a number of fanciers here and abroad, and are 
purely fancy birds, and not the pigeons used to 
transmit messages. 

Barb. — Closely allied to the Carrier is the Barb, 
a pigeon of the same general development, eye, cere 
and wattle, but whose beak is short and the wattle 
not so exaggerated. This variety and the Carrier 
are probably from the same original stock, the 
Barb being in all probability the older type, and 
from it the long-beak bird has developed. The pic- 
tures of Aldronvandi (1600, about) seem to represent 
the Barb rather than the Carrier. 

The Dragoon is akin to the Carrier, and it is said 
was produced by judicious crossing on the Carrier 
and then back-breeding to the " Horseman " of the 
earlier times. It is a stocky bird, being shorter in 
body and heavier than the Carrier, and with a 
very characteristic carriage from which the name 
was derived. 

The Fantail seems to trace its history back to the 
Sanskrit days in India, where it was kept before 
1600. This variety is to many the most attractive 
of all the varieties. The wide-spreading tail, whose 
feather ends are plumed like " my lady's " fan, the 
proud carriage, with the head touching the over- 
shadowing tail, and crop and chest extended, give 
it a very fascinating appearance. It is bred to as 
large an extent as almost any other variety. It 
comes in various solid or uniform colors, as black, 
white, yellow and red. 

Hooded Jacobin. — With the Fantails may be 
classed the hooded Jacobin. These pigeons existed 
before 1600, but were not nearly so well developed 
as today, nor was the head white as in the modern 
type. These pigeons wear a ruff about the neck 
and head, often concealing the head completely. 
They are one of the most popular of all breeds. 
They are medium in size, with a long, slender body, 
and the frill or " boa " covers the neck and head to 
the eyes. The combination of color with this odd 
neck-dressing makes a very pretty little bird. 

The Turbits were probably the old cortbeck of 
the early writers, and appear for the first time, as 
we know them, described by Willoughby. They are 
very pretty birds, with short, rather curved beaks, 
and have a topknot or crest at the back of the head. 
The head is round and rather broad. Looking down 
on it from above, the beak should be too short to 
be seen, or at most, only just seen. The gullet is 
deep. Down the front the Turbit wears a frill of 
feathers turned so as to resemble the old-fashioned 
frill our grandfathers used in place of a cravat. 
These birds are bred in white with wing colors 
alone, no uniform colored turbits having yet 
appeared that can be classed with the winged 
birds. These are rather expensive pigeons ; good 
ones are seldom priced under five dollars, and 
prize-winners often sell at fifty dollars and more. 

Oriental Frills, Saturettes, Blondenettes. — These 



beautiful little pigeons, with their general trim- 
ness and Turbit type, and their beautifully colored 
plumage, are the product of the modern fancier 
with his ready adaption of peculiar types to his 
sense of the beautiful. 

Owl pigeons are of this same type, a trifle 
smaller, with a jaunty air and carriage, and usu- 
ally in uniform colors. Their breeders make every 
effort to bring them near, at least in head and 
beak, to the type of the owl. 

The Tumblers were known in India before 1600, 
although it was not until after 1687 that they 
made their appearance in Europe, when Willoughby 
describes a " football pigeon." The peculiar flight 
of these birds has been the subject of remark by 
almost every natural history writer of the last 
two centuries. While this tumbling flight is 
retained or augmented by the selection of the 
fancier, the characters of the face have been 
changed, and we now have the Long- and Short- 
faced Tumblers as well as the " Muffed " and" Par- 
lor " Tumblers. 

The Runts, Scanderoons and Hen pigeons are large 
birds. The first carry the tail in the usual man- 
ner, slightly slanted downward, while the Scande- 
roon has a very short, narrow and elevated tail. 
The Hen pigeon, so-called, seems 
to be very closely allied to these 
as far as general appearance is 
concerned. 

The Homer or Homing pigeon, 
used so much for message-carry- 
ing and racing, is a stout, stocky 
bird, built to fly long and swiftly. 
It is trained by short- 
distance flights,grad- 
ually being increased 
up to several hundred 
miles. Its fanciers 
are organized into 
an association, which 
regulates carefully 
the records of these 
racing flights. This 
variety has been much exploited for squab-raising. 
The Archangels, Swallows, Helmets, Magpies, Spots 
and Nuns are pigeons in which the greatest distin- 
guishing features are color and marking. Some of 
these colored varieties are " booted," that is, wear 
feathers on their legs like the Pouters, while others 
are clean-legged. The Archangels are a rich cop- 
per-bronze on the head, neck and breast. This 
shades off in the wings and rump to a bronze-black, 
with a blue-black tail. The Nuns are smaller than 
their aboriginal ancestor, but have retained for a 
very long time their characteristic markings, and 
are probably the originals of the other similarly 
marked varieties. They are very pretty with their 
symmetrical markings on head, wing and tail. The 
feathers on these parts of the bird are black or 
red, the remainder of the feathers being white. 
Spots belong with the Nuns, and differ only in car- 
rying a spot in the forehead and tail of the same 
color, the remainder of the body being white. 
Swallows are a more recent breed, although bred 




Fig. 516. 
Dark mottle tippler cock. 



522 



PETS 



PETS 



before 1795 in Germany. They are now bred with 
the wings colored and the legs feathered. The beak 
is a trifle longer than that of the wild pigeon, and 
they carry a larger body, but yet do not appear so 
bulky. The Magpies and Helmets should be included 
with the Nuns, Spots and Swallows. The former is 
bred to imitate the bird whose name it bears, in 
color particularly. The Helmet is a Nun whose 
color is confined to the top of its head like a 
helmet. 

The Trumpeters and Laughers are characterized by 
their peculiar coo, and the former by the odd curl- 
ing feathers at the beak, curving forward over its 
base. Their legs are excessively feathered. 

The Frill-Backs have a peculiar curl backward or 
upward to their feathers, especially on the wing 
coverts. 

The Cumulets or "High-flyers," as they are called, 
are described best by their second name. With them 
and the Tipplers and th3 Homers, the fancier can 
easily use the barn-loft for housing. These varie- 
ties delight in being up in the air, and are built 
for flight. 

Cage-birds. 

The number of cage-birds kept as pets is very 
large. Many common wild birds have been domesti- 
cated as will be pointed out below. All of the birds 
here mentioned are domesticated and found in 
aviaries. 

The canaries usually kept in America were for- 
merly bred for the most part in Germany or Eng- 
land, but now a large number are bred here, espec- 
ially the fancier ones. These birds are about five 
and a half inches long, with rather 
stout, compact bodies, and vary 
in color from a very light mealy 
yellow to nearly a clear green. 
Si ime of these birds have crests, 
but this is rather an unusual ad- 
dition. Their voices 
are mellow and play 
over a long range of 
notes. The St. An- 
dreasburg canary is 
bred in the same dis- 
trict in Germany 
as the other Hartz 
birds. It is a small 
bird of about the 
same colors as the 
others, but with a song of a greater variety of 
notes than the regular Hartz canary. These cana- 
ries are usually a light yellow or yellow and green, 
and are one of the smallest varieties, being four 
to five inches long. The English canaries are much 
larger and of higher color, and sing louder than 
the German canaries. They have many odd wild- 
bird notes. The Manchesters are the largest cana- 
ries. Some of them have plain heads and others 
have thick, full crests falling over the eyes. The 
A T orwich canary (Fig. 517) is not so large as the 
Manchester, but has higher colors, — deep gold, 
both clear and mottled ; odd cinnamon colors are 
also popular. The Red canary is secured by breeding 




Fig. 517. Norwich canary. 




Fig. 518. Goldfinch. 



from the gold or gold and green colors, and feeding 
for color during molt. Gold Spangled Lizard cana- 
ries have bright gold-capped heads and continuous 
lines of spangles from the neck down the back. 
Each spangle is decided, its clear gold edging and 
olive-green center being distinct and regular. The 
Silver Spangled are marked exactly like the gold, 
having silver-colored spangles where the others 

have gold. The 
Goldfinch ca- 
nary, or canary 
mule, is secured 
by breeding a 
male goldfinch to 
a light clear yel- 
low hen, which 
has descended 
from several 
generations o f 
clear yellow 
hens. It is a free 
singer, with 
enough of the goldfinch traits to be pert and gay. 
It is a very beautiful bird. Other mules are secured 
by mating the female canary with the linnet, bull- 
finch, siskin and other finches. 

Goldfinch. — The true goldfinch (Fig. 518) is one 
of the most delightful cage-birds, both for its 
beauty and for its song. It is very easily tamed. 
There are many varieties, shown by the difference in 
markings or color of the plumage. The most highly 
prized is the Scarlet-headed or Crimson, which has 
the entire head colored in scarlet or crimson. The 
White-breasted Cheveral or King goldfinch has a 
pure white breast and a clear white ring around 
the neck. The pure white is also highly prized. 
The goldfinch is found throughout Europe, and 
when caged sings throughout the year with the 
exception of the molting season. 

The linnet (Fig. 519), either giay or brown, is a 
beautiful songster, and is generally kept through- 
out Europe. It is of hardy constitution and easily 
domesticated. There is scarcely any bird that puts 
on so many different dresses in the course of its 
life as the linnet. The linnet male will sometimes 
mate with the canary, but the males are not so 
beautiful as those of the canary and the goldfinch. 
The chaffinch is one of the many European song 
birds, and should be generally kept for its sweet 
song and for its sleek 
plumage. It is extremely 
docile and can be easily 
tamed. 

The nightingale (Fig. 
520) is decidedly the most 
melodious of all singing 
birds, and when caged and 
well treated will sing for 
six or eight months dur- 
ing the year. Improper 
feeding with other causes 
have seemed to render it impossible in many cases 
to keep this bird more than a few months. The 
nightingale is a very hearty eater. 

The black cap, sometimes called the mock night- 




Fig. 519. Linnet. 



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523 




ingale, is a delightful singer whose song is heard 
the year round except at the molting season. 

The skylark comes from all parts of Europe. It 
has a most peculiar manner of flying, the move- 
ment being upward in a perpendicular line. After 
leaving its grassy nest, it begins its song, which 
it continues unceasingly until nearly out of sight ; 
then it descends in like manner, still singing until 
within a short distance of the nest. The skylark 
can readily imitate the songs of other birds and 
learn tunes. In confinement it sings during half 
the year. 

The wood lark resembles the skylark in color, but 
is smaller. It perches on branches, but like the 
skylark builds its nest on the ground. This bird is 
more easily tamed than the skylark and is happier 
in captivity. 

The song thrush is a melodious singer, singing 
only during the spring in the wild state, but with 
careful treatment and good caging will sing eight 
or nine months of the year. The male and female 

are very similar 
in color, the fe- 
male being the 
smaller. The 
male has great 
imitative pow- 
ers and will 
readily learn 
tunes played on 
wind i n s t r u- 
ments or whis- 

Fig. 520. Nightingale. ., , , , . 

tied to him. 

The blackbird, whose plumage is a pure velvety 
black with an orange-yellow bill, is a fine songster. 
His notes, although not so various as those of a 
thrush, are of a more flute-like tone. He has the 
ability to imitate airs that are whistled to him. 
He also learns to imitate the songs of other birds 
and in his wild state often mimics them. 

The starling has a natural song that is rather 
poor, but it has a good memory and will learn to 
repeat airs that are played to it. It also learns to 
pronounce words distinctly or imitate any sounds 
repeatedly heard. It becomes very tame and can be 
let out of its cage to walk about the room. 

The talking minor or musical grakle is a good 
talking bird and can whistle in sweet, full tones 
any song that may be taught it. It is about the size 
of a dove. The beak, feet and legs are orange- 
colored. The prevailing color of the plumage is a 
glossy black, tinged with purple, violet and green, 
according to the light in which it is viewed. It is 
a native of the East Indies. As a talking bird, the 
minor is unsurpassed. It speaks plainly and can 
retain a large number of words. 

The bullfinch has no natural song but has the 
ability to imitate with great accuracy almost any 
air that is whistled or played to it on an instru- 
ment. In Germany, particularly in Hesse and 
Saxony, large numbers of these birds are taught to 
pipe popular or classical airs. 

Troopial. — The South American troopial has a 
beautiful rich plumage and looks very much like 
our American golden robin or Baltimore oriole, the 




Fig. 521. Mockingbird. 



chief difference being that he is much larger and 
the orange of the body is more of a yellow. Pew 
birds have a natural song at once so sweet and 
powerful, and none has a nicer ear or a more 
retentive mem- 
ory. 

The Brazilian 
cardinal is one 
of the beautiful 
whistling birds 
of the tropics. 
The back is dark 
gray ; the quill- 
feathers of the 
wings are a 
darker shade of 
the same color, 
and the tail is nearly black ; the head, crest, cheeks 
and throat are bright red, of an orange hue, deep- 
est on the chest, where it ends in a point ; the 
lower part of the body is grayish white, and the 
feet and legs are black ; the strong beak is dusky 
gray ; the crest is pointed like that of the Vir- 
ginia nightingale and is raised and depressed at 
pleasure. The brilliant scarlet head forms a beau- 
tiful contrast to the snowy-white of the body. 

The Java sparrow takes its name from the Java 
islands, where it abounds. Its chief recommenda- 
tion is the great neatness of the plumage, the 
glossy black head, clear white cheeks and delicate 
rose-colored bill. The body is an ashen gray, the 
plumage being so neat and smooth that the feath- 
ers all seem to fit into one another. It can be 
taught a variety of tricks, perhaps more than any 
other caged bird. 

The American mockingbird. (Fig. 521.) — This 
songster unites in himself all the excellences to a 
greater extent than any other living bird. The songs 
of other birds, the rattling and creaking of gates 
and swinging sign-boards, the cries of puppies and 
the katydid, and all other familiar sounds are pos- 
sible with the mockingbird. It is a general favorite. 
The Virginia nightingale (Fig. 522), or Virginia 
redbird, sometimes called the cardinal, is a native of 
the southern states, and is one of the handsomest 

birds of the New 
World. The color 
is a brilliant red, 
'with the excep- 
tion of the part 
around the beak, 
which is black ; 
the wings are 
darker than the 
body color. The 
head is orna- 
mented with a 
crest, which the 
bird can raise or 
depress, and which gives it a commanding appear- 
ance. It has a very pleasing song or whistle. 

The Red linnet is a beautiful singer or whistler 
and should be kept as universally as the canary. 
It sings all year round, with the exception of the 
molting season, and in confinement becomes tame. 




Fig. 522. Virginia nightingale or 
cardinal grosbeak. 



524 



PETS 



PETS 



The American yelloivbird, or what is really the 
American goldfinch, is a beautiful lemon-colored 
bird with a black cap and white wings. It is a 
universal favorite. The song has a brisk, cheerful 
ring, although perhaps deficient in variety. 

The nonpareil, as the name indicates, is without 
an equal. It has been called by many the " painted 
finch" or " painted bunting." T t has a violet head 
and neck, a red circle around the eyes, the iris, 
beak and feet brown, the upper part of the back, 
throat, chest, and whole under part of the body as 
well as the upper tail coverts bright red ; the 
wing coverts are green, the quills reddish brown 
tinged with green, and the tail reddish brown. It 
is about the size of an English robin and resem- 
bles that bird in many ways. 

The Japanese robin. — "The head of the robin is 
bronze-green, beak yellow, body the color of a 
mourning dove, eyes black with a circlet of white, 
throat ecru tint of yellow shading on the breast 
into orange, wing-feathers black with parti-colored 
stripes of gold and white, and tail feathers glossy 
black barred with white." In size, the bird is simi- 
lar to a bullfinch. Its voice embraces the notes 
and semi-notes between the low contralto and high 
tenor. It can also imitate the wild bird's notes and 
whistles every month in the year. 

The avadavat, comes to us in great numbers 
from China, Asia, Africa and India. Unlike other 
birds, it changes its plumage yearly until the third 
year. At this time, the head and under part of the 
body are a fiery red tinged with black, the back 
brown, tail black, wings a reddish brown ; all the 
feathers are tipped with white, giving the bird an 
appearance of being specked with white spots. 

The Gray-blue finch has a song that seems to be 
a mixture of the canary's and bobolink's, but much 
finer than either. It adheres to the southern 
tropical spring month for its breeding and rearing 
season. In November, it begins to build in the 
aviary and rears its young in midwinter. 

The Silver-bill or Quaker bird, the Orange-cheek 
waxbill, the Zebra or Orange-breast waxbill, the 
Chestnut finch, and the Magpie finch are all aviary 
birds, and are much sought for their song and 
peculiar mannerisms, their diminutive size and 
brilliant colors. 

Nuns. — No aviary is complete without the nuns, 
both black- and white-capped, their white heads 
forming a rich contrast to the chocolate -brown 
and black bodies. Japanese nuns are a combina- 
tion of the purest white intermingled with the 
much admired cinnamon color. These pets, being 
bred in cages, are very tame and of a quiet disposi- 
tion, and sing very merrily. 

The Cordon Blue, a native of Africa, is a small 
bird of great beauty. Sometimes he is called the 
Crimson-ear waxbill. The male has a soft, pleas- 
ing song and is usually heard cooing as if for his 
own pleasure. 

The Cut throat sparrow, a native of Africa, is 
about half the size of a canary, of a delicate gray- 
ish fawn color spangled with white spots. 

The St. Helena waxbill comes from Africa in 
great numbers. The beak is a bright red, resem- 



bling sealing-wax, with a darker shade of the same 
color passing through each eye, and a dash of the 
same color under the body, the rest of the body 
being a grayish brown. The wings and tail are a 
shade darker. All the feathers have blackish wavy 
lines all over them, giving them a soft and silken 
appearance. 

The Diamond sparrow is a native of Australia 
and is a short, stout bird somewhat larger than the 
St. Helena waxbill. The under part of the body is 
white, and the sides under the wings black with 
oblong white spots. 

The Fire finch is very much like the avadavat at 
certain seasons of the year. It is larger but does 
not possess much song, being kept chiefly for its 
beauty and cheerful disposition. 

The Saffron finch is very similar to the canary, 
although not so large. 

Parrots. 

The parrot is the best known among the talking 
birds. Many individuals have acquired several 
languages and whistle and 
sing any song that they 
hear. 

The African Gray parrot 
(Fig. 523), with gray body, 
black bill and scarlet tail, 
takes high rank. It varies 
from twelve to fifteen inches 
in length. It is an excellent 
talker and whistler, but in- 
dividuals vary greatly in 
their ability to learn. 

The Double Yelloiv-headcd 
Mexican parrot is the oper- 
atic star of the parrot fam- 
ily. His gift of song is great, 
and his voice is clear and 
sweet. He is a beautiful 
green throughout the body, 
with pale orange forehead 
and scarlet and blue feathers, his feet and beak 
white. 

The Carthagena parrot is thirteen to fifteen 
inches long and has all green plumage, except on 
the back of the neck, where there is a pale orange 
marking about the size of a half-dollar, and in the 
wing and tail feathers where red and blue mark- 
ings occur. This bird becomes a good singer and 
whistles and talks very well. 

The Single Yellow-headed parrot is smaller than 
the double yellow-headed, but has the same colors, 
except that the beak is dark instead of flesh color. 
It makes a fair talker. 

The Amazon is a native of upper South America. 
It is not so large as the Mexican but is an apt 
pupil and easily learns to talk and sing. 

The Blue Front is twelve or thirteen inches long, 
with plain green body and blue forehead, and slight 
red and blue markings on the wings. It also be- 
comes a fair talker. 

The Maracaibo parrot is like a small edition of 
the Mexican. It is about ten or eleven inches long 
and sometimes makes an excellent talker. 




Fig. 523. Gray parrot. 



PETS 



POULTRY 



525 



The Cuban parrot is ten to twelve inches long, 
with green body and white forehead, scarlet throat 
and scarlet and blue wings. It is usually imported 
when about three months old and is tame and very 
teachable. 

Paroquets. — The name paroquet is applied to the 
smaller kinds of parrots. The Australian paroquet 
is a beautiful and eccentric bird. It easily becomes 
domesticated to cage life, and can be taught many 
amusing tricks. 

I7ie Dwarf parrot is a little fellow found often 
in our town bird stores, although not common 
enough to be generally known. It is a little larger 
than the paroquets or love birds, and of a uniform 
green on the body, with a bit of orange or red 
about the bill or throat and wings. It is said to do 
some talking occasionally. 

Literature. 



. — J. V. Mott, Boston Terrier; R. B. 
Playeman, House Dogs, Care and Treatment ; 
Eugene Glass, Cocker Spaniel ; H. Daziel, Diseases 
of Dogs ; Ashmont,- Dog Management and Treat- 
ment ; Al. G. Eberhardt, Everything About Dogs ; 
Ashmont, Kennel Diseases ; Ashmont, Kennel 
Secrets ; J. W. Hill, Management and Diseases of 
Dogs ; S. T. Hammond, Practical Dog Training ; 
W. C. Percy, Principles of Dog Training ; E. H. 
Haberlin, Amateur Trainer ; Stonehenge and Arma- 
tage, The Dog ; W. A. Sargent, Collies Useful and 
How to Make So ; J. Watson, The Dog Book : H. C. 
Tugg, American Foxhound ; W. Mills, The Dog in 
Health and Disease ; B. Waters, Training Hunting 
Dogs ; B. Waters, Modern Kennel Management. 

Rabbits and cavies. — Ambrose, Belgian Hare 
Rabbits and All About Them ; Moss and Ambrose, 
The Dutch Rabbit ; Knightbridge, The Lop Rabbit; 
L. Shaw, The English Rabbit ; Richardson, The 
Rabbit ; K. W. Knight, The Book of the Rabbit ; 

E. Ruth, Belgian Hare Culture ; E. Ruth, The Bel- 
gian Hare ; Cunniculus, The Practical Rabbit 
Keeper ; P. O'Brien, The Belgian Hare ; Rayson, 
Rabbits for Prizes and Profit ; T. B. Mason, Some- 
thing About the Silver Rabbits ; C. A. House, The 
Cavy ; John Robins, The Cavy ; C. L. Merick, All 
About Cavies ; Ellard and Johnson, Flemish and 
Angora Rabbits, in preparation. 

Mice. — Beake and William, Fancy Mice; "An 
Old Fancier," Fancy Mice. 

Pigeons and cage -birds. — Browne and Walker, 
American Bird Fancier ; C. A. House, British 
Canary ; G. H. Holden, Canaries and Cage Birds ; 
G. H. Holden, Book on Birds ; C. N. Page, Canary 
Breeding ; R. L. Wallace, Canary Book ; J. D. Brad- 
man, British Birds ; C. N. Page, Feathered Pets ; 
W. F. Greene, Our Feathered Pets ; Fulton and 
Wright, Book of Pigeons ; Feather's Practical 
Pigeon Book ; Pigeon Standard ; Pigeon Queries ; 

F. M. Gilbert, Pigeon Keeping ; Twombly, Squab 
Culture ; L. Hoser, Homing Pigeon, Breeding and 
Training ; J. A. Summer, Diseases of Pigeons ; R. 
Woods, Dragoon Pigeon ; C. A. House, Fantail 
Pigeon ; C. H. Jones, Homing Pigeon of the Twen- 
tieth Century ; E. C. Rice, Squab Book ; W. F.Lun- 
dey, Owl Pigeon ; W. F. Lundey, Turbit Pigeon ; 



F. M. Gilbert, Pigeons ; L. Wright, Practical Pigeon 
Keeper ; J. C. Long, Practical Pigeon Book ; W. E. 
Rice, Practical Squab Book ; A. V. Meerch, Pigeons; 
J. E. Webber, Working Homers ; Vale, How to Feed 
Pigeons ; R. Woods, Diseases of Pigeons ; R. Woods, 
Successful Pigeon Culture ; Blaxton and Others, 
Book of the Canary ; Beckstein, Cage Birds. 

POULTRY. Figs. 524-604. 

One of the features of the new contemporaneous 
agriculture is the attention that is given to the 
poultry live-stock. In former time, the fowls were 
an unaccounted incident of the farm. They lived 
on the refuse and on such food as they might find 
in a free range, and all they produced in the way 
of meat, eggs and feathers was counted as clear 
gain. Because they thrived anywhere, cost practi- 
cally nothing to keep, multiplied rapidly, and the 
individual birds were not valuable enough to occa- 
sion much loss if one or several died, giving at the 
same time a steady and marketable product, fowls 
became associated with practically every farm. 
Fowls are kept on more farms and separate home- 
steads than any other domestic animal except cats. 
Just because fowls will take care of themselves, 
they have been neglected ; and not until recent 
census and revenue figures were available did we 
know the immense economic returns that poultry 
live-stock gives to the people. 

With the gradual refining of agriculture and the 
application of business methods to it, we have 
begun to realize that it is possible greatly to 
extend the usefulness of all kinds of fowls. The 
birds are coming to occupy a distinct department 
of a good farm enterprise, as are sheep or orchards 
or pigs, and the old phrase "barnyard fowls" is 
dropping from use. There are two types of poultry 
husbandry, — that which considers the birds as a 
part of a general farm business ; and that which 
makes a specialty of fowls, with all other products 
subordinate to them. In the latter class are estab- 
lishments making a business of producing eggs 
and meat, and other establishments making a 
specialty of breeding. 

We have now learned that any real satisfaction 
in the rearing of poultry must come as a result of 
as careful study and attention as that given to 
any other kind of live-stock. The questions of 
breeding, feeding, diseases, and general manage- 
ment are complex and are much in need of scien- 
tific investigation. Heretofore, the special interest 
in poultry, so far as writers and investigators are 
concerned, has been descriptive, — the characteriz- 
ing of breeds and the discussion of formal and 
fancy points. The result has been that the sub- 
jects of breeds and exhibiting have been much 
over-emphasized as compared with questions of 
performance and utility, as they have been in all 
other groups of animals. The entering of the col- 
leges and experiment stations into the discussion of 
poultry questions is changing all this. A new and 
vital type of poultry literature is arising. This lit- 
erature is yet largely fugitive, however, although 
some of it is contained in experiment station pub 



526 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



lications. We are betwixt the old and the new, — 
the new being the writing founded on rational 
scientific procedure. 

The reputation of the poultry business, as a 
separate enterprise, has no doubt suffered from the 
exploitation of it by many persons who have gone 
into it thinking it an easy and rapid road to for- 
tune and a means of recouping broken health. 
Many of these persons have failed, as they should 
have had every reason to expect. To go into poul- 
try-growing as a business is a serious undertaking, 
as it is to go into market-gardening or dairying. 
The person must learn the business. There are 
plenty of persons who succeed well in the poultry 
business, and this class will increase steadily. 

As a rough statement, it may be said that it 
costs one dollar a year per fowl to keep a flock 
of poultry. This cost may be reduced on a farm 
where the birds have free range and the feed is 
produced on the place ; it may be increased when 
the birds are confined and all the feed is purchased. 

What the proceeds are to be will depend on very 
many conditions, and for what purpose the animals 
are kept. The succeeding articles will throw some 
light on this question. A person should expect a 
minimum net profit from fowls reared for eggs and 
meat, of one dollar a year ; and this profit may 
sometimes be doubled. [See Vol. I, pp. 183-187.] 

The great effort, so far as the modification of the 
bird is concerned, is to increase the egg-laying 
capacity of the fowl. It must be remembered that 
the hen originally laid eggs for the purpose of per- 
petuating her kind, as the cow gave milk merely 
to sustain her calf for a time. Instead of produc- 
ing one or two broods of eggs, good hens will now 
lay as many as 200 eggs a year, and the record 
for individual birds exceeds this. This result is 
brought about by long-continued attention to breed- 
ing, by rational feeding, by good care, and by the 
stimulus of comfortable and healthful quarters. 
The egg-laying ability is also conditioned on the age 
of the bird. Pullets usually lay best. Poultrymen 
therefore like to keep only young fowls, disposing 
of them for meat about the end of the first year. 
By controlling the period of hatching, much may 
be done to induce egg-laying in the cold months, 
when the fowl would not naturally lay. The pullets 
should be fully mature and in laying habit before 
cold weather sets in. Thereafter the problem is 
one of feed, exercise and housing. Probably half 
the fowls in the country are not laying in the 
winter months, and for this reason eggs are high- 
priced in this period. It is easier said than done, 
to be sure, to produce freely of winter eggs ; but 
the result is obtainable, as we shall find when we 
learn how to prepare for the crop of eggs as we 
prepare for a crop of potatoes or beans. 

Illustrations of egg-laying under practical condi- 
tions have been given us as follows : New Jersey. — 
274 pullets, about two-thirds of them White Wyan- 
dotte and the remainder Barred Plvmouth Rock, 
laid 815 eggs in October, 1,247 in November, 2,024 
in December, 2,956 in January, 3,326 in February, 
4,933 in March, or a total for the six months of 
15,301. Massachusetts. — 172 pullets, 45 yearlings, 



all White Wyandotte, laid 1,390 eggs in Novem- 
ber, 1,787 in December, 2,537 in January, 2,940 
in February, 4,035 in March, a total in five months 
of 12,689. Maine. — The wife of a dairyman keeps 
about four hundred and fifty head of Barred Ply- 
mouth Rocks, and her accounts for the past five or 
six years show an average of better than two dol- 
lars a year net profit per fowl from the eggs sold 
to market and the fowls sold alive before the time 
of the molt. The average egg-product is ten to 
twelve dozen eggs per bird, and the average prices 
have ranged, for the series of years, somewhat 
over twenty-five cents per dozen, which gives a 
return of over two dollars and fifty cents for each 
bird per year. The hens sold alive to market aver- 
age a return of about a dollar apiece. 

As there are beef types and milch types of cat- 
tle, so there are meat types and egg-laying types 
of fowls ; and there are many fancy kinds, as the 
game cocks, frizzles, and abnormal forms. No 
' domestic animals of the live-stock kind possess so 
many curious and interesting forms, particularly if 
we include in the poultry class all the pheasants, 
guinea-fowls, peafowls and swans. In the farm- 
poultry of the past, no particular distinction was 
made between meat fowls and egg-laying fowls, as 
there was no distinction between beef cattle and 
milch cattle; therefore, there was no special selec- 
tion or breeding along the divergent lines by the 
general farmer. There is a general-purpose or 
dual-purpose fowl as there is a dual-purpose cow, 
and this type of fowl, much improved, will probably 
hold preeminence under general farm conditions. 

Considered in its economic results, the greatest 
utility of poultry husbandry no doubt is its part 
in general farming, inasmuch as it is adapted to 
practically every kind of farm scheme. And it is 
in this field also that the greatest study and effort 
need to be expended. The poultry specialist is an 
enthusiast and he keeps in touch with every new 
thing pertaining to the business ; but the general 
farmer has other and perhaps larger interests, not- 
withstanding the fact that no part of his business 
will probably yield a greater return for extra care 
and attention than the poultry part. 

Poultry-raising must come to be a regular part 
of the plans for agricultural education. This will 
place the subject in its proper relation with other 
farm business. The colleges of agriculture are now 
beginning to realize this fact and to act on it. In 
the secondary schools, fowls probably afford the 
most attractive and adaptable means of teaching 
many of the fundamental principles of the live- 
stock industries. Education has now reached the 
point at which it is ready and willing to utilize the 
common affairs as means of training men and 
women ; and there are departments in the colleges 
devoted wholly to poultry, and professorships in 
the subject are beginning to be created. 

When we gather the poultry statistics from all 
the farms and homesteads of the country, we find 
that the figures assume enormous proportions. 
The latest available statistics are those of the 
Twelfth Census, 1900, some of the summary items 
of which are as follows : 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



527 



Poultry and Eggs. 







Number of 
farms 


Number of 

farms 
reporting 


Number of fowls three months old and over, June 1, 1900 




Chickens (and 
guinea-fowls) 


Turkeys 


Geese 


Ducks 




5,739,657 

677,506 

962,225 

2,196,567 

1,658,166 

242,908 


5,096,252 

605,732 

850,074 
2,014,138 
1,441,315 

184,021 


233,59S,085 

27,952,114 

22,293,912 

123,469,068 

50,299,631 

9,551,296 


6,599,367 

529,932 

810,975 

3,072,456 

1,876,382 

304,950 


5,676,863 

144,527 

908.908 

1,899,026 

2,589,164 

135,163 


4,807,358 

453,580 

458,918 
2,416,327 
1,257,048 

199,977 


North Atlantic Division 
South Atlantic Division 
North Central Division 
South Central Division . 











Value of all 
poultry, June 1, 1900 


Value of poultry 
raised in 1899 


Dozens of eggs 
produced in 1899 


Value of eggs 
produced in 1899 




$85,794,996 

13,706,762 

8,545,899 

43,416,629 

15,672,938 

4,414,365 


$136,891,877 

20,624,439 
15,553,805 
69,828,121 
24,770,049 
6,053,738 


1,293,819,186 

191,764,000 
105,349,996 
716,663,710 
222,096,860 
57,787,867 


144,286,158 




28,612,48"9' 
11,687,293 
74,208,117 
20,465,926 
9,266,716 



More recent poultry figures, from the Department 
of Agriculture Yearbook, may be cited as follows : 

Exports. 
For the year ended June 30, 1902. 



Eggs, dozens . . . 
Egg yolks .... 
Feathers .... 
Poultry and game . 



Quantity 

2,717,990 



Value 
$528,679 

14,700 
239,756 
856,801 



For the year ended June 30, 1906. 

Quantity Value 

Eggs, dozens .... 4,952,063 $1,038,649 

Egg yolks 54,851 

Feathers 263,377 

Poultry and game 1,397,004 

Wholesale Price op Average Best Fresh Eggs 





Per Dozen. 




New York . 
St. Louis . 


January, 1901 
Low High 
. 19£ets. 27 cts. 
. 15J cts 18J cts. 


January. 1906 

Low High 

17£ Cts. 34 cts 

14 cts. 22 cts 


New York . 
St. Louis . 


June, 1901 
Low High 
. 13 cts. 14Jcts. 
. 8Jcts. 10 cts. 


June, 190B 
Low High 

17 J cts 23 cts 
15 cts. 17Jcts 



The summary figures of the number of fowls in 
Canada in 1901 are as follows : 

British Columbia, 363,379; Manitoba, 1,167,- 
876; New Brunswick, 714,131; Nova Scotia, 
798,145; Ontario, 10,464,551; Prince Edward 
Island, 581,790; Quebec, 3,283,643; the Te^.'- 
tories, 549,143. 

Number of poultry killed or sold (1901), 7,063,- 
597, all Canada; number of eggs (1901), 84,132,- 
802 dozens, all Canada ; value of poultry (1901), 
$5,723,890, all Canada. 

If the reader is interested in statistics of edu- 
cation in poultry husbandry in Canada and the 



United States, he should consult pages 55 to 88 of 
the Proceedings of the 32d Annual Convention of 
the American Poultry Association, 1907. 

Literature. 

Following are some of the reference books on 
poultry subjects. Much helpful information will 
also be found in experiment station publications, 
and those of the national Department of Agricul- 
ture. American Standard of Perfection, published 
by the American Poultry Association ; Wright, Book 
of Poultry, Cassel & Co., London ; Salmon, Diseases 
of Poultry, Geo. E. Howard & Co., Washington, 
D. C; Stoddard, New Egg Farm, Orange Judd 
Company, New York ; Lewis, People's Practical 
Poultry Book, Excelsior Publishing House, New 
York ; Norys, Pocket Money Poultry, Geo. E. How- 
ard & Co., Washington, D. C; Tegetmeier, Poultry 
Book, Routledge & Sons, London ; Felch, Poultry 
Culture, Donohue, Henneberry & Co., Chicago ; 
Wright, Practical Poultry Keeper, Orange Judd 
Company, New York ; Watson, Farm Poultry, The 
Macmillan Company, New York ; Robinson, Poultry 
Craft, Farm Poultry Publishing Company, Boston ; 
Collingwood, The Business Hen, Rural New-Yorker ; 
Biggie Poultry Book, The Farm Journal Company, 
Philadelphia ; Weir, The Poultry Book, with colored 
plates, by Doubleday, Page & Co., New York ; 
Perfected Fowls of America, Howard Publishing 
Company, Washington ; Barrows, Eggs ; Robinson, 
First Lessons in Poultry Keeping ; E. C. Powell, 
Making Poultry Pay ; McGrew, Perfected Poultry 
of America ; Davenport, Principles of Breeding ; 
Poultry Houses and Fixtures, Reliable Poultry 
Journal ; Reliable Poultry Remedies, Reliable Poul- 
try Journal ; Robinson, Broilers and Roosters ; 
Ducks and Geese, Reliable Poultry Journal ; Hewes, 
Hamburg Book ; The Leghorns, Reliable Poultry 
Journal ; Report of Second National Poultry Con- 
ference, Reading, England. 



528 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



Index to Poultry Articles 

Page 

Origin of the Domestic Fowl 528 

Breeding of Poultry 529 

Feeding Poultry 533 

Feeding Water-fowl 536 

Fattening Poultry 538 

Capons and Caponizing 540 

Incubation and Brooding 542 

Preparing and Marketing Poultry Products .... 544 

Judging Poultry 547 

Common Ailments of Poultry 551 

Poultry-house Construction 556 

Breeds and Types of Chickens 563 

Ducks 569 

Geese 572 

Grouse, Domestication of the Ruffed 576 

Guinea-fowl 578 

Pheasants and Related Fowls 579 

Pigeons and Squabs 582 

Quail, Domestication of the Bobwhite or American . 584 

Swan 585 

Turkey 586 

Origin of the Domestic Fowl. Gallus spp. Gallince. 
Fig. 524. 

By Charles B. Davenport. 

The domestic fowl belongs to the group of scratch- 
ing birds that includes also the turkey, guinea-fowl, 
pheasant, partridge, grouse. The ancestors of the 
domestic fowl, like those of other domestic animals, 
were wild species, but it does not follow that there 
was only one ancestral species or that all the 
ancestral species, if more than one, still persist. 
Without going into the history of ideas concerning 
the ancestry of fowl, it may be said that probably 
two species were involved — one a wild form still 
common in the jungle of India, southern China and 
the East Indies, and known as Gallus ferrugineus, 
or as Gallus bankiva (Fig. 597); the other, probably 
an extinct progenitor of the Aseel or Malay fowl 

(Fig. 524). The 
Gallus ferruqin- 

^^i«\\\^ eus is a slender - 

:§W»^ i\\M bodied bird, hav- 

J^ ing its plumage 

colored like that 

of the Black- 

AlO breasted Red 

( jj_ Game fowl, and 

"^^jSjjSsj^ having a single 

, comb, slender 

Mulww 'in? W1 " 0VV " colored 

» *%{} shanks and cap- 

V^i" /-' ijlfj i ablnof cunsider- 

x IMU'MUmM$$M^ able flight. It is 

hwt^f ■ i J'~ ? completely fer- 
^ssanHWSBapf ^ tile with domes . 

Fig. 524. Aseel fowl. .. , , . . 

ticated fowl. 
The other extant wild species of Gallus are much 
less like any of our domestic races and are usually 
sterile with them. The reason for concluding that 
a second species had been involved in the con- 
struction of our domestic races is the existence 
among them of a set of characters, other than 
the usual color sports, that cannot be derived 
from the jungle-fowl. Some of these are a broad, 




stocky body, a triple or pea-comb, stout, yellow- 
skinned legs, a mottled plumage and an unwilling- 
ness to fly far in the air. Such characters are 
found, for example, in the Brahma fowl. They are 
also found in the Aseel, probably the oldest fowl in 
domestication. The Aseel has been bred in India 
for over 3,000 years, and its wild ancestors seem 
to have become extinct. Starting with the jungle- 
fowl and the Aseel, we can write an intelligible 
history of the domestic fowl, but we could hardly 
do it if we started with the jungle-fowl alone. 

Progress of domestication. 

The history of the domestication of the fowl 
reaches, as suggested above, to a remote antiquity. 
The Institutes of Menu, 1000 B. C, alludes to the 
sport of cock-fighting (probably with the Aseel). 
From southeastern India the domesticated fowl 
spread eastward and northward, reaching China, 
according to tradition, about 1400 B. C, and subse- 
quently gaining Japan. The movement toward the 
West took place later. It is figured on Babylonian 
cylinders of about 600 B. C, and Aristophanes 
(about 400 B. C.) refers to the fowl as the Persian 
bird. As it is not mentioned in the Old Testament, 
the fowl probably did not reach Syria until three 
or four centuries before the beginning of our era. 
Its introduction into Europe from Persia was prob- 
ably effected at the time of the conquest of that 
country by Alexander (330-320 B. C). Once in 
Europe, the spread was rapid over that continent. 
Caesar found fowl in Britain, whither they had 
probably been carried by the Phoenicians, at the 
time of his conquest of that country about 55 B. C. 
It is probable that, at a later date, fowl were intro- 
duced into Europe from Central Asia through 
Siberia to Russia. From Europe, fowl were carried 
in the early period of colonization to the New 
World and parts of the Old World, where, up to 
that time, they had been unknown. 

The character of the fowl first bred in China 
and eastern India differed from that of the western 
birds, for the eastern fowl were of the stocky Aseel 
type. Foot feathering, the uniform buff -colored 
plumage and the reduction to bantam size were 
early achieved by the Chinese. The Buff Cochins, 
the source of all uniformly buff fowls the world 
over, were cultivated in Hoangho 1,500 years ago. 
The western fowl were more of the jungle-fowl 
type : slender, active, clean-shanked birds. These 
came to inhabit the whole Mediterranean coast from 
Egypt, through Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, Italy and 
France, to Spain and the islands lying off shore. 
Thence arose our Mediterranean fowl — active 
birds, largely non-sitting ; such are the Leghorn, 
Minorca, Spanish, Andalusian, Hamburg, Ancona, 
Polish, Houdan, and many other varieties. The 
colors became varied through the preservation of 
various sports that cropped out : a melanic sport, 
as seen in the black Minorcas and Spanish ; a 
"gray "-white sport, as seen in the white Leghorn ; 
and mottled or blue forms, derived by crossing the 
black and white, as seen in the Hamburg, Ancona, 
and Polish. Certain teratological conditions were 
preserved : a fifth toe, known even to the Romans, 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



529 



and preserved till today as the trademark of the 
Dorking and Houdan races ; a cerebral hernia, 
known for over four hundred years, and become a 
trademark of the Polish and Houdan ; and a rudi- 
mentary comb, probably associated originally with 
the cerebral hernia but now capable of being in- 
herited independently of it. 

The fowls first imported to America were Games 
(largely in the South), Leghorns direct from Italy, 
and certain English derivatives of the Mediter- 
ranean breeds, such as the Dorkings and Scotch 
Grays, with their barred markings from which the 
barred Plymouth Rocks of today have probably 
been derived, in part. On this stock were engrafted, 
by importations, the stocky eastern types — the 
Brahmas, from the Brahmapootra river and the 
Cochins from Shanghai, China. The latter two 
were used to give the breadth and weight of our 
Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes and others ; the pea- 
comb of the Brahma has been used to reduce the 
great single comb of the Mediterranean breeds to 
form the neat comb of the " Rocks," and the solid 
buff color has been used in the Rhode Island Reds 
as well as the buff varieties of the Plymouth Rocks 
and Wyandottes. The effect of crossing the Medi- 
terranean and Asiatic types has been to give a 
general-purpose fowl of great utility to the farmer, 
who needs a hen that is a fair layer, a good mother, 
and a meat-producer. The American experiment of 
making a general-purpose fowl proved so success- 
ful that it was repeated in England and resulted 
in the Orpingtons, made up of various combinations 
of Mediterranean, Eastern and American types. 
Thus, the general-purpose fowls of both England 
and America owe their origin to combinations of 
the derivatives of the jungle-fowl and the Aseel 
types. But, for egg-production, the Mediterranean 
type has never been surpassed, and as a table bird 
the Aseel derivatives, including the Indian Games, 
Cochins and Brahmas, have no rivals. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 527. 

Breeding of Poultry. Figs. 525-530. 

By Charles B. Davenport. 

Perhaps one of the best tests of the domestication 
of an animal is the control by man of its repro- 
duction. Broadly, this control includes the feeding 
and housing and all the apparatus for restricting 
the free intercourse of the sexes. Leaving these 
technical details for description elsewhere, this 
article will consider only the principles to be fol- 
lowed in selecting fowls for the breeding-pen in 
order to achieve a certain ideal ; and some account 
of the results attained by breeders who have fol- 
lowed these principles, often more or less uncon- 
sciously, may be added. 

The ideal and methods of attaining it. 

The first requisite in breeding is a clear-cut ideal. 
Let the breeder formulate clearly in his mind what 
he wants to get, for the end will determine the 
details of the procedure. The ideal may be simple, 

C34 



such as increased egg-yield, or more rapid growth, 
or greater vigor of stock, or a reduced size of 
comb ; or it may be complex, as, for example, 
increased yield of eggs of a brown color, or large 
size combined with heavy egg-yield, or a large 
white bird with a small comb and laying many 
brown eggs of a large size. In case of such com- 
plex ideals, it is a good rule to work for one or 
two things at a time. In any case, the ideal should 
be resolved, as in the foregoing examples, into the 
maximum number of well-defined characteristics 
that are to be combined in the ideal bird, and then 
the proper means taken to get the combination. 

Inbreeding and line-breeding. — In beginning to 
work for the ideal, it is highly desirable to start 
several families at once, because, if only one pair 
be mated, the progeny must be mated with each 
other, or with the parents ; i. e., close inbreeding 
must be practiced, and this is very likely to be 
disastrous. It is the general experience of breeders 
that very close inbreeding tends to produce chicks 
that are weak and fall an easy prey to disease, or 
which, if they survive, are infertile. By starting 
two or more unrelated pairs, it will be possible in 
later generations to introduce new blood without 
retarding, as much as would otherwise be the case, 
the progress toward the ideal. In some cases it is 
impracticable to start several families. In such 
cases, it is considered better to mate the off- 
spring of a pair with father and with mother re- 
spectively, than to mate brother and sister. The 
"grandchildren" of the original father may now be 
mated to those of the original mother, and also 
back on their parent-grandparents. By carefully 
mating in each generation the most distantly 
related individuals, matings of full brother and 
sister are avoided. This method of breeding is 
called line-breeding. It is illustrated in the accom- 
panying chart prepared by I. K. Felch. (Fig. 525.) 




, g/ .9. /. 9 _S£ 

^2 /6 ~3 /6 33 

Fig. 525. Felch's chart for line-breeding. 



530 



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POULTRY 



In the chart, a dotted line represents female blood 
(egg), and a full line male blood (sperm); the circle 
at the union of two such lines indicates the prog- 
eny of the union of the egg and the sperm. In the 
third filial generation, whose blood is derived equally 
from the two parents, No. 10 constitutes a strain 
distinct from No. 8, which has thirteen-sixteenths 
blood of the original hen, and from No. 12, which 
has the same proportion of the original cock. From 
these three strains, by proper manipulation addi- 
tional strains may become established. 

The methods employed for attaining an ideal are 
of two general sorts, depending on the end sought. 
If it is desired merely to improve a quality already 
present, the method of selection is employed. If, 
on the other hand, it is desired to add a new char- 
acteristic to a given breed or to combine the char- 
acteristics of one or more breeds, then hybridization 
is necessary. 

Selection involves the careful inspection of the 
individuals of any generation, and the preservation 
for breeding of only the best. Let it be required 
to improve the egg-yield of a given strain : study 
the egg records of the yearling hens, and preserve 
for breeding the progeny of the best. Let it be 
required to increase the rate of growth : keep and 
study growth records, and save the fastest growers 
for breeders. Even those who do not keep records 
make a selection, as the breeding season approaches, 
of the most vigorous cocks and the shapeliest hens, 
and this rough selection helps to maintain the 
strain at a high standard of general excellence. A 
more rigorous selection and selection for particular 
points often involves measurements, weighing, and 
the like, and pedigree breeding, of the methods of 
which something will be said in a later paragraph. 

Hybridization involves the crossing of two strains, 
varieties, or races in order to combine the favor- 
able qualities of the two. Eventually, the qualities 
of three or more races may be combined. Let us 
suppose a breeder finds that, in his excellent strain 
of Minorcas, the large combs are likely to get frost- 
bitten, so that the reproductive processes are inter- 
rupted ; and he has the idea of replacing the large 
single comb with the small pea-comb. He must 
first cross his Minorcas with a Dark Brahma or 
Indian Game, or some other race that has a pea- 
comb. He will find that, even in the first genera- 
tion, all of the "hybrids," as they are called, have 
the pea-comb. But his goal is not reached in the 
first generation, because the hybrids have certain 
characteristics of form, feathering, and the like, 
that he does not want, and because in the second 
generation a single comb will crop out again. The 
second generation of hybrids (got by breeding 
members of the first generation) is technically 
known as the second filial generation, or F 2 . It 
will yield a great variety of combinations of form, 
feathering, fecundity, and so on, combined with a 
pea-comb. The breeder selects for breeding the 
combination that comes nearest to his ideals. But 
it will still be several generations before his ideal 
is fully realized. In this connection, a knowledge 
of Mendel's law will be helpful. 

Mendel's law states that, when, in two races that 



are being crossed, there is a pair of contrasted 
characters, as single comb and pea-comb, only one 
of the pair will appear in the progeny ; it will 
dominate over the opposite ; and as the other has 
receded from view, it was named by Mendel the 
recessive character. Dominance of a character in 
the body does not imply that the recessive char- 
acter is absent, but only that in the development 
of the body the dominant character is bound to 
appear. The dominant character is usually a stage 
in advance of the recessive, so that one may say 
an organ will develop to the highest stage that is 
potential within it. So a pigmented condition dom- 
inates over absence of pigment, extra toe over the 
normal number, feathers on the feet over their 
absence, and the lateral ridges of the pea-comb 
over their absence in the single comb. 

But while in the body of the first generation the 
dominant character is uniformly visible, the germ 
cells (eggs and sperm) in their repeated division 
become of two kinds, those possessing the recessive 
character only and those possessing the dominant 
character only ; and these are equally numerous. 
Consequently, in the haphazard union of any egg 
and any sperm, these four combinations are equally 
likely to occur, forming the second generation 
(F 2 ): Two germ cells with the recessive character 
(the union may be expressed as RR); two with the 
dominant character (DD); and a dominant egg 
with a recessive sperm (DR), and a recessive egg 
with a dominant sperm (RD). The individuals that 
develop from the first kind of union, having none 
of the dominant character, are of the recessive 
type only and form germ cells of this type only. 
They are technically called homozygous. Conse- 
qently, two individuals of the recessive type bred 
together will have progeny of that type only and 
may be ancestors of a race pure in respect to the 
given character. The individuals that develop from 
the second kind of union (DD), having none of the 
recessive character, will not only be of the domi- 
nant type but may found a race pure in respect to 
the dominant 



-IF) 



character. The 
other sorts of in- 
dividuals (D R 
and RD) are hy- 
brids like their 
parents, and are 
called techni- 
cally heterozy- 
gates. Bred to- 
gether, hetero- 
zygotes will pro- 
d u c e homozy- 
gous recessives 
and dominants 
and heterozy- 
gotes again. 
There will be 
two of this type 
to every one of the pure dominants. Thus, hetero- 
zygotes are essentially impure. While the first 
hybrid generation is characterized by uniformity, 
the second generation is characterized by great 




totfil 



Fig. 526. Rose-combed white fowl. The 
grandchild (F2) of a rose -combed 
Black Minorca and a single-combed 
White Leghorn. See Fig. 527. 






POULTRY 



POULTRY 



531 




Fig. 527. Single-combed black 
fowl. The grandchild (F?) of 
a rose-combed Black Minorca 
and a single-combed White 
Leghorn. See Fig. 526. 



variety. In Figs. 526 and 527 are shown two grand- 
children (F 2 ) of a rose-combed Black Minorca and 
a single-combed White Leghorn. Among others, a 
rose-combed white and a single-combed black fowl 
appeared, thus revers- 
ing the relation of 
comb and color. 

Since the heterozy- 
gotes contain the dom- 
inant character, this 
alone will appear in 
the body as in F l7 and 
it will often be impos- 
sible to distinguish be- 
tween a homozygous 
dominant and a hetero- 
zygote. Yet, to get a 
pure race one must 
separate them. Con- 
sequently, the dominants of F 3 must be tested. 
To test a dominant, mate it with a recessive. If 
the dominant is pure (DD), all offspring will be of 
the dominant type ; if impure (DR), the offspring 
will be equally of the combination DR and RR, and 
hence half of them will 
be of the recessive 
type. Hybrids, which, 
on testing, throw only 
dominants, may be 
used to found a pure 
dominant race. Thus, 
one character at a 
time (or several at a 
time if great numbers 
be available), a race 
pure in respect to the 
desired characters, 
whether dominant or 
recessive, may be 
built up. And the prog- 
eny of members of 
this race, bred inter se, will ordinarily show no re- 
version to the eliminated characters. The new race 
is established but it is not yet perfected. 

In the process of hybridization, the various 
characters often become somewhat damaged. It 
will be necessary to improve them ; and this is 
done by the process of selection. Those individuals 
in which one or more of the characters approach 
most nearly to the ideal are preserved for breeding. 
Thus, in a few generations the ideal may be fully 
achieved. 

It may be of 
assistance to 
give here a table 
of some of the 
characters of 
poultry, show- 
ing which are 
dominant and 
which recessive. 
It sometimes 
happens that 
certain ad- 
vanced condi- 



Fig. 529. An albinic Sillrie fowl. 
See Fig. 530. 




Fig. 528. A Game-colored Friz 
zled fowl. See Fig. 530. 




WSte - *" 




tions are incompletely dominant over the less ad- 
vanced or rudimentary characters. Characters usu- 
ally showing incomplete dominance are marked 
by at- 



Characters 


Dominant condition 


Recessive 
condition 




Lateral elements 


No lateral ele- 




(in pea and rose) 


ments 


Cerebral closure . 


Perfect, plain skull 


Imperfect, hernia 
as in Houdan or 
Polish 




Present 


Absent 


Feather, form . . 


Typical, plain 


Embryonic, silky 


Feather, form . . 


Frizzled 


Plain 


Muff 


Present 


Absent 


Skin color . . . 


Pigmented, black 


Unpigmented 


Iris color .... 


Heavily pigmented, 
black 


Red 


Plumage color . 


Pigmented 


Albinic, white of 
silkies, etc. 


Plumage color . 


Gray- white of White 
Leghorn 


Pigmented 


Shafting .... 


Present 


Absent 


Penciling .... 


Present 


Absent 


Extra toes . . . 


fPresent 


Absent 


Booting .... 


fPresent 


Absent 


Egg pigment . . 


Present, brown 


Absent, white 


Broodiness . . . 


Sitting 


Non-sitting 




Combinations of characters. 

Ordinarily, the hybrid shows no new character 
but only a new combination of the parental char- 
acters. Occasionally, however, an apparent excep- 
tion makes its appearance. Thus, when a white 
and a black bird are mated, it sometimes happens 
that the hybrids have a blue plumage. This blue is 
really a fine mosaic of black and white and is best 
known in the 
race of poultry 
called Andalu- 
sian. When two 
blue birds are 
mated, however, 
they throw black 
and also white 
chicks as well as 
blue ones. The 
blacks and the 
whites are homo- 
zygous and the 
blues heterozygous again. Similarly, under cer- 
tain circumstances the crossing of a light and a 
dark bird may produce offspring with a barred plum- 
age ; and two such barred birds will throw light 
birds and dark birds again as well as barred birds. 
Again, if a single-combed fowl is crossed with one 
having two horns, as the Polish, the hybrid has a 
Y-shaped comb ; but in P 2 , the single and the 
paired combs reappear. In all these cases we have 
a heterozygous form due to the mosaic-like union 
of the two contrasted characters. The mosaic is 
not a permanent character but only the badge of 
impurity. Whether a heterozygous form can ever 
be fixed is a moot question. The barred condition 



Fig 



530. The granddaughter, by in- 
breeding, of the Frizzled (Fig. 528) 
and the Silkie (Fig. 529) fowls. Show- 
ing how characters may be combined 
in the second hybrid generation. 



532 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



has apparently been fixed in the Plymouth Rock 
and a mottled condition in the spangled races, and 
it is even alleged by certain fanciers that they have 
fixed the Andalusian blue. The history of fixation, 
however, in any case, is still obscure. 

In order to show how characters may be com- 
bined in the second hybrid generation, Figs. 528- 
530 are introduced. Fig. 530 shows the grand- 
daughter (by inbreeding) of the Frizzle and the 
Silkie. [Figs. 528, 529, are adapted from Publica- 
tion No. 52, Carnegie Institution of Washington.] 

Reciprocal crosses. 

The crossing of distinct varieties introduces cer- 
tain special questions in addition to the general 
one of the behavior of alternative characters. The 
commonest is that of the behavior of reciprocal 
cresses. When two races are crossed, are the off- 
spring the same whichever race is used as the male 
parent ? In general, it may be said the product of 
a given cross is the same as that of its reciprocal. 
This is true, however, only within limits. If one 
race is a bantam and the other large, the size of 
the egg and consequently of the chick will be 
determined by the mother, so that if the mother is 
the bantam the chicks will be bantams, but if she 
is of full size so will they be. There are occasion- 
ally other differences in reciprocal crosses. The 
present writer has found that the "booting" of 
the progeny is likely to be heavier when it is the 
mother that is booted than when it is the father. 
Other slight differences of this sort no doubt occur 
at times. 

Double mating. 

Quite different is the operation of double mating. 
Several races of poultry show sexual dimorphism, 
and breeders have sought to exaggerate the differ- 
ence between the sexes. If it is desired in the 
dark Brahma to perfect the penciling of the female 
but to group the colors of the male into masses, 
then one selects, to improve the hens, the best pen- 
ciled hens to mate with a cock showing as much 
lacing as possible ; and to improve the cocks, the 
darkest hens to go with a cock that is devoid of 
lacing and other small feather patterns. Thus, 
the sexual dimorphism in color pattern may be 
increased. 

Control of sex. 

Still another problem is that of the control of 
sex in the offspring. Since one cock will suffice for 
many hens, an excess of female offspring, especi- 
ally on egg-farms, is desired. Despite the fact 
that directions for securing a predominance of 
either sex are frequently published in poultry 
books, there is every reason for thinking that a 
great deviation from the average proportion of 50 
per cent of each sex is found only as a rare acci- 
dent. It seems probable that sex is determined at 
the moment of fertilization of the egg and by a 
particular combination of particular kinds of germ 
cells. Sex control in birds, as in mammals, seems 
at present beyond our human power, notwithstand- 
ing certain opinions to the contrary. 



Breeding superstitions. 

Two alleged phenomena of breeding must be 
relegated to the limbo of superstition. One is that 
of the influence of a former sire on the character 
of subsequent chicks. Even after a cock has been 
removed from a pen he may be the father of off- 
spring in that pen because the sperm of the male 
is retained in an active condition by the hens for 
ten days or more. But if, after the eggs have com- 
pletely ceased to be fertile, a new cock is added, 
different from the first, no influence of the first 
cross will be detected. Stories to the contrary 
doubtless depend on unsuspected impurity of the 
second cock. So, too, there is no ground for 
believing in the "influence of the imagination" in 
modifying the character of the offspring. One 
hears such stories as these : A flock of Brown Leg- 
horns in a pen adjacent to White Indian Games 
began to produce white progeny ; or a breeder of 
White Cochins kept them next to a pen of Black 
Minorcas and the former produced chicks that 
were black splashed. In both cases it is more than 
likely that a cock from the adjacent pen climbed 
over the fence and fertilized the eggs. 

Reversion. 

One of the most striking instances of an appar- 
ently new character appearing in hybridization is 
seen in the examples described by Darwin as cases 
of reversion. Darwin taught that hybridization 
per se leads to a reversion on the part of the off- 
spring to the ancestral characters of the jungle- 
fowl. An analysis of the facts in poultry does not 
support Darwin's views of reversion. Black birds 
and buff birds may be crossed with White Leghorns 
without the appearance of the jungle type of 
coloration. When, however, a White Silkie (whose 
plumage is truly albinic) is crossed with a black bird, 
as Minorca or Spanish, the black sons have red 
on the back, hackle, saddle and wing bars, as in 
the jungle-fowl. Whence has the red come ? Dar- 
win ascribed it to reversion. But if a White Silkie 
be crossed with a White Leghorn, the males are 
wholly white except for red hackle, saddle, back 
and wing bar. Other experiments show that the 
red comes from the Silkie but is not visible in it, 
due to the absence of pigment. When pigment is 
added (even the hidden pigment of the White Leg- 
horn plumage), the red appears. It is not the 
jungle-fowl coloration, but solely the red that 
results from the hybridization. The remainder of 
the hybrid plumage may be white or black or buff. 
The alleged reversion of hybrid fowls is then merely 
the staining, as it were, through a cross with a 
pigmented bird, of an otherwise invisible color 
pattern in albinic fowl. 

Literature. 

Darwin, The Variation of Animals and Plants 
Under Domestication; Bateson, Mendel's Principles 
of Heredity; C. C. Hurst, Experiments with Poultry, 
Report to the Evolution Committee, Royal Society, 
II, London (1905); Davenport, Inheritance in Poul- 
try, Carnegie Institution of Washington (1906). 
[See also page 527.J 



POULTRY 



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533 



Feeding Poultry. 

By James E. Rice. 

Domestic poultry are omnivorous. All classes of 
poultry, including the domestic fowls, turkeys, 
ducks, geese and guineas, eat freely and naturally 
of the grains, meat foods and green forage. They 
differ, however, in habits of eating as regards their 
preferences for certain classes of foods. For 
example, fowls may be classed primarily as grain- 
eaters, turkeys and guineas as insect-hunters, ducks 
and geese as grazers and fishers. 

What constitutes a good ration. 

The digestible nutrients. — First of all, a good 
ration must contain a sufficient quantity of diges- 
tible nutrients to meet the needs of the animal. This 
means that the ration must be varied in quantity 
and composition, according to the size, age, condition 
and environment of the animal. The amount of food 
which a flock of fowls requires must be determined 
by knowing the kinds and composition of the foods 
available, and the kind, size, age and productivity 
of the bird to be fed. With these data, rations may 
be compounded which will be likely to meet the 
requirements. With our present knowledge of the 
digestibility of feeds and the feeding standards for 
poultry, it is unsafe to depend solely on calculated 
rations. 

The animal's appetite is a safer guide as to the 
amount of food which it needs than is the most 
carefully calculated ration weighed out and fed 
according to accepted standards. The fact that the 
food requirements of animals vary from day to day 
makes it impossible to calculate accurately in 
advance just how much of each nutrient should be 
fed. Feeding standards, nevertheless, are exceed- 
ingly helpful in forming a judgment of the animal's 
probable needs, to prevent the possible serious mis- 
take of feeding radically wrong rations, which 
could not supply the needs of the system because 
they contained too much or too little bulk, or fiber, 
or ash, or protein, or carbo-hydrate material, in 
proportion to the other ingredients. 

A perfect ration should satisfy the following 
requirements of the animal : Repair broken-down 
tissue ; make new growth ; produce heat ; furnish 
energy ; store up surplus fat to be used for heat or 
energy in case of need ; meet the needs of repro- 
duction. 

The ration should be properly balanced. — There 
should be exactly enough, and no more, of the pro- 
tein and carbohydrate nutrients to meet the needs of 
the bird. A ration must have the protein, carbo- 
hydrate and fat in proper proportion without an 
excess of any one. If the protein is lacking, the 
animal cannot make the white of the egg, nor grow 
new muscular tissue, and in the end will starve 
even with an abundance of carbohydrate. If there 
should be a deficiency of carbohydrate and a sur- 
plus of protein, the animal would be obliged to 
burn up protein for fuel, or use it for the formation 
of fat, which would be too expensive, and might 
also be injurious by overtaxing the kidneys in 
carrying off the waste nitrogen. According to our 



present knowledge of balanced rations for fowls, 
the food nutrients should be fed in about the pro- 
portion of one pound of protein to 4.6 pounds of 
carbohydrates for egg-production ; one pound of 
protein to seven or eight pounds of carbohydrates 
for fattening ; and one pound of protein to four 
pounds of carbohydrates for raising young chickens. 

The ration should consist of food which the fotol 
likes. — Fowls have a decided preference for certain 
foods which cannot be accounted for by their com- 
position. Rye and wheat are almost identical in 
composition, yet fowls will eat wheat in preference 
to rye. The following grains are preferred by 
fowls in the order in which they are named : Wheat, 
corn, oats, peas, barley, buckwheat and rye. The 
food should be palatable. The palatability of a food 
may be said to be the quality which determines a 
fowl's preference for it. Flavor and texture deter- 
mine the palatability. The medicinal qualities «nd 
composition also are determining factors. The way 
a food tastes has much influence on the way it is 
digested. Digestion begins in the mouth. Foods 
that are not palatable do not stimulate the proper 
secretions for digestion. The mouth and stomach 
must be educated as to what is best for the system. 
The stomach tells the palate what it does not like. 

Habit plays an important part in determining a 
fowl's preference for certain foods. It will refuse 
to eat grains at first, because they are new to it, 
that it later learns to like best: e. g., wheat will be 
refused at first by fowls that have been accustomed 
to eating other grains. 

The ration should provide a good variety. — A good 
variety of food helps to increase the palatability of 
a ration. Fowls become tired of eating the same 
kind of food continuously. It is better to feed 
several kinds of foods, all of which an animal likes, 
than it is to feed any one food, no matter how good 
it may be. Fowls thus have a better chance to 
balance their own rations, and get foods that are 
best suited to their needs. A good variety prevents 
a fowl from eating exclusively of one grain which 
it may prefer, but which might cause over-fatness. 
It appears to be immaterial whether a variety of 
grain is fed at each feeding, or whether the same 
grains are fed separately and alternately during 
the day or on different days. 

The ration should have sufficient bulk to enable the 
digestive secretions to act on it quickly. — When a 
large amount of certain concentrated ground grain 
is fed, the ration may be so concentrated that it 
becomes compacted in the crop. Because of the 
concentrated nature of a finely ground ration, 
which makes it possible for the food to pass quickly 
through the intestinal tract, the fowl is more 
easily over-fed. Thus, a certain amount of bulk in 
a ration is necessary. This is provided by feeding 
wheat bran, clover, alfalfa meal, or the like, to 
overcome the too concentrated nature of such 
foods as oil-meal, wheat middlings, corn meal, and 
the like. The whole or cracked grains also give bulk 
to a ration. 

The ration should not contain too large an amount 
of indigestible fiber . — When adding bulk to a ration, 
it should be done by adding foods that are readily 



534 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



digestible. Foods that are bulky are likely to con- 
tain a large proportion of woody fiber (cellulose), 
which the animal is compelled to reduce to fineness, 
and pass through the body undigested. This re- 
quires a large and unnecessary expenditure of 
energy, and makes impossible the rapid metabolic 
changes that are necessary with the laying or 
growing fowl. 

Part of the ration should be of whole grain and 
part of ground feed. — Fowls are essentially grain- 
eaters. They prefer whole or cracked grain to the 
ground grains. The most rational system of feed- 
ing fowls requires that both whole grain or cracked 
grain and ground feed should be supplied. The 
whole grain insures the activity of the body in 
grinding the grains and makes over-feeding less 
likely. It also has the advantage of inducing fowls 
to take exercise in hunting for the grain, which 
shduld always be scattered in a deep litter of 
straw. Ordinarily, if left to their own choice, 
with free access to both whole grain and ground 
feed, fowls will consume one-third to one-half 
ground feed, depending largely on the nature of 
the mixture. 

All of the common grains, with the exceptio'n of 
peas, have a wide nutritive ratio. The ground 
feed mixture, therefore, should be made narrow. 
In order to do this, a little oil-meal or alfalfa meal 
may be used to advantage. Generally, however, 
the meat food will have to be depended on to nar- 
row the ration. [See page 107.] 

It seems necessary to feed at least one-third 
ground grain in order to supply the fowls with 
readily available nourishment, especially when 
they are in heavy laying. Fowls do not seem capa- 
ble of grinding the whole or cracked grain rapidly 
enough to satisfy their needs, except during the 
season when they are least productive. Wheat is 
the most desirable of grain foods. Corn, however, 
because it is usually cheaper, should be used 
largely throughout the United States. Heavy oats 
are next to be preferred ; light oats are to be 
avoided. Peas, although one of the best foods for 
poultry, cannot be used extensively because of 
scarcity and high price. 

For ground feeds, the wheat by-products — bran 
and middlings, — and corn meal and ground oats 
are the most desirable. Gluten meal or gluten feed 
is being fed successfully in a limited quantity in 
connection with other ground feeds. As a rule, 
fowls do not eat oil-meal so readily as the other 
ground feeds, but because of its richness, it is 
desirable to include not to exceed 5 to 10 per cent 
of it in the ground feed ration. Cottonseed meal 
has not proved satisfactory. 

Meat in some form should be a part of every 
ration, whether for raising the young, or for feeding 
the mature stock for production or fattening. — A 
pound of protein in the form of meat appears to 
be more valuable than a pound of protein in any 
other class of foods. Meat should form at least 10 
to 15 per cent of the total food consumed each 
day, depending on the kind of meat and other food 
and their composition. Beef scraps, because of 
high protein content and good keeping qualities, 



must be mainly depended on. Skimmed milk at 15 
to 20 cents per 100 pounds is probably the most 
desirable of all meat foods, to be fed either in the 
liquid or as pot cheese. Sour milk is more desira- 
ble than sweet, but it is not well to alternate sour 
milk and sweet milk. Green cut bone is very desir- 
able for variety, and one-half ounce may be fed 
each day per fowl in addition to other meat foods. 
Milk albumen has not been sufficiently tested to 
warrant a recommendation. 

Green food should form some part of the daily 
ration. — The chief value in feeding green food is 
the fact that the succulence and medicinal quali- 
ties assist in the digestion of other foods and tend 
to promote health if judiciously fed. The most 
desirable green food is clover pasturage. Cut 
clover, fed either dry or steamed, furnishes excellent 
green food for winter use, but lacks in succulence. 
The mangel beet, when fed in limited quantity, is 
perhaps the best winter green food. Cabbage, if 
fed in a reasonable quantity, does not appear to 
injure the flavor of the product and is much rel- 
ished by all kinds of poultry. 

Grit forms an indispensable part of a poultry 
ration. — Experiments at Cornell University have 
proved that grit has a double function, namely to 
grind or crush food in the gizzard and to furnish 
lime. Most of the grits on the market contain little 
or no lime. Cracked oyster shells or mortar are 
the chief sources of lime. They also meet the need 
for grinding material. 

The foods should not injure the flavor or the color 
of the product. — It has been demonstrated by sev- 
eral experiments and is well recognized in practice 
that certain foods influence the color of the yolk 
of the egg, the fat of the body, the skin and the 
feathers. Yellow, corn and clover impart a deep 
yellow color pigment. Wheat, oats, and especially 
buckwheat, produce a very light colored pigment. 
Experiments at Cornell University show that 
onions and fish, except when fed in excess, do not 
impart a marked flavor to the eggs. Cabbage fed 
in excess, in two carefully conducted trials, did not 
produce undesirable flavor that could be detected 
even in the raw egg. 

The cost of the ration should be considered. — The 
fact that the principal poultry foods vary in cost 
from time to time, according to the supply and 
demand, makes it desirable that rations be varied 
somewhat to suit the market conditions. It is sel- 
dom necessary to feed largely of the most expen- 
sive foods. Generally, the by-product feeds are less 
expensive to purchase per pound of food nutrient 
than the whole grains. This is particularly true 
in the case of wheat, buckwheat and corn. Wheat 
bran, wheat middlings, buckwheat middlings and 
gluten meal, by-products respectively of the grains 
mentioned, should be used largely. 

Special types of poultry-feeding. 

Fowls appear to need more available protein and 
fat during the molting period than at other times. 
This seems to be due to the need of supplying 
nitrogen for the growth of feathers and fat, to 
be readily converted into heat. The practice of 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



535 



"forcing the molt" has not met with universal 
approval. It is reported to have proved satisfactory 
in inducing fowls to molt earlier in the fall, and to 
lay more eggs during early winter than they other- 
wise would. Three experiments at Cornell Univer- 
sity with one-, two- and three-year-old Leghorns, 
indicated that it did not pay to "force the molt." 
It is possible that forcing the molt may produce 
different results with other breeds of fowls. In the 
light of our present knowledge, the best general 
practice appears to be to furnish the most favor- 
able conditions for production at all seasons of the 
year, and never to check production with the expec- 
tation of again starting it at a stated time. It is 
easier to stop hens laying than it is to start 
them. 

Feeding according to age. 

The system of feeding must be adapted to the 
age of the fowl. Young fowls naturally utilize 
their food in the production of new growth and 
energy. Mature fowls, having completed their 
growth, utilize their food in production. Old fowls, 
having completed their development and their years 
of greatest production, have a tendency to use their 
food in the production of fat. 

Feeding fowls during different seasons of the year. 

Theoretically, more heat-forming foods should 
be fed during the winter season than at other 
times ; that is to say, wider rations are required 
during the cold weather, and narrower rations 
during the warm weather. Generally this is accom- 
plished by increasing or decreasing the amount of 
corn fed during different seasons of the year, corn 
having a wider nutritive ratio, and therefore, pre- 
sumably, being a better producer of heat and energy, 
than most of the other feeds. 

Feeding sitting hens. 

A broody hen needs less food than at any other 
time of her life. As a rule, she is mature, non-pro- 
ductive, non-active and simply requires a main- 
tenance ration. This should be largely of whole 
grain with a limited amount of vegetable food, if 
any, and only a small amount of meat. The object 
is to prevent the development of the ovaries by too 
large a supply of readily digested nourishment. 

Breaking up broody hens. 

The broody hen should be fed with a view to 
inducing egg-production in the shortest possible 
time. It should be fed, therefore, the most attrac- 
tive and best egg-producing rations. 



The feeding of the breeding stock. 

In feeding the breeding stock, the object should 
be to prevent over-feeding, especially during the 
non-productive seasons — fall and early winter. As a 
result, a large egg-yield cannot be secured. The 
rations should not be too narrow, and thus produce 
a phlegmatic condition, nor too fattening, and 
cause sluggishness and fatty degeneration, either 
of which would come by over-feeding of rich rations. 
A limited amount of meat, whole grains fed in a 



litter to induce exercise in the open air, and a 
limited amount of green food with an abundance 
of bone and oyster shell, should be fed. 

Feeding the different breeds. 

The heavier and the more sluggish the breed, the 
greater is the tendency to become fat, and, there- 
fore, the greater is the need of proper methods of 
feeding, which will compel exercise and prevent 
over-eating. The lighter and more active breeds 
apparently can be fed a wider ration with less 
danger of over-fatness than can the heavier and 
more phlegmatic breeds. The fine art of feeding 
consists in furnishing the right kind of foods in 
such a manner that the fowls can be kept in the 
best physical condition. This means that the fowls 
must have some surplus fat in the body. A poor 
hen cannot lay. A very fat hen may become so 
sluggish that death will result from fatty degener- 
ation. The fowl that is in the best laying condition 
always has a large amount of surplus fat in the 
body. How to furnish the available nourishment to 
meet the needs of egg-production, and at the same 
time prevent the fowls from becoming too fat, is 
the problem in feeding. In a word, it consists in 
feeding a well-balanced ration in such a manner 
that the appetite shall be kept good, which means 
that once a day fowls should come eagerly for the 
food, preferably in the morning, and once a day 
have all the food that they can possibly consume, 
preferably at night. 

Feeding turkeys. 

Turkeys are grain- and insect-eaters. They are 
the best of foragers. When very young, they are 
the most delicate of poultry. After they "throw 
the red," i. e., show their comb, which they do 
when they get their first full plumage, they are 
among the most hardy of poultry. The young, 
therefore, need great care when they are reared 
artificially and in large numbers. 

The feed for the first few days should be largely 
of bread and milk, made crumbly and mixed with 
"pot cheese" in the proportion of three of the 
former to one of the latter. To this should be 
added a little chopped onion. This mixture should be 
fed two or three times a day, as much as they will 
eat. Once or twice a day they should be given 
finely cracked corn, wheat and oatmeal, mixed in 
about equal parts. The proportion of bread and 
milk should be decreased after the second week, at 
the same time finely cracked grains and pot cheese 
being fed more largely. Fine grit and charcoal 
should always be available. Water should be pro- 
vided in a receptacle where the young turkeys can- 
not become wet. Gradually, as the turkeys grow, 
coarsely cracked or whole grain may be used, and 
a good grade of beef scrap gradually substituted 
for the " pot cheese." The latter, however, is to 
be preferred. 

A board enclosure, one foot high and twelve or 
fourteen feet square, placed around the coop on 
closely cropped, clean grass sod, makes a desirable 
place to start young turkeys. Until they have 
thrown their wing and tail feathers, so as to fly 



536 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



over the board, they cannot be trusted to roam far 
from the coop. They should not be allowed at any 
time to run in the wet grass, as they are easily 
chilled. More young turkeys are lost through 
exposure than through improper feeding. 

When turkeys are permitted to roam the fields, 
which they do in most cases, they will get a large 
part of their living. In order to make certain that 
they are well fed, and also to induce them to return, 
they should always be fed grain at night. This 
usually will be corn, although wheat, oats or peas 
may be added to advantage. 

Turkeys, young or old, should never be permitted 
to run with the young or old of the domestic fowl. 
They are not so lively, rugged or intelligent as 
chickens, and therefore suffer when compelled to 
compete with them for food. 

When fattening turkeys for market, it is better 
to permit them to continue on free range. They 
worry in confinement and will not eat well. They 
should be fed all the whole corn they will eat at 
night. In the morning they should be given corn 
meal, middlings and meat scrap, mixed with sour 
skimmed milk. This mixture should be about in 
the proportion of 60 pounds of corn meal, 30 
pounds of wheat middlings, 10 pounds of beef 
scraps, and enough sour skimmed milk to make a 
thick dough. Turkeys may be finished during the 
last week by placing them in dark coops and cram- 
ming them by hand with pellets consisting of two 
parts of corn meal, two parts of ground oats 
(shucks out), one part of wheat middlings, and one 
part of meat scraps, mixed with sour skimmed 
milk. 

The breeding stock should be permitted to roost 
in the open air, but be protected from the storms 
and winds. This exposure requires fattening foods 
to enable the turkeys to keep warm. Whole corn 
alone is too fattening. Oats and peas should also 
be fed. During the breeding season, one feeding a 
day of ground feed, which contains a liberal 
amount of meat, should be given. A good mixture 
for this purpose is equal parts, by weight, of corn 
meal, wheat bran, wheat middlings, ground oats and 
meat scraps, mixed with sour or sweet skimmed 
milk. Oyster shells and water should be available 
at all times. 

Literature. 

For references, see page 527. 

Feeding Water-fowl. 

By Geo. H. Pollard. 

The most common water-fowl raised in domesti- 
cation, and the ones receiving attention here, are 
ducks and geese. While these are commonly con- 
sidered to be water-fowl, because they delight to 
be in the water, the accessibility of a body of 
water for swimming purposes is no longer held to 
be necessary in raising them. 

Feeding ducks. 

Under natural conditions, ducks feed on water- 
grasses and roots, and on the lower animal life 



which inhabits low lands and wet places. Under 
the influence of domestication, their habits have 
changed somewhat, although their instincts are 
much the same as in the wild state. The best feeder 
is the man who considers these facts and works as 
much as possible along natural lines. 

The feeding of breeding birds necessarily differs 
somewhat from the feeding of market stock. In 
either case, the ration should be made up of such 
of the accessible grains and supplies as will furn- 
ish a palatable mixture at a minimum or fair cost. 
Ducks are voracious feeders, and, in order to save 
a profit, waste both in cost and in spending must 
be carefully looked after. When breeding birds 
have a water-run, coarser and richer food may be 
fed more safely than when they do not, as the 
extra exercise the ducks take will utilize the 
materials more fully. When both free range and 
water-ways are to be had, either whole corn, 
wheat, oats or barley, or a mixture of any or all, 
may be fed, and the ducks will " balance the 
ration " for themselves and do well. If there is a 
profitable market for the eggs, either for table or 
for incubation, it is well to provide a supply of 
good beef scrap and feed it in a box or hopper, 
allowing the ducks to help themselves. A constant 
supply should be kept before them, or it may be 
given in such quantities as will produce the results 
wanted most economically. 

When kept in confinement, and the earliest and 
greatest possible number of eggs are wanted, soft 
food should be fed night and morning, and a light 
feed of hard grains given in the middle of the day. 
A good mixture is three parts of corn meal, two 
parts of wheat bran, one part of red-dog or low- 
grade feeding flour, one part of cut alfalfa, cut 
clover, or vegetables, such as cabbages, turnips or 
beets cooked or suitably chopped, and one part of 
best beef scrap, or an equal quantity of dried and 
prepared fish. When fresh fish can be procured, it 
may be fed raw or cooked, if made fine enough. 
The mixture is moistened to a crumbly consistency 
with cold water. Night and morning, as much of 
this or some similar mixture as the ducks will 
clean up within fifteen or twenty minutes should 
be supplied. If preferred, this mixture may be fed 
dry, in which case it should be kept before the 
ducks all the time in boxes or hoppers. Obviously, 
if fish is used it must be dried and prepared. This 
method saves much of the labor, and the labor 
cost is one of the heaviest items in the production 
of ducks. 

Drinking-water should be within reach at all 
times. Owing to the habit of washing down their 
food, ducks should never be fed without a plenti- 
ful supply of water easily available. 

When there is green range, no clover or vege- 
tables need be added to the ration. Sometimes it 
pays to feed more meat and meal in the laying sea- 
son and less in the dry months. Gluten, hominy 
chops, or any of the various food-stuffs, may be 
substituted in the above ration, and a close watch 
of effects will determine which is the most profit- 
able under the special conditions of the feeder. 
The main point to keep in mind is that full feeding 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



537 



of satisfying feeds is generally the most profitable, 
■ and in this respect the freest spender is the best 
saver. 

Young ducks intended for market must be pushed 
from hatching to killing time. All the profit to be 
made depends on quick growth. The leading factor 
in this growth is a proper supply of animal food in 
some palatable form. High-grade beef scrap is the 
main dependence of most growers. Properly pre- 
pared fish will answer as well. Some growers object 
to fish, on the ground that it flavors the carcass of 
the duckling. Unless it is an oily, rancid prepar- 
ation, it will seldom cause such trouble. 

Ducklings should not be fed until they are thirty- 
six to forty-eight hours old. The first feed may be 
a mixture of two-thirds wheat bran and one-third 
corn meal, moistened with water or milk, and with 
a raw egg stirred in with each quart of the grain. 
It is moistened only enough to make a slightly 
damp, crumbly mass. A little sand or prepared grit 
is added, and this feed is kept before the ducklings 
for forty-eight hours. The attendant must be care- 
ful to renew it before souring, and feed only sweet 
food. Clean water must be provided in such kind 
of fountain or vessel as will let the ducklings get 
their bills and heads but not their 'bodies into the 
water. Water should be kept before them night 
and day, until killing time. To prevent their play- 
ing in it, some growers water only at feeding time 
after the ducklings are a few days old. They should 
not be allowed water-runs, if the quickest growth 
is wanted. 

By the time the ducklings are one week old, they 
should be getting as much as 5 per cent of beef 
scraps, and three parts of wheat bran, and two 
parts of corn meal. The proportions should be 
changed gradually, until at six weeks old the meal 
and bran are equal, and the beef scrap amounts 
to 15 per cent of the whole. After the first few 
days, the feed should be given four times a day 
until six weeks old, and then three times until 
the ducks are marketed. On this simple ration, 
ducks can be carried to a good market condition at 
ten weeks old. If there is too great looseness of 
the bowels, the proportion of scrap should be 
reduced for a time. Many persons feed a greater 
proportion of meal the last two or three weeks. 
Green food is greatly relished by the ducklings, 
but too much must not be fed, or the skin will 
become yellow ; the best markets prefer white- 
skinned ducks and geese. Wheat bran helps greatly 
in this respect, as well as in growing the frame. 
It is well to provide a constant supply of crushed 
oyster shell, and gravel or grit. 

The rations given for both old and young birds, 
while general, are sufficient, although they may be 
varied greatly to suit conditions and the cost of 
different grains. Dry-feeding, or the feeding of a 
mixture of ground grains in a dry state, is yet in 
an experimental stage. The success of this system, 
which is coming into general use with other poultry, 
would revolutionize the business of growing market 
ducks. The grain mixture is left before them at 
all times, and the hoppers or boxes are filled only 
as fast as emptied by the ducklings, which may 



be once or twice a week if the holders are suffi- 
ciently large. There is yet some question whether 
the ducklings can be grown as big in ten or twelve 
weeks, at which age the pin-feathers start and 
they should be dressed. If permitted to run three 
or four weeks longer, they will gain one to two 
pounds in weight and will again be in condition 
for marketing. On the later hatches, at least, it 
seems as if the great saving in labor and the gain 
in weight would more than pay for the extra four 
weeks of keep. 

Ornamental ducks and pet stock may be fed any- 
thing they will eat, save a too full ration of fat- 
tening foods. When only a few are kept, the hard 
grains will answer for the old stock most of the 
time, and the young may have any simple mixture 
of soft food. Green food may be given as freely 
as convenient. As quick growth is not a necessity, 
there is no need of the great forcing which must 
be given market birds. 

Feeding geese. 

When given the opportunity, geese graze almost 
as freely as cattle. This fact leads many persons 
to suppose that a grass range is all that is neces- 
sary for growing market geese. This is a mistake. 
Breeding geese will do well on a grass range, espe- 
cially if a low meadow or marsh with considerable 
water. In winter they should have a moderate 
grain feed and a liberal allowance of roots, cab- 
bage, or other succulent food, but not too much of 
a fattening nature. The closer the confinement 
the more care is necessary in this respect. Geese 
fatten readily, and the breeding stock should not 
be permitted to put on too much weight. 

At about laying time, the attendant should begin 
to increase the feed and give twice a day a liberal 
ration, containing considerable animal food in some 
form. The ordinary duck foods will answer. After 
the grass has a good start, one full feed of grain a 
day will do if the geese have sufficient range. 

Geese wash down their food much the same as 
ducks, and water should always be accessible at 
feeding time. 

Goslings do best when they have a limited range 
on fresh, tender grass. This they eat freely, and 
they may be grown on it after a fashion ; but 
they will never make the size, and will fatten less 
rapidly than when fed a proper grain ration. On 
grass range, and given a food similar to that for 
young ducklings, and fed as often, they will grow 
rapidly and make weight faster than any other 
poultry. When grass-fed geese are fattened for 
the market, they may be fed corn meal with 10 per 
cent of beef scrap added. This may be scalded or 
wet with cold water. Whole corn may be fed once 
a day. It usually takes about four weeks to fatten 
them properly. Gravel or grit in some form should 
always be within reach. 

Ornamental and fancy geese may be fed the 
same as ornamental ducks, and for the same 
reasons. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 527. 



538 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 




Fig. 531. 
Fowl with well-devel- 
oped breast. 




Fattening Poultry. Fig. 531-539. 

By W. R. Graham. 

Much of the poultry offered for sale on our mar- 
kets is thin in flesh and poorly dressed, — a testi- 
mony to the lack of skill or 
care on the part of the grower. 
The majority of the chickens 
now sold represent a waste. 
Not only are they inferior in 
quality and quantity of flesh, 
but they are very unsatisfac- 
tory to the buyer. It is the 
purpose of this discussion to 
deal almost entirely with the 
fattening, or perhaps o le 
should say the " fleshening," 
of chickens, and to suggest 
how it may be accomplished. 
What applies to chickens will 
apply largely 
to fowls also. 
As with other 
classes of live-stock, much de- 
pends on the condition of the 
subject that is to be fed, whether 
it is old or y o u n g, large or 
small, bred from meat-producing 
breeds and of a strain in which 
this habit is well established, or 
from a strain that has no partic- 
ular ability to put on flesh with 
economy. 

The. type for meat-production. 

The writer has paid considerable attention to 
the question of type for meat-production, and begs 
to submit the following discussion taken from Bul- 
letin No. 151, published by the Ontario Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Toronto : 

" When looking over dressed poultry in some of 
the exporters' shops, I have often thought how easy 
it would be to improve the appearance of much of 
the ordinary poultry, and some of that which is 
specially fattened, if the birds were bred to a 
proper type. I have spent much time in examining 
different types of birds, alive and dressed, and in 
observing the feeding capacity of certain types ; 
but it would take years to arrive at definite con- 
clusions on these points. I am of the opinion, how- 
ever, that one of the most important things to be 
sought is constitution. This may have no actual 
market value, but it certainly has much to do with 
the bird's ability to grow and put on flesh. What 
we want is a good feeder and an economical pro- 
ducer. Generally, a bird with a short, stout, well- 
curved beak, a broad head (not too long), and a 
bright, clear eye, has a good constitution. I have 
noticed that when a bird has a long, narrow beak, 
a thin, long comb and head, and an eye some- 
what sunken in the head, it is usually lacking in 
constitution. Such a bird is likely to have a 
narrow, long body and long legs, on which it sel- 
dom stands straight. There are some exceptions 
to this rule ; yet, generally speaking, if a bird has 



Fig. 532. 
Fowl with very 
poor breast 
development. 



a good head the chances are favorable for a good 
body; and if it has a poor head the chances- 
are against it. I have frequently noticed in the 
rose-comb breeds, such as Wyandottes, that a good- 
shaped one is seldom found with a long, narrow 
comb. 

"The neck should be moderately short and stout, 
indicating vigor. The breast is the most impor- 
tant point in a market chicken. It should be broad 
and moderately deep; and if broad, it will present a 
fine appearance and appear well-fleshed. It is quite 
possible that a broad, deep breast will carry more 
meat than a moderately deep breast of the same 
width ; yet there is no doubt that the latter will 
present much the better appearance, and sell more 
quickly and at a higher price in the market. The 
breast-bone should be well covered with flesh to 
the very. tip. 

"When considering the length of the breast, we 
must try to have it come well forward (Fig. 531), 
and not be cut off at an angle, as in Fig. 532. The 
body, in general, should present the appearance of 
an oblong when the head, neck and tail are removed. 
We frequently see birds that are very flat in front, 
and cut up behind, as in Fig. 533. Chickens of this 
class have a very short breast ; and if the breast 
happens to be deep, as it is in this bird, the chicken 
will have a very poor appearance when dressed, as 
it will show a marked lack of width and length of 
breast, with excessive depth. Notice that the head 
is narrow and long, the body is narrow, the eye is 
bright but slightly sunken, 
the legs are long and not 
straight under the body. In 
Fig. 532, observe the very flat 
breast, the length of back, the 
long neck and head, the nar- 
row comb, the sunken eye, 
and the length of legs. The 
breast comes fairly well back, 
but not well forward. In Fig. 
531, the bill is short and stout, 
but not so well curved as it 
should be. Note the breadth 
of head, the prominence and 
brightness of the eye, the 
short, stout neck, the great 
width of the breast, the ful- 
ness caused largely by the 
breast- 
bone ex- 
tending well forward, the 
short, stout legs (straight 
under the body), and the width 
between the legs. There is an 
expression about this chicken 
that indicates health and the 
essence of vigor. 

"The back should be broad, 
to give lung and heart capac- 
ity ; and the width should 
extend well back to the tail- 
head. We do not want the 
wedge-shaped back, as seen in A g00d market tyve 
some fowls that have great f fowl. 




*3^ 



Fig. 533. 
Fowl that is flat in 
front and cut up be- 
hind. 




POULTRY 



POULTRY 



539 



width at the shoulders and taper rapidly toward 
the tailhead. 

"It is much easier to get good-shaped market 
pullets than good cockerels. The market demands 
a five-pound bird when dressed, and farmers have 
gone into raising big chickens. To that end they 
are asking for large, overgrown cockerels, of 
excessive depth, for breeders ; the result is that we 
get dressed chickens weighing four to five pounds 
each, that have immense, high breast-bones and 
very long legs. These are not attractive to the 
buyers, and they sell at less per pound than plumper 
birds. For example, if given two birds of the same 
width of breast, one is one and one-half inches 
deeper in the breast than the other. The result 
will be that one bird will look plump and sell 
rapidly, while the other will lack in plumpness and 
be slow in selling. This lack of plumpness can be 
bred out by using such males as that shown in Fig. 
531. We like to have birds as well built as we can 
get them, and Fig. 531 is as near the ideal market 
chicken as we have in the breed which he repre- 
sents. The hen seen in Fig. 534 is a good market 
type. Note the width and fulness of breast. As 
a breeder, she is a little fine in bone, and rather too 
small. She has, however, that blocky appearance 
which is desirable. Fig. 535 represents a cross- 
bred chick (sire, Buff Orpington ; dam, Houdan). 
Note the length and fulness of the breast ; also 
good beak and eye. Fig. 536 is a picture of a ten- 
weeks-old son of the male shown in Fig. 531. You 
will observe the same general characteristics as 
seen in the father — fair beak, good eye, excellent 
breast, both as to length and width, without exces- 
sive depth. The thigh is also medium in length. 
Fig. 537 represents the long, narrow sort. Note 
the long beak, the narrow head, the sunken eye, the 
long neck, and long, crooked 
legs. When dressed, his ap- 
pearance will not be pleasing. 
Fig. 538 shows a good head 
throughout, very full and 
wide breast, and legs that 
stand well under the body and 
well apart. This bird is of the 
type we like to feed in the 
fattening crate." 

The question of size and 
age have to be decided largely 
by one's market. It is very 
little use 
to try to 
satisfy a 
buyer 

with a four -pound chicken 
when a six -pound one is 
wanted. It is the writer's ex- 
perience that healthy, thrifty 
birds of such breeds as Ply- 
mouth Rocks, Wyandottes, 
Orpingtons, make most eco- 
nomical gains when they 
Fig. 535. weigh three to four pounds 

A cross-bred chick eac h or at an age of say 

showing length and ,, ' , ,, f t. fi 

fulness of chest. three to three and one-half 





Fig. 536. 
Young son of fowl 
shown in Fig. 531. 
Note resemblance 
of characters. 



months. By special feeding for three to four weeks, 
the birds will easily dress four to five pounds each. 
Large birds, weighing six to seven pounds, cost 
more to produce a pound of gain. One need not, 
under any consideration, ex- 
pect rapid gains or fine-ap- 
pearing dressed poultry from 
diseased or stunted stock. 

The fattening-pen. 

The fattening-pen should 
be dry and, if possible, well 
ventilated and free from 
drafts. The birds that are 
cooped must not be placed in 
direct drafts or many will 
take cold. An open shed, with 
three sides tight, makes a 
good place for early fall or 
summer fattening, but for 
late fall more protection is 
required to 





Fig. 538. 

A good type of fowl 

for fattening. 



Fig. 537. 

A long, narrow 

type of fowl. 



secure the 
best gains. 

Crate-feed- 
ing vs. loose pen -feeding. — For a 
number of years the writer has 
conducted experiments with 
chickens in crates and in loose 
pens. He has tried six different 
feeders, with varying results. 
With some feeders, equally good 
results were secured with birds 
in crates as in loose pens. In the 
case of two feeders in particular, 
the birds could ' not be fed to 
advantage in loose pens as com- 
pared with crates. With one 
feeder, on the other hand, slightly 
better returns were secured in 
some cases with birds in pens. 
The majority of buyers of chick- 
ens seem to think that the crate-fed birds are 
much superior to those fed in loose pens. The 
writer prefers to feed birds in crates, for the rea- 
son that it takes less room. They are fed with less 
expenditure of labor, and a more even profit is 
returned. However, there are many persons who 
can get good results from feeding birds in box- 
stalls and like apartments. 

Construction of fattening crates. — A fattening 
crate is usually made six feet six inches long, 
eighteen to twenty inches high, and sixteen inches 
wide. It is divided into three compartments, each 
holding four to five birds, according to the size of 
the chickens. It is made of slats, except -the ends 
and partitions between the compartments, which 
are solid wood. The slats on the top, bottom and 
back run lengthwise of the coop, while those on 
the front run up and down. They are usually one 
and one-half inches wide and five-eighths inch thick. 
Those in front are placed two inches apart to allow 
the chickens to put their heads through for feed- 
ing. The slats on the bottom are placed about three- 
fourths of an inch apart, so as to permit the drop- 



540 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 




Fig. 539. A single crate or coop for 
fattening fowls. 



pings to pass through to the ground. Care should 
be taken not to have the first bottom slat at the 
back fit closely against the back. An opening at 
this point prevents the droppings collecting and 
decomposing. The slats on the top and back are 
usually two inches apart. There is a small V-shaped 
trough arranged in front of the coop for feeding 
and watering the chickens. The trough is two to 
three inches deep and is generally made of three- 
fourth-inch lum- 
ber. 

Very fair 
coops may be 
made from old 
packing - boxes, 
by taking off the 
front and bot- 
tom, and substi- 
tuting slats in 
their places. 
(Fig. 539.) When 
fattening chickens inside of a building, it is well 
to darken the building and keep the birds as quiet 
as possible. 

Feeding. 

It is somewhat difficult to write clearly on this 
subject, as the writer's experience has been largely 
in the production of white-fleshed chickens for 
home and export markets. The yellow-skinned 
Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes can be made fairly 
white if fed on such foods as milk, oats and buck- 
wheat. Some years ago, the writer took birds that 
were full brothers and fed some on such foods as 
the above, while others were fed yellow corn, 
boiled pumpkins 'or red carrots. When the two 
lots were killed, one lot was nearly white in color 
of skin while the other was yellow. The object in 
feeding is not only to make flesh and fat, but also 
to soften the muscles. The softer the muscles, the 
more tender ; and a tender, juicy chicken that 
carries plenty of flesh pleases the consumer. 

Sour milk has given better returns than sweet 
milk. The sour milk appears to aid digestion and 
the birds keep in better health when it is fed. 
When milk cannot be had, whey is useful, if some 
animal meal or beef scrap is fed with it ; not more 
than 10 per cent of the ration should be beef scrap. 
If nothing but water is available, the meat meal 
may be increased to 15 per cent. 

The best grain ration is composed of two parts 
of very finely ground oats, two parts of finely 
ground buckwheat, and one part of ground corn. 
This mixture is by weight, not by measure. To the 
ground grain, sufficient sour milk is added to make 
the mass about the consistency of gruel, or so that 
it will drip from a spoon like pancake batter. If 
the milk is thick, it will take nearly two pounds of 
milk to one of grain. A little salt is added two or 
three times a week. The writer feeds not more 
than one ounce to one hundred birds. Should the 
birds show signs of feather-pulling, the salt should 
be slightly increased. Other grain mixtures give 
good results. The food must be palatable and the 
grain finely ground. 



If there is any secret in fattening chickens it is 
in the method of feeding. When the birds are first 
put in the crates or shut in the pen to be fattened, 
they should not be fed anything for the first twenty- 
four hours, or until such time as their appetite 
becomes keen. During the first week they should 
not be fed much more than one-half of what they 
would ordinarily eat. The writer usually begins by 
feeding one dozen chickens not more than eight to 
twelve ounces of grain mixed with about twice as 
much milk. After the first week the ration is grad- 
ually increased until the appetite is fully satisfied. 
Should the feeder fully satisfy the appetite of the 
chickens during the first three or four days, or even 
the first week they are in the crate, in all proba- 
bility the birds will do very poorly. A feeder with 
good judgment at no time will over-feed his birds. 
He should feed all they will eat after the first week, 
but should stop short of the full capacity. If the 
feeder can accomplish this, he will be able to get 
on an ordinary Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, or what 
might be called a general-purpose chicken, one and 
one-half to one and three-fourths pounds in three 
weeks' feeding. Cockerels should be fed two weeks 
or more before they are killed and sold. The writ- 
er's experience tends to show that if chickens can 
be purchased at eight cents per pound, live weight, 
and sold plucked, but not drawn, for twelve cents 
per pound, a return of fifty cents to one dollar per 
hour can be secured for the time it takes to feed 
the birds, allowing four to five cents each for pluck- 
ing, one dollar and thirty cents per hundred weight 
for grain, and twenty cents per hundred weight 
for skimmed milk. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 527. 

Capons and Caponizing. Figs. 540, 541. 

By T. Greiner. 

A capon is a castrated male fowl. The act of 
caponizing consists in the removal of the testicles 
of a cockerel, in order that he may grow larger, 
become more gentle, and fatten more readily than 
he otherwise would. The castrated cockerel, or 
capon, grows somewhat plumper and fatter, even 
if not much heavier, than the unaltered male, and 
retains much of the tenderness and juiciness of 
flesh and the higher meat value of the spring 
chicken. Surplus cockerels of the larger yellow- 
skinned breeds, as the Brahma, Cochin, Wyandotte, 
Plymouth Rock, Indian Game, Rhode Island Red, 
and the like, may be, and are now to some extent, 
turned into capons and sold in our leading markets 
at prices ranging from sixteen cents to over thirty 
cents per pound. The Langshan, although white- 
skinned, also makes a good, large capon. The 
dressed capon of the Brahma, Langshan, and other 
large breeds often exceeds ten pounds in weight. 

The equipment. 

The first thing necessary is a good set of instru- 
ments. There are a number of different styles on 
the market. One of the best and handiest for the 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



541 




■O 



Fig. 540. Acaponizingset. Beginning 
at the top : Lance, spreader, nip- 
pers, probe, steel hook, canula. 



beginner (Fig. 540) consists of a lance, spreader, 
steel hook, probe, a pair of nippers or tweezers and 
a canula. For the removal of the testicle, a piece 
of fine pliable wire is better than a horse hair (from 

the horse's tail). 
"IIMHIIIIIIIIIl'll "h II Little bits of 
sponge are used 
to mop up any 
blood that may 
gather around 
the incision, or 
in the interior of 
the bird while 
under the oper- 
ation. There is 
little cause for 
nervousness or 
excitement o n 
the part of the 
operator, for the 
operation does 
not appear to 
cause much suf- 
fering or incon- 
venience to the 
bird. If a blood- 
vessel is accidentally ruptured, as may happen in a 
small percentage of the cases, the bird will quickly 
die under the operator's hands, and may be used 
for the table. 

The operation. 

The operation is simple, and may be learned from 
printed instructions without actual practical dem- 
onstration. If the beginner has a chance to see it 
performed, all the better. The testicles are removed 
through an incision, about an inch in length, made 
between the last two ribs (those next to the hip, 
Fig. 541). The expert operator usually takes both 
testicles from one opening, on the left side. But to 
undertake this task usually means failure for the 
beginner, who will find it far less difficult, and less 
inconvenient and dangerous for the bird, to cut 
both sides, taking one testicle 
from each side. 

To prepare the cockerel for 
the operation, let him go with- 
out food for thirty to thirty-six 
hours. This is necessary so that 
the bowels will be empty, al- 
lowing the testicles to be seen 
and removed more easily. The 
beginner must be able to see 
what he is doing, and he there- 
fore needs good light, — subdued sunlight. The hours 
nine to eleven in the forenoon and two to five in 
the afternoon, during July, August and early Sep- 
tember, are the best. The expert can caponize on 
dark days, and at any hour of the day. He knows 
the exact location of the organs and can find them 
without being able to see them plainly. The begin- 
ner must see them for safe operation. During the 
noon hours on a clear day, the sun's rays being 
intercepted by the operator's head, so deep a shadow 
is cast that nothing inside the fowl can be seen to 




Fig. 541. 

Diagram of ribs. 

Dotted line shows 

where to cut. 



advantage. With the sun nearer the horizon, say 
half way between there and the zenith, the table 
or barrel on which the bird is fastened may be 
tilted enough to catch the direct sun rays through 
the incision so that the beginner can plainly see 
the interior organs. 

A rather lean bird, weighing two pounds or less, 
is a better subject for the operation than a fleshy 
one of much heavier weight. Fasten the bird on 
its left side, in any convenient way, on a plain, 
light operating table, or on the head of a barrel. 
A good, simple method is to loop a cord around the 
wings, near the body, and have a weight fastened 
to the free end, suspended from the side of the 
table or barrel. Another cord is looped around the 
legs just above the feet, with a weight hanging 
down on the other side of the table or barrel. This 
will hold the victim firmly in proper position. Pluck 
the few small feathers that are found over the last 
ribs close to the hip, pull the skin toward the hip 
with the left hand, while the right hand, holding 
the lance, makes the incision with a quick but 
careful dip. There is seldom much bleeding. Any 
blood may be mopped up with a sponge moistened 
with warm water or a very weak solution of car- 
bolic acid. With healthy birds there is no danger 
from blood poisoning. Insert the spreader to keep 
the cut surfaces apart. With the fine steel hook, 
carefully tear the thin membrane (peritoneum) 
that covers the intestines and bring the interior 
organs to full view. If the testicle is not already 
in plain sight, introduce the small ring of the 
probe and push the bowels aside until the object 
sought after is found. Next slip the fine wire loop 
of the canula around the testicle, and by'twisting 
and pulling the wires, detach that organ and pull 
it up through the incision. The cord or membrane 
to which it is attached may have to be severed, 
say an eighth or a quarter of an inch from the 
testicle, with the lance. Remove the spreader and 
let the skin slip back over the wound. Then turn 
the bird over on the right side, and go through 
the same proceeding as before on the other side. 
Loosen the capon and mark him in any way 
desired, if by nothing more than by cutting off the 
end of one of his toes. Give him his freedom and 
plenty to eat. He will have a ravenous appetite 
and grow rapidly, and finally get very fat. The 
wound heals over perfectly in less than ten days, 
so that only a light scar is left. 

For a week or so after the operation, capons are 
usually given soft food only, and had better be 
kept in a yard by themselves. If wind-puff (a 
gathering of air under the outer skin) occurs, it is 
easily relieved by pricking the skin with a sharp- 
pointed sterilized pen-knife. Capons may be kept 
until the winter or spring following, and then killed 
for use or sale. At times they have been used for 
brooding newly hatched chicks. 

Literature. 

Dow, Capons and Caponizing, Clarence C. DePuy, 
publisher, Syracuse, N. Y.; Greiner, Capons for 
Profit, Cyphers' Incubator Company, Buffalo, N. Y. 
[For further references, see page 527.] 



542 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



Incubation and Brooding. Fig. 542-546. 
By Charles A. Cyphers. 

On commercial poultry-farms, the artificial incu- 
bating and brooding of chicks is an accepted prac- 
tice. It has long since passed the experimental 
stage. It has contributed no small part to the 
development of an extensive commercial poultry 
industry. A knowledge of the principles involved 
is a necessary part of a poultryman's equipment. 

Chickens are grown artificially because it is 
difficult to get enough broody hens to hatch the 
eggs in large numbers, and hens do not sit during 
the months when it is desired to raise the birds. 
Small chickens are raised through the winter for 
broiling and frying, and large roasting chickens or 
capons are hatched and reared through the fall and 
winter, to be marketed in the spring, when the sup- 
ply of soft roasting chickens produced under natural 




Fig. 542. A modern incubator, small size. 

methods during the spring and summer has been 
consumed. These winter and spring birds bring 
high prices. Large producers of market eggs hatch 
and rear their birds artificially in the early spring 
months before the hens begin to sit. By so doing, 
they are able to get their birds developed and to 
lay in the early fall. Market eggs bring high prices 
in the fall and winter, because the larger number 
of hens are still hatched under natural methods in 
the late spring and early summer, and they do not 
begin to lay until spring, leaving a period in the 
fall and winter when there is a short supply. 

Incubation. 

The essential feature of incubation is to apply 
to the egg a constant warmth of about 102° Fahr. 
In nature, we find the parent bird sitting on the 
eggs, imparting to them the warmth of the body. 
The only exception we find to this in nature is in 
the Megapodes, or Mound-birds, which are native 
to the Philippine islands, the islands of the Indian 
archipelago and Australasia. A huge mound of 



decaying vegetable matter is raised, the eggs are 
deposited vertically in a circle at a certain depth, 
and the chick is developed with the aid of the heat 
of fermentation. 

There is a theory that the heat of the sun is suf- 
ficient for incubation in tropical climates ; and the 
ostrich is said to leave her eggs to be hatched by 
the heat of the sun's rays alone, when she breeds 
in the region of the equator. This is a fallacy, how- 
ever, as a steady continuous temperature of about 
102° Fahr. is requisite for successful incubation. 
The heat of the sun, alternating with the cold of 
night, would hatch no bird's egg. The ostrich 
deposits about fifteen eggs in a hollow of the sand, 
the male bird helps to incubate, and the young are 
excluded in thirty-five or forty days, according to 
the species. The body of the parent bird not only 
protects the egg from the chill of night, but also 
from the heat of the sun during the day. It imparts 
its own even body warmth to the egg. [See Ostrich, 
page 511.] 

When a fertile egg is laid and becomes cold, the 
germ remains dormant until heat is applied, when 
this stimulus rouses the sleeping energy to vital 
action. The embryo is dependent on an external 
source for the warmth necessary to its full develop- 
ment. In other words, all vital action requires a 
certain amount of heat for its due performance, 
and can continue only within a certain definite 
range of temperature, within the limits of which 
it is excited by the additional application of the 
heat, and depressed by its abstraction. This is no 
less true of the embryonic life within the incubat- 
ing egg, than it is with the adult. In the adult, 
heat is obtained by endowing the body itself with 
the means of generating warmth, and this heat 
generated within the body is subject to constant 
regulation through the equalizing powers of the 
animal organism. With the developing embryo in 
the egg, which has no power to maintain its own 
temperature, and is wholly dependent on external 
influences for its development, an even tempera- 
ture of 102° must be maintained for the full period 
of incubation. With domestic hen eggs, this period 
is twenty-one days ; with duck eggs, twenty-eight 
days ; with geese eggs, thirty-five days. Ostrich 
eggs require the longest period of incubation, vary- 
ing from thirty-five to forty days, according to the 
species. 

The origin of the artificial hatching of bird's eggs 
is obscure. We have authentic accounts of the 
Egyptian methods as practiced in the twelfth cen- 
tury. Large ovens, or mammals, of sun-dried brick 
were constructed. These were made large enough 
for the attendant to enter and work around and 
handle the eggs. They were heated with smudge 
fires, and the proper temperature determined by 
the sense of touch. 

The Chinese were among the first to practice the 
art. The eggs were packed between layers of por- 
ous paper, and were placed for the first few days 
in a closed closet or bin, where they were heated 
with a charcoal fire. After a certain degree of 
development of the chick was established, the ani- 
mal heat generated within the egg was utilized to 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



543 




Fig. 543. Double indoor brooder. 



effect incubation. This close packing made it nec- 
essary to expose the eggs to the air for a short 
period each day, in order to supply sufficient oxy- 
gen to complete the development of the embryo. 
A day or two before exclusion, the eggs were 
unpacked and laid on shelves between layers of 
porous paper until they began to hatch, when the 
top layer was removed. The rooms in which the 
eggs were placed were kept warm by utilizing the 
heat of the sun ; and the temperature was regu- 
lated by the use of shutters. The art was thus 
practiced only in warm climates, and its successful 
performance required long experience ; so that the 
trade was usually handed down from father to son. 
Modern artificial incubating and brooding bear 
but little resemblance to the ancient art. Both the 
English and French built hatching ovens heated 
by coal fires about 1770 ; but portable incubators 

did not come 
into existence, 
as far as we 
can tell by the 
patent office 
records, until 
1846. It was 
not until about 
1880 that port- 
able hatching 
machines came 
into popular 
use. In the 
past thirty years, portable artificial hatchers have 
been the subject matter for a great many patents. 
Various contrivances have been perfected for dif- 
fusing the heat in the hatching chamber so that all 
the eggs may receive the same degree of heat ; and 
various regulating devices have been designed for 
controlling the temperature. 

The commercial incubator (Fig. 542) or hatching 
machine has an incubating chamber with heavy 
walls to insulate it from outward changes in tem- 
perature. To diffuse the heat evenly, some manu- 
facturers use a circulation of hot air, while others 
use a radiator placed in the upper part of the egg- 
chamber, in which warm water circulates. The air 
or water is warmed by a small oil or gas heater 
attached to the side of the incubator. The temper- 
ature in the egg-chamber is controlled by a ther- 
mostat, which acts on levers and valves to regulate 
the height of the lamp or gas flame, or to regulate 
the flow of heated air into the incubating chamber. 
The young chick. — After the chicks are hatched 
they are left in- the incubator twenty-four to thirty- 
six hours to dry and to keep warm. The baby chick 
is particularly sensitive to the slightest draft. It is 
thinly clad, has little power of resistance, and can- 
not keep up its temperature in a cool room. The 
power of resistance increases with its development. 
Within the egg, while the embryo is developing, it 
is immersed in a fluid, and breathes in like manner 
to a fish, by means of an outer circulatory system 
called the allantois. A short time before the chick 
is excluded from the shell, the lungs, which have 
previously been filled with the fluid, begin to dry 
out, and the chick has a double circulation. That is, 



it begins to breathe by inhaling the air contained 
in the egg at this time into the lungs, while the 
circulation in the allantois is gradually decreasing. 
As the chick breaks the shell the circulation in the 
allantois ceases, and then it depends entirely for 




Fig. 544. Interior view of double indoor brooder, ready for 
hover cover. 

the aeration of the blood on the lungs. The change 
from the aquatic state to the aerial state is rapid, 
and when the chick is first excluded from the shell 
the vitality is low. It requires a few days before 
the circulation has become strong enough to give 
the chick any resisting force. 

Brooding. 

To help the chick maintain its temperature when 
it is artificially reared, not only is it necessary that 
it should have a place in which it can be kept warm 
by day, but it must have a place to sleep where 
the temperature is within a few degrees of the 
normal blood temperature. For this purpose, an 
artificial mother is provided, commonly called a 
brooder. (Figs. 543, 544.) This is usually divided 
into three compartments : A sleeping compartment 
or hover ; a nursery in which the hover is placed 
and where the chicks are fed and confined for the 
first week ; and a temperate exercising room. For 
the first week the hover temperature is kept at 95° 
to 100°, and the nursery temperature at 80° to 85°. 
This high temperature enables the newly hatched 
chick to keep up its normal temperature until its 




Fig. 545. Interior of brooding house, showing (eight-pipe) 
hot- water system. 

vital forces are sufficiently developed to enable it 
to withstand a colder temperature. After the chick 
is six or seven days old, it is given a little more 
freedom, a little more exercising room, a little 
colder air to breathe. In this manner it is grad- 
ually hardened until it can maintain its own tem- 
perature in the outer atmosphere. For a time after 
the chick is first let out of the brooder, the temper- 
ature of the nursery and hover is kept up, so that 
should the chick feel chilly it may run to the h jver 
for warmth. Because of the liability of the chick 



544 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



to become chilled if it strays too far from the 
brooder, it is confined to a space near the brooder 
for a week or two, and, in the early spring, when 
the weather is still chilly and damp, for a longer 
period. 

For brooding during the cold winter months, 
large houses are constructed, heated with hot- 
water pipes. (Fig. 545.) This heating system is 
controlled by an electric regulator so that the tern- 




Fig. 546. A fifty-foot nursery brooder, capacity 2,500 chicks. 

perature varies but a few degrees. A large colony 
brooder that has been in operation is indicated in 
Fig. 546. 

When growing broilers in the winter, the chicks 
are confined to a brooding house until they weigh 
one to two pounds before killing, according to the 
season and market demands. In growing winter 
roasting chickens, the cockerels are caponized at 
about two pounds in weight, after which they are 
removed to colder houses and grown to large size. 
In growing laying birds for egg-production, the 
birds are usually hatched in the late winter and 
early spring months. When about twelve weeks 
old they are placed out on grass runs in small col- 
ony houses scattered over the fields. Here the birds 
get plenty of insect life and green food, and with 
the fresh air and exercise develop strong, vigorous 
constitutions that will withstand the strain of 
heavy egg-production. 

Literature. 

The literature on this subject is meager. For 
references, see page 527. 

Preparing and Marketing Poultry Products, and 
the Care of Eggs. Figs. 547-551. 

By D. J. Lambert. 

Poultry designed for market, if well fed and 
cared for from the shell, will take on flesh rap- 
idly when cooped and given extra feed for two 
weeks previous to killing. An abundance of fat is 
not so desirable as a plump, well-rounded carcass 



of fine-grained, soft, tender meat of superior table 
quality. 

Chickens of the same age should be cooped 
together, four or six in each pen. Coops should 
be slatted two inches apart to allow plenty of air. 
The bottom slats may be one-half inch apart. The 
coops should set up off the ground in a dry, shel- 
tered place. The food should be equal parts of 
wheat bran, corn meal and ground oats, cooked or 
scalded, or corn bread, wheat bread and milk. All 
that will be eaten three times a day should be fed 
in troughs placed directly in front of the slatted 
pens. Clean, cool water should be kept constantly 
before the fowls. No onions or meat food should 
be given during this special preparation. Uni- 
formity of size is secured by selecting those of 
the same breed and age. 

Young chickens, weighing one to one and one- 
half pounds each, are termed squab-broilers, and 
bring best prices in January. As the season ad- 
vances, the prices decline, and then the demand 
is for two- to two-and-one-half pound chickens ; 
these are called club-house or Philadelphia broilers. 
Later and larger market chickens, weighing three 
to three and one-half pounds each, are sold as 
fryers at a still lower price. Roasters, ranging 
from four pounds each upwards, are in constant 
demand. Capons at the age of eight or ten months 
usually are ready for market, and weigh eight to 
twelve pounds each, according to the breed. Fowls 
are hens one year old and over. Old males are 
classed as stags or roosters ; they are invariably 
hard in flesh and bring the lowest prices of any 
market poultry. 

Young ducks should be sent to market when ten 
or twelve weeks old. They are rapid growers, and 
by that age will be nearly matured and in prime 
condition, if well fed and not allowed water for 
swimming. Green geese (goslings ten or twelve 
weeks of age) are marketable at highest prices. A 
large goose will also sell well in November and 
December. Geese are good foragers, subsisting 
mainly on grass and green food, but will need 
special grain rations for a month before marketing. 
Turkeys command best prices at Thanksgiving 
time. A feed of whole corn at evening when they 
come home to roost will fatten them rapidly. 
Turkeys worry in confinement and should not be 
cooped longer than is necessary. 

Methods of preparation. 

Coop twenty -four hours previous to killing; 
give plenty of water to drink, but no food. This 
will cause the crop to be empty. Nearly all mar- 
ket poultry is now sold with the head on and 
undrawn, although some states have laws that it 
must be drawn before being offered for sale. The 
fast will cause it to look and keep better in the 
shambles. 

There are several methods of killing and pick- 
ing. The most popular is to hang the bird by the 
feet by a stout cord suspended from a hook over- 
head. (Fig. 547.) It is well to have a large wooden 
button on the end of the cord so that with one 
twist around the shanks of the fowl it can be fast- 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



545 




ened quickly. After locking the wings, by putting 
one over the other, over the back, stun by a blow 
on the top of the head with a billet of hard wood ; 
then immediately draw a sharp knife across the 
roof of the mouth, deep enough to pierce the brain. 
Grasp the wings as soon as possible, and, when the 
blood begins to flow 
freely, begin pick- 
ing, starting with 
the breast, which is 
the most important 
part of market 
poultry and should 
not be torn. Do not 
attempt to pull out 
many feathers at 
once ; a few each 
time in rapid suc- 
cession will clean 
the bird while 
warm. One of the 
barrels underneath 
is for offal and 
coarse feathers, and 
Fig 547 _ the other for the 

Fowl suspended for picking. SOtt leathers. AS 

soon as the bird 
ceases to struggle, both hands can be used in pick- 
ing. A dull knife for removing pin-feathers should 
be kept handy. All kinds of poultry, except ca- 
pons, are picked clean, except the wing tips and 
neck for about two inches from the head. With 
capons, the feathers are left on the head, wings, 
tail, and on about two inches of the lower part of 
the thighs just above the shanks. 

When the head is to be removed before market- 
ing, the bird need not be stunned, but may be 
quickly killed by inserting a sharp knife near the 
throat just back of the ears, turning the sharp 
edge over against and breaking or dividing the 
first joint of the neck. This causes profuse bleed- 
ing. The bird immediately loses consciousness and 
loosens its feath- 
ers. This is per- 
haps the most hu- 
mane method. 

If the operator 
prefers to sit while 
picking, a large box 
is provided with its 
upper edges on a 
level with his knees. 
First stun the bird 
by a sharp blow 
against a post or a 
very hard surface. 
Then hold the bird 
under the left arm 
with its head in the 
left hand and the 
knife in the right. 
Open the mouth and cut deep across the roof, going 
well up into the brain. As soon as profuse bleeding 
is started, grasp the bird by the shanks in the left 
hand, lay the breast up across the knees, the head 
C3 




Fig. 548. Position for picking a fowl 
in a sitting posture. 



being held between the knee and the box (Fig. 
548), and pluck as rapidly as possible with the 
right hand. While this method allows a sitting 
posture, the picker has only one hand free to work 
with, as he holds the bird with the other. 

The cleanest and perhaps the least difficult way 
to kill a chicken or fowl is as follows : Grasp the 
bird by the shanks with the left hand and the head 
with the right hand, with the thumb and the fore- 
finger just back of the head, the second finger 
being bent around so that its point comes dh'ectly 
under the bird's lower mandible. Straighten your- 
self up so as to give a steady vigorous pull with 
both hands until the neck is dislocated. The bird 
will be easy to pick and all blood will collect in 
the broken part of the neck. 

In some instances, when poultry is sold to a 
home trade, it is scalded before picking. The 
kettle or boiler in which the scalding is to be 
done should be large enough to contain the entire 
body at once. The water should be at or near the 
boiling point. The head and shanks should not 
touch the hot water unless they are to be re- 
moved before marketing, for they 
would then present an unsightly 
appearance. After the bird has 
finished struggling, take it by the 
feet in one hand, the head in 
the other, and submerge it in the 
hot water, drawing it backward 
through the water two or three 
times ; then remove and place on 
a table and pick as rapidly as pos- 
sible, being careful not to bruise 
the skin. As soon as the bird is 
picked clean it may be plumped by 
submerging again for five or six 
seconds in the hot water, and then 
put in iced or cold water and left 
there until thoroughly cool. 

Dry picking is preferable, because the stock 
thus dressed will keep better, look nicer and bring 
best prices. The methods of killing apply to all 
kinds of poultry, although the bloodless method 
would be a difficult task with geese or turkeys 
and should not be attempted with them. 

In cold weather, after picking and washing feet 
and heads, the birds can be hung in a clean cool 
place and kept from freezing until shipped. In 
warm weather they should first be soaked in iced 
or very cold running spring- water to remove 
all animal heat. This plumps them somewhat, also, 
and they can be quickly washed and dried a few 
hours before shipping. If put in V-shaped troughs 
and weighted, they are given a plumper and more 
compact appearance than when they are hung by 
the shanks. 

Shipping and marketing. 

Each bird should be wrapped in waxed paper, 
and in very warm weather packed with ice. The 
boxes for shipping may be of various sizes, as long 
as they are large enough to contain a dozen or more 
birds, and not too large to be easily handled. Pack 
in two rows, with the heads towards the middle of 




Fig. 549. 
A plucked capon. 



546 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 




the box. Two or three layers can be put in a box, 
provided ice is packed between each two layers in 
hot weather. Put ice on top of the birds, and cover 
the boxes with burlap. The best soft roasters are 
often shipped in single layer cases. 

The quickest way to dispose of this 
product is to ship to some reliable 
commission house. If the stock is 
choice, not torn, clean picked and 
carefully graded, the commission- 
house will allow full wholesale market 
value, less express charges and com- 
mission. The cases when shipped 
should be plainly marked for whom, 
from whom, the number of birds, the 
weight and the kind. The same sys- 
tem of packing and marketing should 
Fig. 550. be used when shipping to dealers or 
Plymouth Rock retailers. In addition, this class of 
Pressed' y trade should first be visited, written 
or telephoned to, and a bargain made 
as to the number and size wanted, and the prices 
to be paid for them. Probably the most profitable 
trade is to sell to the consumers themselves, when 
the distance is not too great, although sometimes 
the expresses will deliver for less than can the 
producer. 

Feathers, when dry picked and sorted so as to 
keep the stiff from the soft, and the white from the 
colored, have a market value worth considering. 
All colors of soft chicken feathers bring 4J to 10 
cents per pound, and pure white bring 20 cents 
per pound. Duck feathers bring 33 to 42 cents per 
■pound, goose feathers 42 to 60 cents per pound, 
goose quills 15 cents per pound. Long, bright- 
colored chicken feathers are sold for millinery pur- 
poses at about $1 per pound. The stiff turkey feath- 
ers are in great demand for feather dusters and the 
like. Feathsrs are cured in sacks of thin material 
exposed to the sun and air for several days. They 
can be sold and shipped in these original sacks. 

Care of eggs. 

Eggs for market will keep better from spoiling 
\f not fertilized. Those from mated pens should be 
kept from warmth and heat over 60 degrees. The 
laying nests should be well supplied with dry saw- 
dust or some clean absorbent. The eggs that be- 
come soiled should be wiped with a damp cloth and 
never submerged in water if they are to be kept 
more than one week. The natural color of the shell 
is not indicative of the quality of the contents, 
although the preferences of the market should be 
catered to, if one wishes to secure best prices. 
Brown-shelled eggs are usually larger than white- 
shelled ones, because all the larger breeds except 
one lay brown eggs, or those from a delicate pink 
to a light chocolate. The color of the yolk is con- 
trolled by feeding green foods rich in ash and pro- 
tein. Eggs are porous and susceptible to taint from 
bad odors. Care must be taken to keep them in 
clean, cool places. Marking the shells in any way 
is not desirable. Cartons holding one dozen eggs 
can be purchased from paper dealers. These have 
specially printed covers, "One Dozen Fresh Eggs," 



etc., and can be used several times if desired. 
Cases holding fifteen or thirty dozen each, for 
shipping to the trade, are popular sizes. (Fig. 551.) 
Deliveries and shipments should be made each week; 
if a private trade, on the same day of each week. 
There are wire fillers for the cartons that display 
the eggs very attractively, but require more time 
in placing the eggs and removing them from the 
trays. With the straw-board fillers, each egg is in 
a separate compartment, and there is little danger 
of breakage. If one becomes cracked, the leakage 
is usually confined to the one compartment. 

The prices fluctuate during the different seasons, 
highest prices being reached just previous to 
Thanksgiving time, and continuing until the latter 
part of January. The price then gradually declines 
until the latter part of March or first part of April, 
when lowest ebb is reached. By June 1 the market 
recovers, and the price gradually increases until 
November. The weather at times may affect prices. 
It is during these low-price periods that the surplus 
is bought up for cold storage or for the different 
methods of preservation. Those intended for cold 
storage must be absolutely fresh, free from dirt and 
packed in standard size thirty-dozen cases and the 
fillers must be free from mold, dirt or odors of any 
kind. Cold-storage plants begin operations as soon 
as the lowest prices are reached, about April 1, and 
continue until the latter part of May. During warm 
weather the quality of eggs deteriorates and they 
do not keep so well as when cooler. The market 
for these cold-storage goods opens in the fall and 
continues until Christmas. 

Eggs should be gathered every day, and all 
broody hens removed from the house. If a nest is 
found in an unusual place, the eggs should be tested 
with a lighter before selling. 

Preserving eggs. — There are several methods of 
preserving eggs during the period of low prices and 
keeping them wholesome until they will bring 
higher prices, but none by which they can be kept 
any length of time and sold as fresh-laid ones. 
The shells may be covered 
with melted paraffin or vase- 
line to prevent evaporation, 
and they will not spoil so 
long as they are kept cool 
and turned every few days. 
Packing in common salt and 
turning occasionally is an- 
other method. The contents 
remain sweet and whole- 
some, but the albumen will 
not beat up as it will in 
fresh-laid ones. The shell will lose its freshness 
and the eggs will not remain good long after being 
taken out of the preservatives, and they should be 
designated as preserved eggs when offered for sale. 

The best method of preservation is as follows: 
One part of water-glass (sodium silicate) mixed 
with nine parts of boiled spring water. Put the 
eggs in a stoneware crock when gathered from the 
nests, if cool and clean, until the crock is nearly 
full ; then pour in the water-glass solution until 
there is at least two inches of liquid over the top 




30 -DOZ 
FRESH EGGS 



Fig. 551. 
Cases for egg snipping. 




Partridge Cochin hen 





White Wyandotte cock 



White Rock hen 




Dark Brahma hen 




Plate XIX. Prominent breeds of fowls 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



547 



layer of eggs. Keep in a cool place. If carefully 
done, this method is reliable. 

Another successful method is to slake two pounds 
of good lump lime, and while hot add one pound of 
common salt. After cooling, add ten quarts of 
boiled spring water and stir thoroughly several 
times the first day. Then let it settle, using only 
the clear liquid, which may be poured over the 
eggs after they have been placed in a stoneware 
crock ; or the liquid can first be put in the crock 
and the eggs put in that, day by day, when 
gathered. The eggs must always be two inches 
below surface. More of the solution can be put in 
when necessary. Stoneware vessels are the most 
desirable ones for keeping these mixtures in. 

Eggs are sometimes removed from the shells, 
canned and kept in cold storage or frozen, and sold 
to large consumers. The most wholesome method 
is evaporation. The egg is then reduced to powder 
that will keep any length of time, in any climate, 
and can be carried to places where poultry-keep- 
ing is out of the question, and where all eatables 
carried must be reduced to a minimum weight. 

The market prices of all kinds of poultry prod- 
ucts are affected by the supply and the demand. 
During the fall and winter, the surplus fowls and 
summer chickens are disposed of and there is an 
abundance of table poultry offered for sale. The 
lowest prices of the year then prevail until the 
bulk of the supply is gone. By April, the chickens 
hatched in the previous spring and summer become 
hard and tough in flesh and have to be sold as 
fowls, while those hatched during the previous 
fall, of either sex, if kept separate during the 
winter, will be soft and tender and bring roaster 
prices, which are the highest in the spring. 

The market for fowls is uniform the year round, 
except for a rise of perhaps two cents per pound 
during the spring when all hens are laying and 
but few are being marketed. The annual molting 
period, July to November inclusive, affects the 
supply of eggs, as does the winter weather in any 
cold climate, and prices rule accordingly. When 
fresh killed poultry and fresh eggs are scarce and 
prices high, cold storage products and preserved 
eggs are in demand , but never does the held-over 
product sell at prices equal to that of recently 
killed poultry and fresh eggs. 

The regular market reports of prices are usually 
reliable when applied to the average quality of 
poultry products, yet a superior quality of either 
dressed poultry or eggs will sell in advance of any 
current published quotations and a good market 
is never overstocked with this class of goods. 
The retail price is usually 5 cents per pound above 
the wholesale price for poultry, and 5 cents per 
dozen for eggs. Consumers who desire the best 
will pay a premium of 10 cents per dozen on eggs 
and 10 cents per pound for poultry that they 
know is brought to them direct from the farm. 
This particular trade often comes from clubs, 
hotels, hospitals and high-class resorts. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 527. 



Judging Poultry. Figs. 552-554. 
By T. E. Orr. 

Prior to the year 1873, there was but little uni- 
formity or system in the methods of judging fowls 
at shows. Indeed, until nearly as late a date as the 
one mentioned, there were few poultry shows to be 
judged. These were nearly all held in the autumn 
in connection with some agricultural fair, and were 
largely in New York and New England. 

In February, 1873, and again in December, 1873, 
a few of the leading fanciers met in Buffalo, New 
York, and in these two meetings organized the 
American Poultry Association. The main purpose 
of this organization was to disseminate a more 
accurate knowledge of pure-bred fowls, and so to 
describe their characteristics of form and feather 
that a better system of breeding and judging them 
might result. Two meetings were held in 1874 and 
in 1875. By this time the real scope of the work 
had become manifest, and specific work was being 
accomplished. From the first it was realized that a 
definite description of both sexes of each variety, 
section by section, both in shape and color, was 
an absolute essential, and these descriptions were 
speedily formulated and tabulated, and then printed 
in a book called The Standard. 

From that time to the present the work of the 
American Poultry Association has not greatly 
varied. The publication of Standards and the edu- 
cation of breeders and judges to uniformity, has 
been its chief work. Of course, in those early days 
there were not nearly so many varieties to describe 
or judge, so the work was much less comprehensive 
than at present. Cochins and Brahmas, Games and 
Hamburgs, Leghorns and Polish were the leading 
classes seen at shows. Some Dorkings and Spanish 
fowls were seen. Barred Plymouth Rocks were 
beginning to be heard from. Wyandottes, Lang- 
shans and many later additions to the Standard 
family were then unknown. Soon a multiplicity 
of varieties were knocking for admission to the 
Standard, and still it continues, although in the 
intervening years a hundred types have secured 
admission. 

The Standard, with its detailed descriptions, was 
no sooner out than the Association deemed it its 
duty to put restrictions on those who should inter- 
pret the Standard by judging fowls at public exhi- 
bitions. Some members of the Association excelled 
as fanciers of some breeds, and some of others ; so 
a committee was appointed to examine candidates 
and license judges. There are those still living 
who hold licenses as Specialty Judges and as Gen- 
eral Judges. And now again, the practice of licens- 
ing judges, abandoned thirty years ago, was 
renewed in 1907. 

Methods of judging. 

There are two distinct and well-known methods 
of arriving at a decision in placing awards. One 
is by comparison ; the other is by the use of the 
score-card. Each method depends on an accurate 
knowledge and a correct interpretation of the 
Standard. Each has its advantages and its advo- 



548 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



cates. Some persons are bitterly opposed to one 
method, some to the other. This should not be. 
They really stand on the same foundation. One 
method, the comparison, depends on an accurate 
knowledge of the other, the score-card, for its ele- 
mentary principles. Both methods, when accurately 
and intelligently applied, should reach exactly the 
same results when judging any class, or combina- 
tion of classes, at a given show. 

Comparison judging. — This is undoubtedly the 
older method. It has been employed in England 
from the inception of their now 
famous exhibitions. It pre- 
vailed in America exclusively 
until the Standard and the 
score -card method were pro- 
mulgated by the American 
Poultry Association. It is the 
method followed today in all 
summer and fall shows, for 
until fowls have recovered 





Fig. 552. Skeleton of cock. 1, Cranium; 2, septum interorbitale; 
3, beak; 4, mandible; 5, cervical vertebrae; 6, scapula; 7. 
humerus; 8, radius; 9, ulna; 10, metacarpal bone; 11, 
"thumb" bone; 12, "middle" finger; 13, "third " finger 
(rudimentary); 14, furcula, fork bone or "wish-bone"; 
15, coracoid bone; 16, sternum; 17, crest or keel of ster- 
num; IS, ribs; 19, pelvis; 20, caudal vertebra?; 21, femur; 
22. patella; 23, tibia; 24, fibula; 25, metatarsus; 26, spur; 
27, hind toe with two joints; 28, inner toe with three 
joints; 29, middle toe with four joints; 30, outer toe with 
five joints. (After Ellenberger.) 

from their annual molt, and until chicks have be- 
came mature in form, size and feather, the score- 
card, accurately applied, would show such low 
scores that exhibitors could not be induced to come 
forward with their birds. 

Formerly all entries were made in pairs, a cock 
and a hen, or a cockerel and a pullet constituting a 
pair. This method still prevails in some fall shows 
or in out-of-the-way places. It cannot be discon- 



tinued too soon. A poor, or even a disqualified 
specimen may chance to be mated with the choicest 
bird of the opposite sex in the class, but the hand- 
icap is so heavy that the " best bird " wins nothing. 
Single entries, single and uniform cooping, and the 
entries so classified that all cocks of the same 
variety shall be adjacent to each other, likewise the 
hens, cockerels and pullets, — this is the only method 
that permits a judge to do his best work by this 
method. The birds being all in their places, each 
coop bearing a distinct coop number, then, and not 
until then, is the judge ready to take his first look 
at the competitors. 

Suppose the judge finds twenty cock birds in the 
first class. It will take him but a minute or two to 
pass up and down before them and mark on his 
memorandum ten birds that he thinks are "not in 
it." But he must not pass them wholly by with 
this hurried glance. The exhibitors have all paid 
the same entry fee. Each one is entitled to atten- 
tion. The judge may find, indeed often does find, 
that one of those cocks that he condemned so 
quickly, on closer examination, is found to be pos- 
sessed of quality not seen at first, that puts him in 
the "upper ten," rather than in the list of "shut- 
outs." It is the safe thing for the judge to handle 
every bird. A group of exhibitors at the end of 
the aisle or up in the gallery, each anxious about 
his entry, may develop among themselves some 
jealousy if their birds are not even handled. On 
the other hand, if they see the judge going over 
and around and through each bird thoroughly, they 
will at least give him credit for trying to earn his 
money. 

We cannot too strongly condemn the practice of 
marking the coops with the judge's private hiero- 
glyphics. It is better for the judge to keep a pri- 
vate judging card on which he enters the coop 
number of each bird in the class ; then, in his pre- 
liminary judging, he can mark off some for shape, 
some for color, and some for condition. He can then 
make his marks for shape, color and the like, on the 
good birds that remain. As he finally narrows the 
class down to a few birds, he will mark opposite 
each bird's number the strong or weak points of 
each section, until he has finally placed the win- 
ners in their correct order. He will then transfer 
the awards to the secretary's book, but will keep 
the card for his own reference and satisfaction. 
This method is a great protection to the judge. 

After having, with care, eliminated one-half the 
birds in the class, the judge's hardest work is just 
begun. Every bird of the remaining ten may be 
worthy of a prize, but, at most, only five of them 
can receive recognition, unless it be at some large 
exposition, as the one at St. Louis, where seven 
awards were made. The judge's task continues to 
be a work of elimination. By going over and over 
the best ten birds, the judge begins to come to a 
conclusion as to which is the best bird in the class 
and which is poorest of the ten, and he makes 
memoranda on his card, looking to that result ; 
then he decides which is second-best, and which is 
the next one to go down and out ; and so he con- 
tinues until the five best are so marked in their 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



549 



proper order, and the poorest half of the best ten 
have been checked off. 

Just at this point comes in the chief advantage 
of comparison judging over the score-card method. 
With a large and strong class before him, the 
judge can generally select for his five prize-win- 
ners fowls more uniform as to type than is gen- 
erally possible by the score-card. The reason for this 
is hard to explain 
to the amateur, 
but every experi- 
enced score-card 
judge knows that 
when the awards 
are placed by the 
footing up of the 
scores, he has found 
that the five birds 
scoring highest, 
and thus standing 
closest together 
in the awards, are 
in style and type, 




553. Judging fowls, 
ining the wings. 



Exanr 



sometimes very dissimilar 

and he will sometimes wish that he could re- 
arrange the winners a little, just for the 
sake of uniformity. Here is the only excep- 
tion the writer will admit to the general rule 
laid down in the beginning, that the results 
will be the same no matter which method is 
followed. 

However carefully the judge has made his plac- 
ing of the five best birds in the class, he will do 
well to spend a little more time and labor before 
he hangs up the awards. Let him remember that 
his awards will surely be criticised on the score- 
card basis ; that there are many experts well 
posted as to Standard cuts who will not hesitate 
to grade the judge pretty low if he makes serious 
mistakes. If his first-prize bird is a perfect model 
in color, but not typical of his breed, has a bad 
comb, a bad eye and a badly carried breast or tail, 
he may deserve cuts aggregating six points on 
these four sections alone ; so the judge must be 
careful to estimate the real value of each speci- 
men with absolute justice. Again, a judge must 
not allow himself to be dazzled or overawed by 
the great beauty of some one section. This is the 
place above all others where the score-card method 
has the advantage of comparison ; it compels delib- 
erate, careful work, of which a written record is 
made and preserved. 

Score-card judging. — By some persons this method 
is thought more closely to interpret and apply the 
Standard than does comparison judging. It should 
not be so. The comparison judge should be just as 
familiar with Standard descriptions, and should 
apply them just as exactly as does the score-card 
judge. The only difference is in the method, not in 
the result. In the one case the judge makes a 
record in writing of the defects of each section as 
he considers it ; in the other, he holds these cuts 
and defects in mind, adding to them as he goes 
along, until the aggregate thereof is reached, and 
this constitutes the value of that bird. He may 
not make these cuts in actual figures for each sec- 



tion, carrying the number in mind until he has 
their sum, which, subtracted from one hundred, 
gives the final score of the bird ; but he does what 
is just as hard when he carries these approximate 
cuts clear through, and as he passes each section 
institutes a comparison between the bird in hand 
and the one that stands next to him in position or 
quality. 

There are those who maintain that comparison is 
easier either for the amateur or for the profes- 
sional judge than is score-card- judging. With this 
conclusion we cannot agree, especially if the 
classes be large and close. Why is the score-card 
less laborious? It is easier because the judge 
handles each bird but once, and calls off his opinion 
of each section to the clerk, who makes a record of 
it. He is then done with that bird. It is "out of 
sight, out of mind," so far as he is concerned, and 
he proceeds to pass on another bird on the one- 
thing-at-a-time method ; whereas, by the compari- 
son method, he may come back to the same bird a 
dozen times to compare one section with that of 
one competitor, and another section with that of 
another competitor, before he can finally place the 
best birds in their proper order. 

The essential qualifications of- a score-card judge 
may be enumerated as follows : (1) He must possess 
an artist's eye, that at a single glance he may take 
in the bird as an individual, measure his defects in 
type and conformation, deduct a proper valuation 
for the extent that he falls short of the typical 
bird of his breed in style, carriage and conforma- 
tion, and place the sum of these defects in the 
column of symmetry. (2) He must have an accurate 
knowledge of the correct shape of head, comb, neck, 
wings, back, tail, and the other parts of the typical 
bird of this breed, also of the various cuts that the 
Standard prescribes for these defects, so that he 
can instantly place a correct valuation on them. 
(3) He must have an intimate acquaintance with 
shades and colors, not necessarily that he may give 
a name to the various shades of color, but have an 
accurate knowledge of the color demanded by the 
Standard for each section of each variety, so that, 
without bringing birds together for comparison, he 
may give to each section a just cut for its defects 
in color. (4) He 



must possess an 
intimate knowl- 
edge of the com- 
binations of 
color that make 
up the strong 
points of parti- 
colored speci- 
mens. For ex- 
ample, in Barred 
PlymouthRocks, 
Silver Wyan- 
dottes, Silver 
Spangled Ham- 
burgs, Silver Sebrights, Silver Polish and Light 
Brahmas, it is not so much to know that these birds 
are a combination of black and white, as to know 
just how black and white come together in vari- 




Fig. 554. Judging fowls. Removing 
the fowl from the cage. 



550 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



ous sections, even in the same feathers. These 
combinations, for example in the tail coverts of 
the Light Brahmas, and in the flights and wing 
coverts of the Silver Wyandottes, are most intri- 
cate and delicate ; and, in the case of the Silver 
Polish, the combination proper in chicks is re- 
versed in the adult, a point for which, strange to 
say, our Standard does not provide. 

Some shows and some judges insist on having 
the birds carried by attendants to a central point 
at which the judge and his clerk are seated, with 
an open exhibition coop before the judge, into 
which the birds are placed, one at a time. This 
method is slow, laborious, productive of many mis- 
takes, and, worst of all, is utterly unfair to the 
birds. To go to the coop of a nervous hen, grab 
her by the legs and carry her, head down, to the 
judge, as most attendants are sure to do, and throw 
her into the judge's coop, and she will be so flus- 
tered and frightened that she may not assume a 
natural position for ten minutes. Before that time 
has elapsed, the judge has been compelled to pass on 
her and several others, and the cuts he has made 
on her symmetry, shape of breast and shape of tail 
are probably very unjust. It is far better that the 
judge pass quietly from coop to coop and size the 
birds up as to symmetry and shape, with as little 
disturbance as possible. While he is doing this, he 
can, in his own skilful way, lift each bird from its 
coop and call off the cuts to the clerk, thus com- 
pleting each bird as he goes along. 

Much can be done by the show management to 
facilitate the work of the judge. One of the best 
methods is to tack to each coop the score-card for 
that bird, giving in duplicate the entry-number, 
variety, sex, band-number and weight. As the 
judge reaches the coop, he tears off the card at 
the perforated line, leaving the duplicate heading 
still attached to the coop. When the score-cards 
have been footed and filled out, a clerk can pass to 
each coop, filling in, on the attached head-piece, 
the owner's name, the score and the award. The 
exhibitors are entitled to this much publicity, and 
visitors who pay their admission fees are entitled 
to this much information. Some shows follow the 
practice of tacking to each coop the complete 
score-card. This is well, provided a copy of the 
card has been recorded on the books of the 
association. 

Some judges refuse to have a clerk, and not only 
fill out, but foot and sign their cards while stand- 
ing in front of the coops. This makes "safe" 
work for the judge, as it enables him to see the 
complete score of each bird, also to locate the win- 
ners of each class before he leaves it, correcting 
what appear to have been errors in scoring. But 
the real judge never does this. He calls off the 
cuts for each section in their proper order, which 
the clerk records, and then both pass on instantly 
to the next specimen. The best judges do not even 
foot the scores or touch the score-cards until they 
are through with their work, and then go to the 
office to "sign up." 

Unless the cards are copied in the records, they 
should not be given to exhibitors until the close of 



the show. Much trouble results from giving out 
the cards too soon. 

The one thing that has caused more trouble, the 
past two years, than all things else combined, is the 
Standard directions for awarding sweepstake and 
special prizes. In the opinion of the writer, this is 
unfortunate legislation. In the first place, there 
should never be a sweepstake prize offered that 
brings different breeds or varieties into competi- 
tion. All specials should name some one variety 
on which they are to be placed. While show com- 
mittees continue to offer sweepstakes that involve 
different breeds or varieties, the actual scores of 
the judge should govern. This would soon make 
this class of prizes so unpopular with the fanciers 
of weight -clause varieties, that the practice of 
offering such specials would be killed. The other 
objectionable feature in the paragraph of the 
Standard above referred to is that of handicapping 
solid-colored specimens in favor of those that are 
parti-colored. Under the old Standard, this handi- 
cap was one and one-half points. It has since been 
reduced to only one point. The idea prevails in 
some circles that it is easier to breed a solid-colored 
variety than one that is parti-colored. As a breeder 
for many years of seven varieties of one breed, 
four of these being parti-colored and three of them 
being solid -colored, the writer can demonstrate 
that it is much easier to breed ten birds of the 
parti -colored varieties that will score, honestly, 
ninety-two points each, than to get five birds of 
the solid-colored varieties that will reach a like 
score. The judge who has had long experience, 
who has good sight, and who will unhesitatingly 
enforce the prescribed Standard cuts for creami- 
ness and brassiness in white birds, knows that 
there is no bird so rare, even in our largest shows, 
as one that is pure white throughout. A buff bird, 
pure in color, free from any other shade, is scarcely 
less rare. A truly black bird is a trifle easier to 
find among the young females, but is still rarer 
than parti-colored birds of equally high scores. 

Details of scoring. — The symmetry should be 
caught before the bird is touched. It means, not 
the cutting for ill-shape of the various sections, 
but a harmonious union of those various shape sec- 
tions so as to make, as a whole, a bird typical of 
his own breed, and with a style and finish about 
him that is peculiar to the breed in hand. 

The weight should have been taken, and recorded 
on the card before the judge touches it. He then 
makes his weight cuts in accordance with Stand- 
ard rules, not forgettin'g that in American varieties 
over-weight is to be punished as well as under- 
weight. In non-weight varieties, judges should be 
more careful than they are to cut for under size. 
Failure to do this in past years has done much 
harm to Leghorns and Hamburgs. 

Under condition is the place where the careless 
exhibitor should be punished, so that the painstak- 
ing man, who has kept his fowls in perfect health, 
who has not allowed their combs and wattles to 
become frost-bitten, who has manicured their shanks 
and toes, and has carefully washed and plumed his 
birds, will get his due reward. 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



551 



In examining the head, the judge should give 
close attention to the length and curvature of skull 
and beak. An American specimen with a long and 
level top-piece, as in a Game, is very undesirable. 
The judge should also punish severely a white or 
pearl eye when the Standard calls for " red or bay," 
and see that the shape of the eye is typical of the 
breed. The comb stands for so much in both Medi- 
terranean and American varieties that a most care- 
ful study of Standard illustrations and cuts is 
recommended. The judge should not hesitate to dis- 
qualify a comb that is unmistakably lop-sided. 
Wattles and ear-lobes vary in value so much with 
the breed that they require special attention. The 
judge should notice the difference in this section 
between Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes and 
Orpingtons. In order that the large, shapely ear- 
lobe of the Mediterranean, with its enamel-white 
surface, free from folds, wrinkles or red spots, 
may have its just value, occurring in its perfection 
so seldom, cuts for the many common defects of 
ear-lobes should be made freely. 

Most judges fail to assign full Standard value to 
the neck. It ranges from six points in some of the 
Bantams to ten points in the ornamental varieties 
and in Asiatics. In the Asiatics, we think this is 
rather high, but in the American breeds, three for 
shape and six for color is about right ; and the 
judge should enforce it, especially on Barred Ply- 
mouth Rocks and Silver Wyandottes. Correct neck 
color indicates much in the breeding power of a 
male bird of these two varieties. 

By the new Standard, the judge passes from 
neck to wings. This is the natural order. He should 
not be in a hurry to get away from the wings. 
Only four points are assigned to shape of wings, 
and on these four points must be made the cuts for 
unnaturally shaped wings, also for broken or miss- 
ing feathers. We find the limit of four points 
scarcely enough in some cases, and often cut the 
full limit. The judge should study very carefully 
the color cuts for wings of parti-colored birds, such 
as Light Brahmas, Silver Wyandottes and Barred 
Plymouth Rocks. 

The back is the great shape indicator of the 
American breeds, even more than breast or body. 
The writer thinks that this section should be rated 
just as high in Asiatics and Mediterraneans, and 
he predicts that the next Standard revision will 
witness changes in this direction. It is true that 
the back does not carry so much meat as the breast 
and body, but it is the point or place that sustains 
these sections, and with an ill-shaped back no 
breast or body can be good enough to work redemp- 
tion. The judge should cut bad-shaped backs to the 
limit, if necessary. 

The tail is one of the beauty points that requires 
careful attention. The judge must note carefully 
all the ranges of tail carriage, almost over his 
head in the case of the Japanese Bantam Cock, 
very high in the Langshan, and away down in the 
Minorca and the Game. He must study and famil- 
iarize himself with all the intermediate stations, 
and cut accordingly. 

The shape of the breast of a specimen varies 



more with his fatness than does any other section. 
The judge must take this into consideration, but 
should not fail to punish a "turkey breast" when 
a "low-set keel" is called for. And here let the 
writer explain that fatness and fleshness mean the 
same. The cockerel that today weighs only four 
pounds, his keel as sharp as a knife-blade, his 
shanks seemingly "coming out of the same hole," 
has just as many fibers of muscle or flesh as he 
will have three months later when he tips the beam 
at eight pounds, with his deep, round breast, every 
muscle interlarded with delicate tissues of luscious 
fat, which is not greasy, but which makes each 
fiber round and smooth ; and his shanks will then 
stand so far apart that he fairly waddles as he 
walks. The judge must learn to take all these 
things into consideration, and must base his cuts 
on breast and body on the typical bird of his breed 
in perfect condition. 

The section, body and fluff, as outlined in the 
scale of points, has to do chiefly with the lower 
and rear parts of the body, the back and breast 
having had previous consideration. Care must be 
exercised in judging females to notice whether 
they are producing eggs or not. At such times, 
the egg-producing organs being very active, the 
abdominal section covered by the fluff is likely to 
be abnormally developed. One should hesitate to 
cut a hen heavily on shape when the evident cause 
is the fact that she is in daily performance of the 
very functions that nature intended her for. 

The last item on the score-card is legs and toes. 
Here, shape and color have equal value. A very 
common fault with American.and English varieties 
is that the thighs and shanks are too long. Some 
years ago, special rewards were offered by large 
western packing houses for one variety that pro- 
duced a large percentage of specimens with the 
" legs " (first joints above the shanks) so short that 
when the fowl was dressed the legs would not 
extend beyond the rump. With the Leghorns, a 
common fault is that the legs and shanks are too 
short, making the bird low and squatty, instead of 
rangy and up-standing. In Cochins, these organs 
should be short ; in Langshans, they should be long. 

The scale of points says nothing about under- 
color, but as it is mentioned in almost every section 
containing feathers, the writer wishes to call the 
special attention of the young judge to it. By 
the English Standard and the superficial English 
method of applying it, under-color counts for but 
little. With our American Standard, calling for a 
thorough and searching investigation of every sec- 
tion, it becomes a most important factor. The judge 
should give it close attention and remember that 
if "slate" or "buff" is called for, for example, 
white under-color is a disqualification and must be 
punished severely. 

Literature. 

The reader should consult The American Standard 
of Perfection, published by The American Poultry 
Association, for full information for judging fowls, 
and for score-cards for the several families. [For 
further references, see page 527.] 



552 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



Common Ailments of Poultry. 

By Prince T. Woods. 

Nearly all poultry diseases are preventable. 
Very few cases of serious illness undergo a suffi- 
ciently rapid and complete recovery to make pro- 
longed treatment worth while. It is not good 
judgment to spend several dollars' worth of time 
and money in treating and dosing a sick bird worth 
less than one dollar at market prices. The practical, 
useful life of the average fowl seldom exceeds four 
years. When kept exclusively for market purposes, 
eggs and meat, the poultryman cannot afford to 
keep hens beyond their third year as egg-producers, 
and not many beyond their second year. The first 
two years of egg-production yield the best profits. 
This short period of useful life does not allow much 
time for doctoring sick fowls. Except in mild cases 
of sickness, the wisest, safest and most economical 
treatment is to kill the sick bird and burn the car- 
cass. By so doing, one gets rid of a possible source 
of contagion, and minimizes the danger of spread- 
ing the trouble to the remainder of the flock. 

Prevention. 

The five essentials in preventing poultry diseases 
are : 

(1) Breed only from sound, vigorous, healthy, 
well-matured stock. A poultryman should never 
use in a breeding pen a deformed specimen or one 
that has apparently been cured of serious illness. 
It is difficult to know when a fowl is really cured. 
Many supposedly cured individuals have the disease 
in chronic form. The tendency to become diseased 
can be transmitted t'o the progeny. Likewise, the 
tendency to resist disease may be inherited. Breed- 
ing only from perfectly healthy birds, fully grown 
and in their prime, insures chicks that will be 
able to resist disease. One cannot produce strong, 
healthy chickens from debilitated or unsound breed- 
ing stock. Starting with healthy breeding stock, 
one must keep it sound and vigorous by common- 
sense care and management. The eggs from healthy 
stock, properly incubated, should give the maximum 
vitality in the chicks. Such chicks, properly cared 
for, should possess the greatest disease-resisting 
power. One can breed health in poultry and fix the 
tendency to health, generation after generation, 
more easily than he can breed fancy points in size, 
shape and plumage. 

(2) Sensible fresh-air housing is essential to keep 
fowls healthy. Fresh-air quarters or open-front 
colony houses are in the majority of cases the most 
satisfactory. The curtain-front, or building in 
which a part of the south windows are replaced by 
coarse unbleached muslin screens, is the next best 
type of building. The tightly closed house, unless 
run with one or more windows open night and day, 
and the fowls protected from drafts, is the least 
desirable type. An abundance of fresh air is abso- 
lutely necessary for fowls both night and day, 
summer and winter. It must be supplied so that 
there are no drafts about the roosting fowls. 
Artificially heated houses are always unsafe. Close 
or tight houses, unless thoroughly aired daily, will 



show frost and dampness on the walls in cold 
weather. Dampness invites colds and other ail- 
ments. Houses must not be over-crowded. Crowd- 
ing on the roosts at night is inimical to health. 
The poultry-yards should be of good size and well 
drained. With poultry-houses of ordinary height, 
the minimum amount of house air space should 
not be less than twenty-five cubic feet per fowl. 
For yard room, breeding stock and layers should 
have a range of at least sixty-five square feet of 
land for each bird. 

(3) Wholesome food in variety and pure water 
are essential to keep fowls healthy. Elaborate ra- 
tions are not necessary. Fowls fed exclusively on 
dry grain are less liable to disease than those fed 
heavily on moist mashes. The average fowl requires 
three to five ounces of dry grain daily (according 
to size and appetite), in addition to meat food, 
green food, grit, oyster shell, charcoal, granulated 
bone and pure water. The staple feeding grains 
are corn, wheat, oats and barley. Only sound, clean 
grain should be used, and it should be free from 
dust, mustiness and mold. The drinking-water 
should be clean, pure and fresh. Fowls should 
never drink from a stream into which barnyard 
seepage and other filth empties. Unclean food and 
impure water are prolific sources of poultry disease. 

(4) Prompt isolation and disposal of sick birds 
are important in preventing disease. Sick speci- 
mens should be removed from the remainder of the 
flock as soon as possible, to prevent spread of the 
trouble. 

(5) Reasonable cleanliness in poultry quarters is 
necessary in preventing disease. The houses must 
be cleaned regularly. The runs should be plowed 
up and seeded down with quick-growing grain or 
grass twice a year. Small, hard or sandy runs 
should be swept frequently and the manure removed 
in dry weather or before heavy rains. Litter 
material, when used in the houses, should be clean, 
bright and free from any mold or mustiness. Food 
and water receptacles should be kept clean. Nest- 
ing material should be changed frequently. Floors 
of poultry-houses should be cleaned or, in case of 
earth floors, renewed when badly fouled. 

One general rule that should be followed in 
every case of sickness is, seek and find the cause 
of the disease and remove it before treatment is 
attempted. 

Lice. 

By far the most common ailments of poultry are 
the parasitic diseases. There are many varieties of 
lice and mites affecting fowls. The presence of 
body lice may be readily detected by examination. 
Look under the wings and on the skin about the 
feather roots, on the abdomen, back, neck and head. 
All fowls are lousy unless treated. Pure, fresh, 
unadulterated Persian insect powder is the best 
remedy for body lice. It should be thoroughly 
dusted into the plumage and worked well down to 
the skin all over the body. Repeat the dusting in 
ten days. This, if properly done, should give sev- 
eral months of freedom from the pest. Lice breed 
on the fowl in the plumage. 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



553 



Mites. 

Red, black or gray mites are poultry bed-bugs. 
They breed in the cracks and crevices about the 
house or under accumulated droppings. Keep the 
roosting quarters clean, use freely a mixture of 
kerosene, one quart, and creolin, one fluid ounce, 
or a good liquid lice -killer, for painting roosts 
and dropping -boards. Do this in the morning 
when needed, so that roosts will be dry at night. 

Scaly-leg. 

This is a parasitic disease caused by a scab-mite. 
It is characterized by rough grayish or whitish 
scales and crusts, accumulating on the shanks and 
feet. It may spread gradually to other fowls. For 
treatment, apply an ointment made by mixing one 
teaspoonful of creolin in one cupful of melted lard. 
Stir the mixture until cool, when it is ready to 
apply. Apply daily until the scales and crusts 
come away and leave the shanks clean. 

Simple canker or aphthce. 

The cause of simple canker is infection of 
scratched or abraded mucous surfaces with mold 
spores, other fungi or germs. It commonly appears 
after birds have been fighting, particularly where 
dusty, musty or moldy litter material is used. It 
is indicated by yellowish or whitish patches in the 
mouth or throat ; these usually appear as irregular 
white or yellowish ulcers, surrounded by an 
inflamed area of mucous membrane. The treatment 
is to dust a little powdered boracic acid on the 
canker spots or sores, or apply pure creolin with a 
cotton swab (a bit of absorbent cotton twisted 
around the point of a sharp stick). A solution of 
fifteen grains of boracic acid in one ounce of water 
may be used freely as a wash. 

Diphtheria. 

This is a not uncommon disease of poultry, some- 
times confused with canker. The cause is thought 
to be a specific germ, and the disease is very con- 
tagious. An apparently healthy fowl becomes sud- 
denly ill, loses appetite, the feathers hang loosely, 
the bird appears dumpish, legs hot, comb hot and 
deep red, but later may become pale. These symp- 
toms are accompanied by difficult breathing, cough 
with sharp " pip " sound, redness and inflammation 
of throat. Small pearl -gray or yellowish-colored 
patches appear on the back part of the throat, 
about the cleft palate. These increase rapidly in 
size and run together. False membrane may grow 
so rapidly as to cause the death of the fowl from 
suffocation. An attempt to remove the membrane 
results in bleeding. The breath is fetid. Great 
weakness comes on from constitutional poisoning. 
Paralysis may appear at any stage, and the fowl 
loses the use of legs or wings. Paralysis of the 
heart may cause death. One attack of this disease 
predisposes to another. 

Remove the sick fowl promptly from the flock, 
to prevent further spread of the disease. It is sel- 
dom advisable to waste time doctoring, and it is 
better to kill the bird and burn the carcass. For 
internal treatment, give four times daily a one 



one-hundredth of a grain tablet of biniodid of mer- 
cury. Cleanse mouth and throat frequently with 
full strength peroxid of hydrogen, or with a solu- 
tion of one teaspoonful of creolin in four fluid 
ounces (half a glass) of water. [See Aspergillosis.] 

Aspergillosis. 

This disease is sometimes confused with simple 
canker and diphtheria, when " cheesy " accumula- 
tions form in the mouth, throat and eyes. It is 
caused by parasitic fungi, which are commonly 
found in the dust and mold of filthy litter or dirty, 
damaged grain. It usually attacks only suscepti- 
ble members of a flock. It sometimes appears in 
epidemic form and results in the speedy loss of 
many fowls. The fungi are inhaled with dust and 
may make their first attack on the lungs or inter- 
nal organs, so that the presence of the disease is 
not suspected until well established. Sick pigeons 
may spread disease. 

This disease is frequently mistaken for tubercu- 
losis, as the nodules or deposits in the lungs or 
other organs resemble tubercles. Usually the first 
visible symptom is a small white nodule or 
"cheese" patch in the mouth at the side of the 
tongue or beneath it, or white patches on the back 
wall of the throat, the cleft palate, or at the open- 
ing of the windpipe. Frequently the fowl breathes 
with difficulty and expels the air from the lungs 
with a loud wheezing or peculiar whistling sound. 
Death may follow from suffocation. The course of 
the disease is usually prolonged, although when it 
appears in epidemic form it is often rapidly fatal. 
Mouth, throat, lungs and sometimes other internal 
organs are rapidly filled with "cheesy" deposits or 
small nodules. 

For treatment, first remove the cause. Supply 
only clean grain, free from dust and mustiness. 
Remove all litter from the pens and supply only 
clean white sand for the birds to scratch in. Take 
sick specimens from the flock and kill all of those 
that are seriously affected. Mild cases may be 
placed in open sheds on some part of the farm 
remote from other poultry quarters. Spray the 
poultry buildings with a 3 per cent formaldehyde 
solution in water. It will be beneficial if the fowls 
inhale the vapor from this spray mixture. Dipping 
the heads in the creolin solution is often helpful. 
For this purpose, use one teaspoonful of pure creo- 
lin in one pint of water. Mix fresh when used and 
do not dip the heads of more than six fowls in the 
same solution. When the disease is apparently con- 
fined to the mouth and throat, mix thoroughly one 
grain of finely, powdered permanganate of potas- 
sium with one ounce of finely powdered sugar of 
milk. Blow this into the mouth, throat and nos- 
trils, directly onto the "cheesy" patches or ulcers, 
three or four times daily at first, then less fre- 
quently as the case improves. This remedy will be 
found useful in all cases of so-called canker, regard- 
less of the precise diagnosis. 

Roup. 

This is a general term applied to a great variety 
of poultry diseases, and to diphtheria when accom- 



554 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



panied by a swollen head or a discharge from the 
eyes and nostrils. The name "roup" is applied to 
all diseases accompanied by a discharge from the 
nostrils and eyes, including common colds and con- 
tagious catarrh. 

Common colds are caused by exposure to cold, 
dampness, cold winds, drafts, dust, crowding in the 
houses, insufficient supply of fresh air, houses 
closed too tightly at night, or sudden weather 
changes. The symptoms are sneezing, watery eyes, 
bubbles in the corners of the eyes, glairy discharge 
or bubbles from nostrils, and swollen face. The 
treatment is to remove the cause when possible. 
Provide plenty of fresh air in the sleeping quar- 
ters. Usually the use of condition powders in the 
food or tonic in the drinking-water is all the medic- 
inal treatment necessary to break up a simple 
cold. Seasoning mashes with ginger and red pep- 
per, and feeding raw onions, often prove benefi- 
cial. If taken at the start the following remedy 
will usually cure : Mix twenty to thirty drops of 
spirits of camphor with a teaspoonf ul of granulated 
sugar. Dissolve the whole in a pint of drinking- 
water and allow the birds no other drink. 

Contagious catarrh or true roup is thought to be 
caused by a specific germ. It is usually mildly con- 
tagious. In epidemic form it is very contagious 
and spreads rapidly. 

The most characteristic symptom of roup is the 
peculiar, penetrating, fetid odor. Frequently the 
presence of the disease may not be suspected until 
this peculiar odor attracts attention. Handling the 
fowl and squeezing the nostril with the thumb 
shows the presence of a glairy water-white, gray- 
ish or yellowish discharge having the roup smell. 
The discharge at first is usually frothy and watery ; 
later, it becomes grayish, then thick and yellow. 
It may accumulate in considerable quantities 
beneath the eyelids. It dries on the beak, also on 
the feathers of the body, particularly about the 
wings, where the fowl has wiped off discharges. 
The legs are hot, the comb and the wattles usually 
hot and deep dark red. The disease may spread 
through the sick birds' contaminating the food and 
the drinking-water. It usually develops in two to 
seven days after infection. Many cases are mild, 
but in all the roup smell is present. It frequently 
appears in chronic form, running a course of weeks, 
months, or years, the specimen being always a 
source of infection for other birds. Neglected com- 
mon colds prepare the way for roup. After the 
fowls are apparently cured, the roup smell will 
cling to the plumage, and even to the poultry-house 
after disinfection. 

Do not waste time and money on a seriously sick 
specimen ; kill and burn it. Remove all suspected 
cases to an open-front shed, remote from other 
poultry buildings. Use the creolin dip recommended 
in aspergillosis. Thoroughly disinfect poultry quar- 
ters as soon as sick or suspected birds are removed. 
Make the fowl inhale creolin vapor by spraying 
over it (in a sprayer throwing a fine mist) a solu- 
tion of one teaspoonful of creolin in a pint of 
water. Cleansing the fowl's head, eyes, nostrils, 
mouth and throat with creolin disinfectant, followed 



by keeping the bird in strictly open-front fresh- 
air quarters, will do more to cure this disease than 
dosing. When accompanied by ulceration of the 
mucous membrane in the mouth or throat, use per- 
manganate of potassium and milk-sugar powder, as 
recommended in the treatment of aspergillosis. 
Feed stimulating and easily digested food. 

Diarrhea. 

Diarrhea, which is often a symptom of many 
diseases, is a trouble commonly noticed by the 
poultry-keeper. It is usually the result of indiges- 
tion, eating spoiled food, or too much meat food. 
It is indicated by looseness of the bowels with yel- 
lowish, greenish, dark or watery discharges. The 
treatment is to find and remove the cause, put the 
affected bird on a diet of dry grain, withhold meat 
food, and feed charcoal freely. Scalded milk, thick- 
ened with well-boiled flour and seasoned with gin- 
ger, may be given freely, and is usually all the 
treatment necessary in simple diarrhea. 

Contagious diarrhea. 

Under this general head, we include all contagious 
or infectious diseases resulting in inflammation of 
the mucous surface of the intestines. These dis- 
eases are usually the result of infection with one of 
several varieties of bacteria or germs which mul- 
tiply rapidly, resulting in irritation and inflamma- 
tion of the mucous lining of the intestines, with 
invasion of the liver, kidneys and other internal 
organs. The infection usually takes place through 
contaminated food or drinking-water. It commonly 
occurs when fowls are kept in dirty, filthy runs 
and obliged to drink water polluted with their own 
droppings, or with the excrement of pigeons and 
water-fowl, or with seepage from the barnyard. 

The symptoms usually develop rapidly. The bird 
is thirsty, has little appetite, is dumpish and not 
disposed to move about. The discharge from the 
bowels is loose and watery, and may be a dark or 
bluish green, sometimes streaked with blood. The 
affected bird stands with the neck drawn back on 
the body, the tail drooped and the feathers held 
loose. The comb and the wattles are dark red or 
purplish and the legs hot. The disease may run a 
course of five days to five weeks. In prolonged 
cases, there is usually great loss of flesh. Some 
cases recover spontaneously, but in others death 
occurs, usually from exhaustion. 

For treatment, first of all remove the cause. 
Isolate the sick birds ; use disinfectants freely; 
disinfect and remove the excrement ; supply only 
wholesome, easily digested, stimulating food and 
pure water in clean receptacles. Calomel given in 
one one-hundredth of a grain doses three times a 
day frequently proves beneficial. For obstinate 
cases or cases in which the excrement is blood- 
streaked, dissolve twelve tablets of mercury bi- 
chlorid, one one-thousandth of a grain drug strength 
each, in one quart of drinking-water and allow the 
birds no other drink ; or for individual treatment, 
give one one-thousandth of a grain tablet of mer- 
cury bichlorid three times daily. Give remedy less 
often as soon as case shows improvement. 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



555 



Fowl cholera. 

Fowl cholera is caused by a specific germ. It is 
very contagious and may be transmitted by con- 
tact, inoculation or through the food and drinking- 
water. It usually makes its appearance in three 
days to three weeks after infection. The earliest 
symptom is a yellowish discoloration of that part 
of the droppings normally white, which gradu- 
ally becomes a deeper yellow, frequently turning 
greenish or deep bluish green. The fowl is inclined 
to separate itself from the flock, becomes unsteady 
on its legs, and walks with a staggering gait ; the 
feathers are rumpled and stand out from the body; 
the wings droop, the head is drawn down with an 
apparent shortening of the neck, tail drooped or 
horizontal ; the comb and the wattles become pale, 
and the legs hot ; the appetite vanishes and the 
bird refuses to eat ; the crop remains hard and full 
of food, due to partial paralysis. Death may occur 
at any time and is usually ushered in by convul- 
sions and sharp cries. 

Treatment is seldom satisfactory. Sick birds and 
all suspected cases during a cholera epidemic should 
be promptly'removed from the flock. Disinfectants 
should be used freely about poultry-houses and 
yards, and every precaution taken to avoid further 
spread. The remedy most likely to prove effective 
is mercury bichlorid in tablets of one one-thou- 
sandth of a grain drug strength each, as recom- 
mended under contagious diarrhea. 

Limberneck. 

This is another common name applied to all ail- 
ments in which the common symptom of paralysis 
or loss of the use of the neck muscles occurs, so 
that the head and neck hang limp, or the head 
hangs with the neck arched from the body, or the 
neck is twisted back on the body. It is due to 
nerve disturbance, usually dependent on intestinal 
irritation. The most frequent causes are poisoning 
from eating putrid meat, paint skins, commercial 
fertilizers, spray mixtures and the like, or irrita- 
tion caused by the presence of intestinal parasites. 
In cases of suspected poisoning, remove the bird 
to a small, clean, dry coop in warm, well-aired 
quarters. Make it swallow quantities of flaxseed 
gruel, white of egg and warm milk seasoned lightly 
with ginger. Examine the premises carefully to 
remove the cause if possible. 

Worms. 

Fowls commonly have intestinal worms. These 
are spread rapidly through the flock by the food 
and the water becoming contaminated with the 
droppings of affected birds. Worms may be noticed 
in the droppings. In other cases, one may get lim- 
berneck or wry-neck symptoms that cannot be 
attributed to poisoning. The best treatment is to 
give the bird, after it has been fasting twelve 
hours, at one dose, a mixture of two teaspoonfuls 
of oil of turpentine and one tablespoonful of sweet 
or olive oil. This should be introduced directly into 
the crop through a rubber tube passed down the 
throat. The dose may be repeated in twelve to 
twenty-four hours if necessary. Disinfect all drop- 



pings with a strong creolin solution, not less than 
five fluid ounces of creolin to a gallon of water. 

Gapes. 

Gapes is a disease of small chickens caused by a 
parasitic worm common in some sections of the 
country. The worms attach themselves to the 
mucous lining of the windpipe. Fowls are some- 
times affected and may spread the contagion. Fre- 
quently clean and disinfect coops and runs occupied 
by young chicks. Prepare the ground for the occu- 
pancy of the chicks by a thorough top-dressing 
with slaked lime worked well into the soil. Plant 
to some quick-growing green stuff. Confine the 
chicks until well grown. Remove frequently to 
new runs prepared in the same way. Disinfect old 
ground with a strong creolin solution, or a 3 per 
cent sulfuric acid solution, as soon as the chicks 
leave it. Gape-worms may be removed from the 
windpipe of the chicks by means of a loop of horse 
hair or a wire gape-worm extractor. The extractor 
should be dipped in a weak solution of creolin. 
Shake off all excess of the solution before intro- 
ducing the extractor into the windpipe. The 
chick's neck should be stretched and the mouth 
held open, the extractor introduced into the wind- 
pipe through the mouth, and removed with a twist- 
ing motion. This will usually bring out the greater 
part of the worms and the remainder will be killed 
by contact with the solution adhering to the 
extractor. The extractor with the worms attached 
should be dipped immediately into a strong 
disinfectant. 

Pip. 

Pip is a common ailment, and the name is applied 
by poultrymen to inflammation of the mouth usu- 
ally characterized by drying of the mucous mem- 
brane, resulting in a hard, horny scale forming on 
the end of the tongue. Frequently this occurs as a 
symptom of some other trouble, as a heavy cold or 
bronchitis. In such cases the disease and not the 
symptom should be treated. Do not attempt to 
remove the "pip" or horny scale by force, but wait 
until it comes away easily. Glycerine and water 
equal parts may be applied freely, and this is usu- 
ally all the treatment needed ; or the attendant 
may wash out the mouth frequently with a solution 
of fifteen grains of boracic acid in one ounce of 
water. Either remedy may be used freely without 
danger. 

Bronchitis. 

Bronchitis is an inflammation of the mucous 
membrane of the larger air-passages. It is usually 
the result of exposure to bleak, wintry winds, cold, 
wet storms, sleeping in drafts in crowded quarters, 
too close confinement in tight houses with an 
insufficient supply of fresh air, or inhaling irritat- 
ing dust. The most noticeable symptoms are rat- 
tling in the throat and difficult noisy breathing. 
Place the fowl in comfortable fresh-air quarters, 
where it will not be exposed to drafts. Feed nour- 
ishing, stimulating food. In the drinking-water, 
use twelve tablets of arsenite of antimony, one one- 



556 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



thousandth of a grain drug strength each, to each 
pint of water, and allow the bird no other drink. 

Literature. 

Wood, The Poultryman's Formulary; same, Facts 
About White Diarrhea ; same, Insects Affecting 
Poultry ; Salmon, Diseases of Poultry, George E. 
Howard & Co., Washington, D. C. [See also, refer- 
ences on page 527.] 

Poultry-House Construction. Figs. 555-570. 

By James E. Rice. 

The modern poultry-house is a compromise be- 
tween two extremes in poultry-house construction : 
between the open-shed shelter on the one hand, 
which was too open, and the large, double-boarded, 
tight house, which was too close. In the former, 
fowls suffered from the cold ; in the latter, they 




Fig. 555. A hen-house complete. 

suffered from lack of fresh air. Of the two, the 
first was to be preferred. The modern poultry- 
house is the composite of the successes of centuries 
and the result of the elimination of many mistakes. 
It has been gradually worked out through the ex- 
pensive, practical experiences of poultrymen, rather 
than by the discoveries of scientific truths regarding 
poultry architecture. Poultrymen built houses of 
various types and gradually discovered which gave 
them the best results. The scientist now endeavors 
to formulate theories to explain these results. 

The successful poultry-house must be, first of 
all, cheerful, healthful, comfortable, convenient, 
inexpensive and durable. In order to meet these 
requirements, it must be built to meet the condi- 
tions of the climate. Manifestly, a poultry-house 
that is best adapted to meet the requirements of 
the long, cold winters of the North would not be 
best suited to meet the requirements of the long, 
hot season of the South. The principles of con- 
struction, however, are of general application and 
may be modified to suit conditions. 

The size of the flock in its relation to construction. 
The modern tendency in poultry-plant manage- 
ment is toward larger flocks and therefore toward 
larger houses. This is in conformity with the 
effort to save labor. The great' handicap to exten- 
sive poultry-keeping in the past has been the limi- 
tation of man's ability to handle large numbers of 



fowls profitably. One of the efforts to overcome 
this handicap is to increase the number of fowls 
kept in a pen. It may be laid down as a principle 
of general application that dividing the frock mul- 
tiplies the labor, and conversely, multiplying the 
flock divides the labor. It is also true that increas- 
ing the number of fowls in a flock multiplies the 
danger and increases the responsibilities. Further- 
more, it seems to have been proved that the smaller 
the flock, the larger the production per fowl, other 
things being equal. Just what size of flock will be 
likely to yield the maximum production with the 
minimum labor and risk, is not yet proved. Twenty 
years ago, flocks of fifteen to twenty-five fowls in 
a pen were common ; today they are rare. Now 
flocks of thirty to fifty are common, and on a few 
of the large and apparently successful poultry- 
farms, fowls are being kept in flocks of sixty to 
one hundred, and in rare instances, two hundred to 
three hundred or more in a single pen. 

Amount of space per fowl. 

The unit for estimating the capacity of 
poultry-houses is the square feet of floor space 
allowed per hen. In this respect, also, the 
effort to save labor has modified the practice. 
Formerly it was thought necessary to allow 
each fowl eight to ten square feet of floor 
space ; now, four to five square feet per hen 
is generally thought to be sufficient. A few 
p, poultrymen allow as little as two and one-half 
^ to three square feet of floor space per fowl. 
The space that must be allowed for the maxi- 
mum capacity of a pen, with the minimum 
of labor and risk, will depend on several 
important considerations : 

(1) The locality and the season of the year. If 
the fowls are to be allowed to run out on the 
range a large part of the year, the danger from 
congestion in the houses will be far less than in a 
locality where the season of close confinement in 
the houses is longer. Manifestly, during the sum- 
mer season, when hens are largely out-of-doors, 
more fowls can be kept in a pen than during the 
winter season when they are confined. 

(2) The larger breeds require more floor space 
than do the smaller breeds, but not so much per 
pound live weight, because of the fact that the 
lighter breeds are more active and impatient under 
restraint. For the more active breeds, a good 




Fig. 556. 



Location of poultry-houses with reference 
to air-drainage. 



working rule is to allow about one square foot of 
floor space per pound live weight, i. e., about four 
square feet per fowl. With the heavier breeds, a 
little less floor space per pound live weight is 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



557 



needed ; in other words, six-pound fowls should be 
allowed about five square feet each. 

(3) Fowls kept in large flocks require less floor 
space per hen than do those kept in small flocks. 



-73-'- 



Vxjs'-4SOsjJt 



2"/S&&'-{SOs<i.ft. 



/OJfS^SOsf.f/. 



/gxspi'-jsoifff. D 



/&30'*?SOif.ft. E 



1 Hz' 
J around 



//O ■ 
around 



99\ 

Ground 



around 






84-4-/J 
around 



Fig. 557. Showing relation of shape of house to economy of 
construction. Square houses economize lumber and labor 
of construction. 

This is due to the fact that in large flocks each hen 
has greater freedom of action, i. e., has more space 
for exercise. 

Location of the poultry-house. 

The location of a poultry-house has much to do 
with its value. The following factors must be con- 
sidered : 

(1) It should face the south if possible, in order 
to get the largest benefit from the sun. 

(2) It should be protected from the prevailing 
winds by being placed in the lee of a hill, of trees, 
or of buildings. 

(3) It should stand on well-drained soil in order 
to insure dryness, warmth, cleanliness and health- 
fulness. 

(4) It should be placed on productive soil in 
order to insure good sod pasturage and healthful 
growth of trees for shade. 

(5) It should be on land high enough to insure 
good air -drainage. (Fig. 
556.) Cold air settles in low 
pockets. Such locations are 
frequently colder than the 
higher and more exposed 
situations. 



Shape of the house. 

The nearer square a pen is, 
the less will be the cost for 
material and labor of con- 
struction as compared with 
a pen that is longer and nar- 
rower and contains the same 
number of square feet of 
floor space. (Fig. 557). It 
is 162 feet around a house 
6x75 feet, and only ' 
feet around a house 21.2 x 
21.2 feet, — a difference of 
77.2 feet. Each house con- 
tains the same number of 
square feet of floor space, 
and therefore each would 



accommodate the same number of fowls. Pens 15, 
18 or 20 feet square are the more desirable widths, 
depending somewhat on the kind of roof that it 
is desired to build. 

Foundation. 

Heavy, expensive foundations are unnecessary 
for hen-houses. A well-made concrete wall, four to 
six inches on top and eight to ten inches on the 
bottom, straight edge on the outside, the top six 
inches above ground and the bottom eighteen 
inches below ground, is all that is required. Such 
a foundation should keep out surface water, is 
practically rat-proof, and if the land is naturally 
or artificially well drained, should not be affected 
by freezing. When sand and gravel cost not to 
exceed $1.25 per cubic yard, cement 55 cents per 
bushel, and labor $1.50 for ten hours, the wall should 
be built for 17 cents a square foot. In Fig. 558, at 
A is shown a combination of stone and grout founda- 
tion combined with cement floor. Both foundation 
and floor are built complete before the framework 
of the house is begun. The stone under the foun- 
dation and floor provides drainage and lessens the 
danger from heaving. At B is shown a stone 
foundation and cement floor. The loose stone wall 
is cheaper but not so tight or serviceable. Note 
the method of cementing against the sill in order 
to prevent the entrance of air between the sill and 
foundation. At C is indicated a beveled outside 
edge of the foundation, which is less desirable than 
the foundation shown at A, where the outside edge 
is vertical and the siding overlaps the sill and 
cement floor. At D is. illustrated a type of stone 
wall laid in mortar and "pointed up," in order to 
insure neatness and tightness. This ordinarily is 
too expensive because of the high price of labor. 

Height of the poultry-house. 

Poultry-houses must be built much higher than 
would be necessary for the hens, in order that they 




s§m stmes 






Fig. 558. Different styles of foundations. 



558 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 





. AIR SPACE 
HENS WEIGHING 
EACH- 4CUFIS 
HEN-ICUFT. 
'OUND U\ 
WEIGHT. 



512 CU.FT. AIR SPACE FOR 
64. HENS WEIGHING 4-LBS. 
EACH -ecu FT. PER HEN 
-2 CU.FT. PER POUND LIVE 
WEIGHT 



/6'>J6*a'=S048 CU.FT 
rOR 64- HENS WEIGHING 
■4-L8S. EACH-32CU.FT 
PER HEN -8CU FT. PER 
FOUND LIVE WEIGHT. 



J?- 16 




/6>/6U--/024 CU.FT. FOR 64 HENS' 
WEIGHING 4LBS. EACH -16 CU FT. 
PER HEN -4 CU.FT. PER POUND 
LIVE WEIGHT. 




2'*2'4-sq. ft. floor space *h4Cu.ft. 
air space' leu ft. per pound Jive 
we/gftt far a 4-pound hen. 



Fig. 559. Amount of air space in houses of various heights, 
and the square feet of floor space allowed for each pound 
of live weight. 

may be convenient for the attendant to work 
inside. The rule of one cubic foot of air space to 
one pound of live weight, which is used in building 
stables, would make the hen-house only one foot 
high. This is assuming that we are to allow one 
square foot of floor space to each pound of live 
weight. Such a condition is illustrated in Fig. 559, 
which shows the allotment of the floor space in a 
pen 16 feet square to 64 hens, weighing 4 pounds 
each. Numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4 show the height of 
the pen, not including the roof space, when 1, 2, 4 
and 8 cubic feet of air space, respectively, are 
allowed per hen. The roof space alone provides 4 
cubic feet of air space for each pound live weight 
for 64 hens weighing 4 pounds each. It will be 
seen that with the above allowance, a poultry- 
house with a one-half pitch gable roof and 6 feet 
high at the eaves, would allow 10 cubic feet of air 
space for each pound of live weight, which is about 
ten times as much as would be allowed per pound 
of live weight in building a stable ; hence, the rule 
which requires that a poultry-house should be built 
as low as possible without inconvenience to the 
person working inside. 

Kinds of walls. (Fig. 560.) 

The walls should be so constructed that they 
will prevent drafts, retain the heat, and prevent 



condensation of moisture. Several possible 
types are as follows : 

(A) Single, unmatched boarding. This is 
too open, too cold, and too drafty. 

(B) Same as (A), with cracks covered with 
batten. It is not tight enough. Battens are 
expensive. 

(C) Matched (tongued and grooved) boards. 
This is sufficiently tight and warm for most 
sections of the country. It is the least ex- 
pensive construction considering its effective- 
ness. 

(D) Same as (C), with heavy building- 
paper either on the inside or outside. Tighter 
and warmer than (C) and desirable on exposed 
locations. Outside papering is preferable to 
inside. 

(E) Same as (D), with inside lining of 
matched boards with dead-air space. It is too 
expensive and unnecessary. The dead - air 
space becomes a cold-air chamber, which is 
likely to cause moisture to condense on the 
inner wall if the house is tight. 

(F) Same as 
(E), except that 
the dead-air 
space is stuffed 
with insulating 
material, which 

makes it less affected 
by weather condi- 
tions, but it is too 
expensive. 

(G) Same as (F), 
except that the ceil- 
ing is unmatched 
and permits the free 
entrance of air. It 
prevents the forma- 
tion of a cold jacket, 
because it warms 
during the day, and 
the wall and straw 
serve the purpose of 
preventing the warm 
air of the room com- 
ing in contact with 
the cold outside 
boarding and having 
its heat taken away. 
It is cheaper than(F), 
and more to be de- 
sired, but will form 
a harboring place 
for mites if roosting 
arrangements are 
placed against it 
during the summer 
season. (H) This is 
double -boarded and 
double-papered, with 
dead-air space ; o r 
the same material 

may be built solidly ^ 560 Eight tyvei of waU , 
together. Both are used in poultry-houses. 



A 




B 




C 




D 




E 




F 




G 


fj 


H 





i: 



4 



i: 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



559 



Totol Roof tr'/' 

■ /6 £-' 

- ~ --- '<?/k' 

Total Sides ■j'tji' 

~ ■ '>' * 
/O/x 




Fig. 561. The shape of the roof influences the cost. The com- 
bination-roof type of house takes less material than the 
gable-roof type, and the latter takes less than the shed 
roof. 

too expensive, and therefore are undesirable. The 
solid construction is tight, but cold. 

Numbers 1, 2 and 3 in Fig. 560, show the com- 
parative temperatures outside and inside a house at 
different times of the day, and the effect that each 
type of wall will have on the warmth and dryness 

of the house un- 
der varying con- 
ditions. When a 
house is tight 
and insulated, 
and the air is 
not allowed to 
change freely, it 
will be warmer 
during the cold 
nights inside 
than it is outside 
the house. When 
the sunshine, the 
following day, 
warms the air 
outside, frequently it is colder inside than it is 
outside the house. When warm air enters it picks 
up the moisture. The moisture-laden air comes in 
contact with the cold walls, which condense 
the moisture, and the house is said to sweat. 
If the walls are sufficiently cold, the moisture 
freezes and the walls are covered with frost. 
In order to secure reasonable warmth and 
dryness in a hen-house, the walls should be 
tight on all sides, including roof and floor, 
except the south, which may be compara- 
tively loose. This provides a quiet inter- 
change of air without draft. 

Roof of the poultry-house. 

The style of roof influences to a large 
extent the cost and efficiency of a poultry- 
house. Pig. 561 shows the three most com- 
mon types of roofs, — the shed, the gable and 




Fig. 562. The shed roof requires the 
most lumber. 



the combination shed and gable. If the pitch of all 
of these roofs is alike, there is no difference in the 
amount of material required to build them. There 
is considerable difference, however, in the amount 
of material required to build the house when these 
three kinds of roof are compared. The difference is 
due to the amount of material required to build the 
sides in each type. It will be readily seen in Pig. 
561 that the house with the combination roof re- 
quires less lumber than the gable-roof house, and 
that the latter requires less than the shed roof. The 
gable is one and one-half feet higher in the rear, 
and the shed roof three feet higher in front — a 
difference of one and one-half feet in favor of the 
gable roof. The steeper the pitch of the roof, the 
greater is the difference in favor of the gable roof, 
and against the shed-roof type. (Pig. 562.) If all 
three types are built with the same pitch, and the 
same amount of material in the roof and sides, and 
the front in all three types is built high enough to 
permit the top of the window to be placed five feet 
high, the three types of houses will appear as in 
Pig. 563. In the shed-roof house, the ceiling is too 
low to be practicable, but the windows can be 
placed highest. In the gable-roof type the windows 




Fig. 563. Each of these three houses requires the same amount 
of material, and the pitch of the roof is the same. 

must be placed too low. The combination roof 
furnishes the best combination of head room and 
height of window, with the least amount of build- 
ing materials, same floor space, and least cubic 
feet of air space. 

In Fig. 564 are shown six styles of roof. The 
monitor (1) and half monitor (4) are types adapt- 
able to houses twenty feet wide or wider. They 
provide for light in the back part of the house and 
save expense for material, permit a steeper pitch, 






.^< 




^y^'^ '"■^ 






4 


«■ 


. 


h 




- — a 


b — 


— d 



3 


■ 




b • ■ — □ 


6 

Ir— ^— 




£. 



Fig. 564. Roof types. 1, monitor; 2, shed roof; 3, gable roof; 4. 
one-half monitor; 5, combination shed and gable; G, hip roof. 



o60 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 





Fig. 565. Methois of hanging windows 



avoid the weakness of long spans and reduce the 
air spaces as compared to the very wide shed-roof 
house. For houses up to eighteen feet wide, the 
shed roof is to be preferred because of its simple 
construction. It throws all rain water to the rear, 
has the highest vertical front to permit high win- 
dows and to furnish shelter to the yard in front. It 
is easy to keep cool in summer because it allows 
the hot air an easy escape through the high front. 
The paper roof lasts longer if it slopes to the north. 
The gable-roof type is generally considered to be 
more attractive, but provides too much air space 
jnd is too expensive if the sides are built high 
enough to permit the 
windows to be placed so 
as to light the entire 
house. 



Windows. 

In Fig. 565 are shown 
eight types of windows 
and methods of hanging 
them. No. 1 is hinged on 
the side, which may gen- 
erally be considered the 
most desirable, all things 



difficult to remove in the 
summer season and costs 
more to buy and install 
than a single sash of the 
same size. No. 3 slides 
to one side. It is difficult 
to move because of 
weight, especially in cold, 
stormy weather, when ice 
may freeze it fast. No. 4 
swings out from the top 
and makes it necessary 
to have the wire on the 
inside ; it is difficult to 
move, likely to be broken 
by the wind, and makes the 
pens too hot in summer 
by reflection of the sun's 
rays. No. 5 is hinged at 
the top and swings in- 
ward. It must be raised 
out of the way when 
opened, and, because of weight, is likely to fall and 
break. No. 6 is in the way when opened and in 
that position permits the fowls to roost on it ; it 
cannot be easily removed. No. 
7 makes it impossible to have 
wire on either the outside or 
the inside, and is not strong 
and durable. No. 
has the same objec- 
tions as No. 7. 



Sun from 
April 41st 

V ta 

Sept.^jst. 




Sun at 

*■ DecZlsJ. 



The angles at which the sun's rays enter the 
house through windows at different heights. 



considered. It can be quickly swung against the 
wall, out of the way, and can be opened little or 
much to prwide ventilation without permitting the 
wind to blow directly into the house. No. 2 is" a 
double-sash window which slides up and down. It is 



f^^T 



^t 



Fig. 567. Types of doors and methods of hanging them. 



Glass windows should 
be placed high up and 
down rather than wide 
horizontally, in order to 
throw the sunlight far 
back. Fig. 566 shows the 
angles at which the sun- 
light enters a poultry- 
house at different times of 
the year, when the tops of the windows are placed 
four feet, six feet and seven feet, respectively. It 
will be seen that in order to have the direct sun- 
shine reach the back of a house fifteen feet wide, 
in December when the sun is the lowest and sun- 
shine is most to be de- 
sired, it is necessary to 
have the top of the win- 
dow seven feet high. By 
having a long, narrow 
ribbon of light enter the 
house through a long, high 
window, placed vertically, 
the sun, passing from east 
to west, sweeps the entire 
floor space, drying the 
floor, killing disease, 



d 



2- 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



561 




Fig. 568. 



warming the room and giving good cheer. There 
should be about one square foot of glass surface 
provided for each twenty square feet of floor space, 
and about the same amount of cloth window area. 
If only cloth or only glass windows are to be used, 
there should be about one square foot of window 
opening to each ten square feet of floor space. 
Windows in the roof are undesirable because 
more easily broken, and are likely to leak. 
Windows placed on the east and west 
ends of a house are desirable, provided 
they do not permit drafts through 
the house. 

Doors. 

In Fig. 567 are 
shown six types of 
doors and methods of 
hanging them. No. 1 
shows a door that is 
hung to swing in to- 
ward the middle of 
the room. It is objec- 
tionable because it 
frightens the hens and 
is less convenient as 
it must be opened so 
wide. No. 2 opens 
against the side wall away from the middle of the 
room, and does away with the objections to No. 1. 
Both of these doors have threshholds raised six 
inches above the floor, which prevent the litter 
from interfering with the action of the door and, 
when the door is open, prevent the fowls scratch- 
ing out the litter. No. 3 is a "Dutch" door, i. e., it 
is in two parts. The upper door may be opened 
during winter weather, thus serving the purpose 
of an open window, and the lower part may remain 
shut to prevent the wind from blowing on the 
fowls. No. 4 does not have the raised thresh- 
hold. No. 5 is a double door, swinging both ways 
on double-acting hinges. This is a desirable form 
for large houses, where a trolley and truck are 
used, but is unhandy for general use. No. 6 is a 
single door swinging from the side with heavy, 
double-acting hinges, and is greatly to be desired 
because it permits rapid passage through the house 
without the necessity of stopping to latch and 
unlatch doors. Doors 
should . be not less 
than two feet, six 
inches wide and six 
feet, six inches high, 
in order to permit a 
person topass through 
easily with a basket in 
each hand and to avoid 
bumping the head. 



Floors. (Pig. 558.) 

The floor of the 
poultry -house should 
be so built as to in- 
sure dryness, warmth, 
rat-proofness, ease of 

C36 



-f"S 



Cross-section of house. Note wall construction, ventilating 
device, and gable stuffed with straw. 




cleaning and durability, with reasonable cost. A 
properly constructed cement floor accomplishes all 
the requirements better than either a board or a 
soil floor. A board floor lacks durability if it is 
near the ground and if the outside air is excluded 
from beneath. If the outside air is not thus 
excluded, the floor is cold, and if it is made of 
unmatched boards, it is also drafty and permits 
much grain and litter to fall through, which 
is both wasteful and unsanitary. (Fig. 
558, D.) The board and earth floors 
harbor rats, and the latter is diffi- 
cult to clean and likely to be 
damp. Each of these floors- 
will be cold unless it 
is well carpeted with 
a litter of straw. 

A properly con- 
structed cement floor 
must be well under- 
drained, with three to 
six inches of fine stone 
or coarse gravel, on 
which two or three 
inches of grout is laid, 
over which should be 
placed about one inch 
of cement. The grout 
should be mixed one part portland cement to three 
parts clean, sharp sand and five parts coarse gravel 
or fine stone. (Fig. 558, ABC.) The one-inch coat 
should consist of one part portland cement to three 
parts clean, sharp sand, well mixed dry and then 
thoroughly mixed with water and applied before 
the grout is hard, so that they will set together. 
Cement floors, if possible, should be made in sum- 
mer or early fall, so that they will have time to 
harden and dry before the houses are occupied. 

Ventilation. 

However desirable the elaborate modern sys- 
tems of ventilation may be for larger buildings, 
they are not to be recommended for hen-houses. 
The chief reason why they have proved unsatis- 
factory in poultry-buildings is because of the com- 
paratively small amount of heat generated by the 
fowls' bodies in proportion to the large amount of 
air space. This makes a draft in the ventilator 
less certain because 
of a lack of difference 
in temperature be- 
tween the outside and 
the inside air. Fig, 
568 shows a common, 
undesirable type of 
ventilator shaft. This 
form is better, how- 
ever, than the venti- 
lator shaft that opens 
near the roof, because 
it takes the air from 
near the floor and does 
not allow the warm 
air to escape so rap- 
idly, nor is it so likely 



Fig. 569. Interior of hen-house in process of construction. 
Finished structure shown in Fig. 555. 



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POULTRY 



to permit counter currents to form, by which the 
cold air pours down on the fowls. 

The simplest, most effective, least expensive and 
most easily operated system of securing a quiet 
change of air in a poultry-house is by means of a 
loose-mesh cloth window. When properly installed, 
this provides for a moderate change of air with- 
out draft. The amount and kind of cloth that 
should be used will depend on the location and the 
nature of the house. The tighter the house, the 
larger the window area and the looser the mesh of 
the cloth may be; and conversely, the more loosely 
the house is constructed, the smaller the cloth 
opening and the closer the mesh of the cloth must 

Suspended from Rafters 



Perches 

Platform — \ 
Msts 




JDropp/nas 
PJattdrrn - 



Fig. 570. Nests and roosting airangements 

be. A small opening on the back, the ends, or in 
the roof or floor of a house, will cause drafts of 
air to pass through the cloth, which otherwise 
would permit only a slow diffusion. In a very 
tightly constructed house, cheese-cloth will prove 
more satisfactory than heavy muslin. A poultry- 
house having a cloth window may become damp 
if there is not sufficient change of air, which fre- 
quently is the case when too heavy muslin or too 
small area of cloth is used in a tight-walled house. 
Oiled cloth should never be used. It shuts out both 
air and sunlight and defeats the whole purpose of 
the cloth window. The cloth windows should hinge 
from the top and be so hung that they may be 
raised, lowered and removed easily. 

A poultry-house should be kept as cool as possi- 
ble in the summer by hanging the cloth window 
frames from the top on the outside of the windows. 
They thus serve as an awning and make the house 
much cooler during the hot season. An opening in 
the front, near the peak of the shed - roof house 
(Fig. 555), covered by a wooden door hinged by 
the top to swing outward, prevents the hot air 
from pocketing in the highest parts of the roof 
and makes the house much cooler. A single open- 
ing in the rear of the house, under the eaves, if 



placed so as to prevent draft on the fowls, is a 
desirable feature, keeping the house cool during 
summer. The method of double boarding behind 
and above the perches (Fig. 569) makes it possi- 
ble to have a free passage of air through the 
house by means of the back window without 
drafts on the fowls. 

Interior arrangements. 

The interior arrangement should be portable, 
simple, convenient, and should not occupy floor 
space. Fig. 570 shows four methods of placing the 
roosting and nesting arrangements. In "A," the 
perches and nests hang from the rafters away from 
the side wall, making it 
easy to fight the mites. 
The droppings platform 
must be made rigid or it 
will be difficult to clean. 
Type " B " provides for a 
rigid droppings platform 
and removable perches. 
Type "C" is not to be rec- 
ommended because it lacks 
rigidity. The nests should 
be close up under the plat- 
form instead of on the level 
of the floor, which requires 
the person gathering the 
eggs to bend over. Type 
"D" is perhaps the most 
desirable of the four de- 
vices shown. The nests are 
placed directly under the 
droppings platform, where 
they are least in the way, 
most accessible, least ex- 
pensive to construct, and 
seclusive, permitting the 
fowls to hide their nests. The perches are built 
together in a rack, are not hinged, and are removed 
together. The droppings platform rests on cleats, 
and, like the nesting compartment, is removable. 
Nests should be at least ten to twelve inches square 
and six to eight inches deep. One nest should be 
allowed to five fowls. About six inches of perch 
room is required for small fowls and eight inches 
for larger breeds. Every pen should be provided 
with a dust bath and broody coop, water pan, grit- 
and feed-hoppers and a grain-supply can. The feed- 
and grit-hoppers should be rat proof, force-feeding 
and non-wasting. The broody coop is best provided 
by partitioning off a part of the perch platform 
and providing a false floor to keep the fowls dry 
and clean. The dust bath should be placed close to 
the glass window, where it will be warmest and 
dryest. It should be covered to prevent the dust 
entering the room. A pit sunk in the cement floor, 
near a low window (Fig. 555), makes a desirable 
dust wallow. Water pans should hold more than 
enough to last the flock twenty-four hours, should 
be easily cleaned, filled and emptied. They should 
have flaring sides to make the removal of ice easy, 
and should be made of material that, will not rust 
or break easily. 




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Plate XX. Prominent breeds of fowls 

Top left. Buff Cochin; top right. Silver-laced Wyandotte. Second row, left. Barred Plymouth Rock hen and cock: 
right center. White Plymouth Rock; upper and lower right. Silver Spangled Hamburg cock and hen. Third row left. Black 
Minorca hen; center. Black Minorca cock; right. Single-comb White Leghorn hen. Bottom row left, Silver Wyandotte 
cock; center, Silver Penciled Wyandotte hen; right. Single-comb White Leghorn cock. 



POULTRY 



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563 



Breeds and Types of Chickens. Figs. 571-581. 

By T. E. Or. 

The acknowledged authority on poultry matters 
is the American Poultry Association. This is a 
bod/ of fanciers, organized in 1873, now having a 
membership of nearly nine hundred persons. It 
publishes once in five years a book, "The Standard 
of Perfection," which describes and illustrates 
varieties considered worthy of recognition. This 
book prescribes rules for the management of shows 
and for the judging of fowls by both the score-card 
and the comparison methods. The one hundred 
and four varieties now recognized in the Standard 
may properly be classified under the two general 
headings, " practical " fowls and " fancy " fowls, as 
follows : 

I. PRACTICAL FOWLS 

American family ... six breeds . . seventeen varieties 

Asiatic family . . . three breeds . eight varieties 

Mediterranean family . five breeds . . fourteen varieties 

English family .... three breeds . seven varieties 

French family .... three breeds . three varieties 

Dutch family .... one breed . . six varieties 

Indian family .... one breed . . two varieties 

II. FANCY FOWLS 

Polish family .... one beeed . . eight varieties 
Game family .... one breed . . eight varieties 
Game bantam family . one breed . . eight varieties 
Oriental Game family . two breeds . two varieties 
Oriental bantam 

family one breed . . one variety 

Ornamental bantam 

family seven breeds . seventeen varieties 

Miscellaneous .... three breeds . three varieties 



I. Practical Fowls 

It is not easier to approximate perfection of show 
points in the first group than in the second, but 
each variety in the first group retains its popularity 
because of some practical point, — for example, the 
production of eggs or flesh, the former under pecu- 
liar circumstances or the latter of a particular 
quality, so as to make the breed or variety profit- 
able to the man who pays little or no attention to 
the fancy points of form or feather. It has been 
said, and we think truthfully, that no variety can 
become universally popular that is not possessed of 
some characteristic that commends it to the atten- 
tion of the practical, money-making American 
farmer. 

The American family. 

Dominique. — Of the seventeen American varie- 
ties, the Dominiques are certainly the earliest of 
origin. Some persons maintain that they originated 
in the West Indies. We do not know. Their form 
does not indicate this. The writer recalls having 
seen them in Virginia, on the farm of his grand- 
mother, very close to their present form and feather, 
in the fifties. 

In form they are very compact and deep-bodied. 
In weight the cocks average eight pounds, and the 




Fig. 571. White Plymouth Rock cock. 



hens six pounds. In habit they are very active. 
They are rather slow of growth, but when mature 
the hens are persistent layers and excellent moth- 
ers. In color, each feather should be crossed with 
alternate light and dark bars of the same color as 
the weii-known Barred Plymouth Rocks. Fine spec- 
imens of this 
variety are now 
rare. Their 
close,rosecombs, 
clean yellow 
shanks, and good 
commercial 
qualities should 
make them pop- 
ular once more. 
Java. — This 
breed, with its 
two varieties, 
Black and Mot- 
tled, is second 
of the Ameri- 
cans in antiq- 
uity. The Java 
had its origin 
in eastern New 
York. In the 
early sixties, it 
had reached such uniformity of both color and 
shape, particularly the Black variety, as to attract 
the attention of the public. It often grows larger 
than the Plymouth Rock. Its leading characteris- 
tics are a long, rectangular body and a deep yellow 
skin. No American variety breeds more true to 
form and color than does the Black Java. 

The color of the Mottled Java is black and 
white, evenly broken in alternate splotches through- 
out the entire plumage. Both varieties have 
single combs and clean shanks. 

Plymouth Rock. 
— This breed is di- 
vided into three 
varieties, the 
Barred, White 
(Fig. 571) and Buff 
(Fig. 572). The 
Barred variety 
originated in the 
sixties, in New 
England. Fowls by 
the name of Plym- 
outh Rock had 
been produced fif- 
teen years sooner, 
but they bore no 
relation in blood 
or type to the pres- 
ent Barred Plym- 
outh Rock. Like 
all other Ameri- 
can varieties, the 
Barred Plymouth Rock is of mixed origin. Two 
things are certain, both Dominique and Black Java 
blood were a part of the combination. There were 
other bloods used by the early experimenters, par- 




Fig. 572. Buff Plymouth Rock 
puUet. 



564 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



ticularly that of Brahma and Cochin. However 
uncertain its ancestry, the result has been to give 
us in the Barred Plymouth Rock, the. best-known 
and most widely disseminated American fowl. In 
shape, the Plymouth Rock is a nice average between 
its two ancestors, the Dominique and the Java. The 
back and body are rather long, breast broad and 
deep. The size of all three varieties is the same, 
the cocks weighing nine and one-half pounds and 
the hens seven and one-half pounds. 

The wonderful popularity that fell to the lot of 
the Barred Plymouth Rock in the early seventies 




Fig. 573. Buff Wyandotte male and female. 

and the fabulous prices secured for good show spec- 
imens, made the American public want more of 
them, and it was not long until White Plymouth 
Rocks, true sports from the Barred variety, 
became known, and speedily became popular. The 
Buff variety came later, but to secure the buff color 
considerable foreign blood was introduced. All Plym- 
outh Rocks have single combs and yellow shanks. 

As indicated by the names, the plumage of the 
White variety is pure white throughout, and that 
of the Buff pure buff throughout. Black feathers, 
or even black specks in the plumage of the White 
variety, are serious defects, and in the Buff variety 
black or white in any part of the plumage is 
equally objectionable. The skill of the breeder of 
the Barred variety is measured by his ability to 
secure a plumage, each feather of which is barred 
to the skin with alternate narrow crossings of a 
light and a dark color. No variety is more difficult 
to bring to perfection than this variety ; but, when 
it is attained, high prices are the breeder's reward. 

Wyandottes. — This is the earliest of the Ameri- 
can breeds whose history we can trace with any 
degree of accuracy. The Silver variety is the orig- 
inal variety of this breed. The wonderful popu- 
larity of the Plymouth Rock in the seventies stimu- 
lated fanciers to produce something different that 
would surpass it and yield them large profit. They 
sought a fowl of plumper form and quicker matu- 
rity than the Plymouth Rock, and if possible of 
greater egg-producing capacity. Dozens of fan- 



ciers were at work along these lines, and several 
strains very similar in shape and color, and known 
by a half-dozen different names, such as Ham- 
bright, Hambletonian, Sebright Cochin and Ameri- 
can Sebright, were known by 1880. Mr. Whit- 
taker, of Michigan, seems to have had the most 
definite purpose, and to have worked along the 
most specific lines, and it was his description and 
the illustration made for him by B. N. Pierce in 
1874, and published by Whittaker that same year, 
that won their admission to the Standard in 1883. 
An error in the description of the wing-bars of 
cocks, published in the Standard of 1883, 
and which was not corrected until the issue 
of 1888, made much confusion, and evi- 
dences of this widely disseminated error are 
still found. 

In size, all Wyandottes are the same, — 
eight and one-half pounds for cocks, and six 
and one-half pounds for hens. In shape, all 
should be the same ; a bird of curves, back 
short and broad, body deep and round, breast 
broad and deep, with a low-set keel, shanks 
short, strong and carried well apart. 

The Silvers were the original Wyandottes. 
The Whites and Blacks are the only true 
sports from these. The Buffs (Fig. 573), Gol- 
dens, Partridge, Silver Penciled and Colum- 
bians each contained in their origin some 
outside blood to produce their several colors, 
unless it be one strain of the Columbians, 
which was produced by a single, almost acci- 
dental, cross of two other varieties of stand- 
ard Wyandottes. 
The Silvers, the original Wyandottes, have never 
been surpassed in "eggs early and often." Hun- 
dreds of cases are on record of pullets laying at 
five months. Before the writer is the daily record 
of a hen that in the first three years of her egg- 
production yielded 203, 202 and 201 eggs per year 
respectively. She is now hard at work on her 
fourth year and is doing well ; and this hen has 
done all her work in the cold climate of Minnesota. 
This variety, having three times won the great 
international egg-producing contest conducted in 
Australia, stands without rivals in profitable egg- 
production. But of all the eight Standard varie- 
ties, the original Silvers are hardest to breed to 
Standard requirements of color. The back and 
shoulders of the male should be white, the saddle 
and hackle white, each feather with a black stripe 
in the center. The tail should be black. The breast 
and thighs of the male, these same sections of the 
female, and also her back and shoulders, should be 
covered with white feathers, each having a narrow 
black margin. This is difficult of attainment, but 
is beautiful almost beyond description. 

The Golden Wyandottes are colored exactly like 
the Silver, except that golden bay is substituted 
for white. The plumage of the White, Black and 
Buff varieties is indicated by their names. The 
Partridge Wyandottes have the color-markings of 
the Partridge Cochins ; the Silver Penciled Wyan- 
dottes have the color-markings of the Dark 
Brahmas ; the Columbian Wyandottes have the 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



565 



color-markings of the Light Brahmas. The White 
Wyandottes have far outstripped all of the other 
varieties of this breed in popularity. In fact, the 
entries at the greatest fall and winter shows, the 
past four years, reveal them to be more popular 
than any other standard variety. This is possibly 
accounted for by a popular prejudice in circles of 
commercial poultry against dark feathers, a preju- 
dice that is more fanciful than real. 

All Wyandottes have close-fitting rose combs, 
and all have an abundant, fluffy but close-fitting 
plumage. In the original Silvers, Hamburg and 
Dark Brahma blood were the chief elements. In 
the Buff and Partridge varieties, some Cochin 
blood was introduced. The admission of these eight 
varieties to the Standard covers twenty-three 
years, from the Silvers in 1883 to the Columbians 
in 1906. 

Rhode Island Red. — During the twenty years 
prior to 1900, some thrifty fanciers and egg-pro- 
ducers in the southern part of New England 
labored diligently to produce a fowl of good size, 
of marketable excellence, of large egg-producing 
ability, and of a reddish buff color. They succeeded 
in all these particulars, but they quarreled amongst 
themselves on some minor color requirements, and 
especially as to whether their favorites should have 
single combs, rose combs or pea-combs. It was not 
uncommon to find two or even three kinds of combs 
in the yard of the same breeder. 

Finding that the Rhode Island Reds could never 
gain admission to the Standard with these diversi- 
ties, the fanciers set about a more specific method 
of breeding, with the result that the Single-comb 
Rhode Island Reds were admitted to the Standard 
in 1904, and the Rose-comb variety in 1906. In 
1902, the fanciers of the Pea-comb variety, under 
the leadership of Mrs. Metcalf, of Ohio, separated 
from the others, and having changed both the color 
and shape somewhat by the introduction of some 
Cornish Indian blood, secured the admission of 
their favorites under the name of Buckeyes in 1905. 

The tail color of both Rhode Island Reds and 
Buckeyes calls for black. The former variety dis- 
plays a red surface of body-plumage, with a red or 
salmon under-color, free from slate. The Buckeye 
surface color is a dark, rich, garnet, and the under- 
color allows a bar of slate-color next to the surface. 

The standard size of Rhode Island Red cocks is 
eight and one-half pounds, and of hens, six and one- 
half pounds. The Buckeye cocks should be one- 
half pound heavier, and the hens one-half pound 
lighter. The body of both breeds is long ; of the 
Rhode Island Reds it is level ; of the Buckeyes it is 
carried at a slight elevation in front. 

The Asiatie family. 

Brahma. — This breed has but two varieties, 
the Light and the Dark. While the two varieties 
are of the same shape, the size is different. Dark 
Brahma cocks must attain a weight of eleven 
pounds, and hens eight and one-half pounds. In the 
Light Brahmas, each sex must go one pound heavier. 
Like all other Asiatic breeds, Brahmas are distin- 
guished by heavy leg and toe feathering. They are 



also endowed with thick, close plumage, which 
enables them to endure with comfort a cold climate. 
This makes them good winter egg-producers, pro- 
vided they have dry quarters and are not exposed 
to wind. Their great size and good quality of flesh 
make them a favorite in some markets, especially 
where capons are in demand. All Asiatics are slow 
of maturity, either for the table or for egg-pro- 
duction. While the ancestors of all the Asiatic 
varieties came originally from Asia, their present 
perfection is due more to American and English 
fanciers than to what they were when first im- 
ported. 

The general color of the Light Brahma is white, 
with a black tail and black center stripes in both 
hackle and saddle feathers. The wing-color of both 
sexes is a combination of black and white too 
intricate to describe here. The appearance of the 
Light Brahma is most stately and commanding, 
and its great size and handsome coloring always 
win admiration. 

The color of the Dark Brahma, except of the 
neck and tail, is entirely different. The wings of 
the cock are crossed by a heavy black bar, and 
the entire breast and body, also the leg and toe 
feathering, are black. The back, wings, breast and 
body of the female have for each feather a basis 
of gray on which are distinct, dark concentric 
lines of penciling, which in its perfection makes 
a very handsome bird. 

Cochin : Buff, Partridge, ]mte, Black. — The shape 
of all Cochins is the same, and their peculiarity is an 
appearance of massiveness and fluffiness. The heavy 
but short feathering of the Cochin, piled high on 
the back, and extending wide at the sides, makes 
it appear larger than the Brahma, but it is not, the 
weight being the same as that of the Dark Brahma; 
the cock weighs eleven pounds and the hen eight 
and one-half pounds. The excessive thigh and 
shank feathering of Cochins adds to their appear- 
ance of massiveness. 

The names of the Buff, White and Black Coch- 
ins indicate their coloring. The Partridge vari- 
ety is very different. This cock has a neck and 
back of bright red, shading to orange-brown color, 
each feather having a center stripe of black. His 
shoulders are red, and across the wing is a broad, 
black bar. His breast, body and thighs are black, 
also his tail. The hen has the same neck and tail 
color as the cock, but all her remaining surface 
color should be mahogany-red, each feather dis- 
tinctly penciled with concentric circles of a rich 
dark brown. The combs of all Cochins are single, 
low, close on the head and evenly serrated with 
five distinct points. 

Langshan: Black (Fig. 574), White. — There are 
two varieties of this breed and their names indicate 
their color. The Langshan is more up-standing than 
the Cochin, and in stateliness is a rival of the Light 
Brahma. The Langshan differs from other Asiatics 
in that he has longer shanks, is more scantily 
feathered, and that he carries both head and tail 
high, these members coming up close toward a 
meeting point, thus giving him the appearance of 
having a short back. This, however, is seeming 



566 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 




Fig. 574. Black Langs nan 
cock. 



rather than real. The Langshan differs from all 
other Asiatics, and indeed from all American vari- 
eties, in that its skin is not yellow, but is a pinkish 
white. The bottoms 
of its feet, instead 
of being yellow as 
in the Cochin, must 
be a pinkish white. 
This peculiarity of 
the skin of the 
Langshan marks it 
as of peculiarly good 
table qualities. As 
is the case with all 
white-skinned fowls, 
the skin is thin, the 
flesh-fibers fine, and 
the flesh flavor very 
superior. This char- 
acteristic of supe- 
rior table quality 
marks the Dorking, 
the Orpington and 
all three of the 
French varieties. It 
is in this particular, 
more than all others, 
that the English 
and French surpass Americans in the production 
of extra fine table poultry. The best American 
poultry markets are now insistently demanding 
white-skinned fowls, and shrewd American pro- 
ducers will soon be supplying that demand. 

The Mediterranean family. 

Leghorn. — There are eight varieties of the Leg- 
horn : Single-comb and Rose-comb Brown Leghorn 
(Fig. 575), Single-comb and Rose-comb White Leg- 
horn (Fig. 576), Single-comb and Rose-comb Buff 
Leghorn, Single-comb Black Leghorn and Single- 
comb Silver Duckwing Leghorn. The size and 
shape of all are identical, except as to shape of 
combs indicated by the variety names. Leghorns 
had their early 
homes in south- 
ern Europe. The 
coloring has 
been greatly 
modified by 
American fan- 
ciers in the past 
forty years. 

Early matu- 
rity and great 
activity char- 
acterize all the 
Leghorns. Give 
them dry, warm 
quarters and 
they all pro- 
duce large num- 
bers of eggs. Their large combs, pendulous on the 
females, are easily injured by frosts, so for winter 
egg-production warm houses are essential. Leghorn 
eggs are white, as are the eggs of all Mediterranean 




Fig. 575. Brown Leghorn cock. 



varieties. This color of egg is the favorite of the 
New York City market, and the White Leghorn is 
the favorite of the egg-producers who cater to that 
market. A large majority of the cockerels of this 
variety are marketed by their producers as broilers 
at two months of age. This combination, White 
Leghorn eggs and White Leghorn broilers, has 
proved very profitable, as both products command 
high prices. 

The Brown Leghorn is very peculiar and very 
handsome in color. The color of the cock is the 
same as that of the Partridge Cochin cock already 
described (page 565). The color of the Brown Leg- 
horn hen is nearly the same as that of the Part- 
ridge Cochin hen (page 565) as to neck, wings and 
tail ; but her back, shoulders, breast and body, in- 
stead of the distinct penciling of the former, have for 




Fig. 576. White Leghorn male and female. 

the basis of each feather a delicate brown on which 
a darker shade of brown is finely and evenly stippled. 

Minorca: Single-comb Black, Rose-coinb Black, 
Single-comb White. — The shape of the Minorca is 
peculiar. It has a long body carried rather upright, 
deep at the breast with the back tapering sharply 
toward the tail, and this organ long and carried 
rather low. The comb is rather large. The ear-lobes 
are large and pure white. The last two particulars 
are characteristic of all Mediterranean varieties. 
The cocks carry a weight of eight pounds and the 
hens six and one-half pounds in the Rose-comb 
variety; each sex of the Single-comb variety is one 
pound heavier. 

]]~hite-faced Black Spanish. — This is one of the 
oldest and best -known Mediterranean varieties, 
but, of late years, few good specimens are seen at 
our shows. The shape and color and the shape of 
the comb is the same as of the Single-comb Minorca, 
but each sex weighs one pound less. The peculi- 
arity of this breed is its white face, a very exag- 
gerated enlargement of the white ear-lobe of other 
Mediterranean breeds. 

Blue Andalusian. — This is one of the later and 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



one of the most beautiful additions to the Medi- 
terranean family. In shape, it is similar to other 
members of this family. In size, it is about mid- 
way between the Leghorn and the Minorca. The 
cock weighs six pounds and the hen five pounds. 
The plumage is a clear, slaty blue, each feather 
delicately laced with a darker shade of blue, ap- 
proaching black. 

Aneona. — This is the latest addition to the 
American Mediterranean family, although it has 
long been bred in Europe, especially in England, 
where the color demand for shanks is yellow, while 
ours allows yellow, shaded or mottled with black. 
In size, the Aneona is about the same as the Leg- 
horn. In color of plumage it is the same as the 
Mottled Java, already described (page 563). 

The English family. 

Dorking. — On the Dorking, more than on any 
other breed, the English people have established 
their enviable reputation for producing the choicest 
of poultry. The skin of this breed is white, which 
indicates the excellence of its flesh quality for table 
use. [See comments on this subject under Lang- 
shan, page 565.] The Uorking has a shape pecu- 
liarly its own. The body is long and deep, carried 
at a slight elevation in the males and rather level 
in the females. It carries an abundance of flesh in 
the most desirable sections. The Colored Dorkings 
are the largest. The cocks weigh nine pounds and 
the hens seven pounds. The White Dorkings are 
the smallest, the cocks weighing seven and one-half 
pounds and the hens six pounds. In size, the Silver- 
gray variety, the most beautiful in plumage, is 
between the two sizes just given. There is no bird 
in our American Standard more beautifully colored 
than the Silver-gray Dorking hen. Her back, wings 
and breast have gray as a base, each feather deli- 
cately stippled with a darker shade. All Dorkings 

have an extra or 
fifth toe. 

Redcap. — In 
size, this bird is 
about the same 
as the White 
Dorking. In 
color, the male 
has various mix- 
tures of red and 
black, the fe- 
male of brown 
and black. An 
enormous rose 
comb adorns the 
head of both 
sexes. 

Orpington: 
Buff (Fig. 577), 
Black, White. — 
These are the 
only varieties of 
this breed to be 



colors as the above three, these all having single 
combs. 

The late William Cook, who did more to pro- 
mote the Orpington in England, Africa and America 
than any other individual, said that the chief ori- 
gin of the Orpington was in Dorking and Cochin 





Fig. 577. Buff Orpington cock. 



accorded admission to the American Standard, 
although other varieties are sure to seek admission 
soon, notably the rose-comb varieties with the same 



Fig. 578. Houdan fowl. 

blood. The color of the skin indicates Dorking 
relationship, and the tendency to feathered shanks, 
especially on the Buff Orpington, indicates some 
Cochin blood. Prom their peculiar shape, some- 
what different from that of the Buff Orpington, 
we should imagine that the Black Orpington and 
White Orpington dipped into both Langshan and 
Cochin blood. Be their origin what it may, the 
Orpingtons have taken a strong hold on the affec- 
tions of American fanciers, and we predict a large 
increase in their number in the near future, to 
enable the producer to supply the demand for 
white-skinned fowls, referred to under Langshan 
(page 565). 

The Orpington has in reality a long body, 
although its abundant plumage, particularly of 
the black males, gives it the appearance of having 
a short back and a short body. In size, it is larger 
than the Plymouth Rock, the cock weighing ten 
pounds and the hen eight pounds. To carry this 
enormous weight, it should stand on short, heavy 
shanks. The Orpingtons are good producers of 
large, brown eggs. 

The French family. 

Houdan. — The Houdans (Fig. 578) are the best 
known in America of the French breeds. In color, 
they are the same as the Mottled Java and Aneona. 
The cocks weigh seven pounds and the hens six 
pounds, but both sexes often run heavier. Houdans 
have head ornaments of both crest and beard. They 
are good producers of white eggs and also have the 
white skin and fine flavor so dear to the heart of 
the French epicure. The Houdans, like the Dork- 
ings, carry the extra or fifth toe on each foot. 

Crevecceurs (Fig. 579) are black fowls with both 
crest and beard. In size they are half-way between 
the Plymouth Rock and the Wyandotte. 

La Fleehe fowls are also black, but do not have 
the crest or beard. The cocks weigh eight and one- 
half pounds and the hens seven and one-half pounds. 



568 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 




««sifcs* 



Fig. 579. Crevecceur cock. 



With their superb methods of feeding, the French 
producers frequently bring capons of this variety 
to a weight of twelve pounds, and poulards to ten 
pounds each. The fact that the two last-named 

French breeds, 
when properly 
fatted and 
dressed, com- 
mand the high- 
est prices in the 
most fastidious 
market in the 
world should 
help to dissi- 
pate the Ameri- 
can prejudice 
against fowls 
with black 
plumage. 

The Dutch fam- 
ily. 

Hamburg: 
Golden Span- 
gled. Silver Span- 
gled, Golden Penciled, Silver Penciled, White and 
Black. — This family is often classed erroneously 
among the purely fancy breeds. For a half cen- 
tury or more it has maintained a right to the name, 
"Dutch Everlasting Layers," and Dutch eggs form 
a large part of the eggs consumed in the great city 
of London. The Hamburg is about the same size as 
the Leghorn, and like them it lays a large white 
egg. Its coloring is too intricate for a description 
here, but this is a breed well worth more attention 
than it receives in this country. 

The Indian family. 

Indian: Cornish and White. — The two varieties 
of this family, often called Games, erroneously, 
evidently trace to Indian origin, the Cornish variety 
still bearing a strong resemblance to the red Aseel. 
They came to England, and various crosses on the 
original importations with the Black-breasted Red 
Game and with the Black Sumatra have produced 
the present Cornish Indian. The White Indian is 
not so easily traced. Many persons think it is 
simply a sport from the Cornish. Its similarity in 
shape makes this the simplest solution. The Indian 
is a bird of strong proportions, and so fine is his 
texture that his weight deceives the uninitiated. 
The cocks weigh nine pounds and the hens six and 
one-half pounds. The beaks and shanks are yellow. 
The back and wings of the cock are a beautiful 
mixture of black and red. The tail and breast are 
black. The hen's back, wings, breast and body are 
a rich bay, penciled with black. The Indian makes 
a fine market bird and is particularly good for 
crossing on Brahmas and Cochins for certain 
markets. 

II. Fancy Fowls 

We now come to a consideration of those breeds 
and varieties that are seldom if ever bred for prac- 
tical purposes, for table use or for egg-production, 



but are bred as the fads and pets of fanciers who 
admire their peculiarities of form or feather, and 
have little regard for the question of profit or loss 
in their poultry transactions so long as their own 
artistic or esthetic tastes are gratified. Not being 
of strictly farm value they have little place in a 
work of this nature. 

The Polish family. 

Polish: White-crested Black, Bearded Golden, 
Bearded Silver, Bearded White, Buff-laced, Non- 
bearded Golden, Non-bearded Silver, Non-bearded 
White. — These eight varieties constitute the beau- 
tiful Polish family, probably the joy and pride of 
more strictly fancy fanciers than any other family. 
The Polish are easily controlled and confined, by 
reason of their immense crests, but require good 
care and housing, as they cannot endure exposure 
in snow or rain. Four of these varieties, as their 
names indicate, have, in addition to their crests, 
ample beards. The color-markings of the Polish 
varieties are too elaborate to allow detailed de- 
scriptions here. With good care, Polish hens pro- 
duce a good supply of choice white eggs. 

The Game and Game bantam families. 

Game: Black-breasted Red, Brown Red, Golden 
Duckwing, Silver Duckwing (Fig. 580), Birchen, 
Red Pyle, White, Black. — These eight varieties of 
standard Games have each its counterpart in ban- 
tams. The standard or exhibition Game has a style 
peculiarly its own. The corresponding bantams 
differ only in size. The standard Game differs 
greatly from the pit Game. The latter is bred for 
fighting, the former for exhibition at shows, where 
the bird that stands highest and straightest, looks 
the fiercest and 
has the most ^ 
correct plumage 
wins the prize. 

Oriental Game 
and bantam 
families. 

Black . Suma- 
tra. — This is a 
medium- sized 
bird with long 
drooping tail- 
plumage of very 
rich greenish 
black. It is 
much used in 
making certain 
crosses. 

Black-breasted 
Red Malay. — 
This is a large, 
handsome bird. 
The cock is 
twenty - six in- 
ches high and weighs nine pounds; the hen is eight- 
een inches high and weighs seven pounds. The color 
of the cock is chiefly a rich reddish brown ; that of 
the hen is dark brown with black in some sections. 




Fig. 580. Silver Duckwing cock. 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



569 




Fig. 581. Rose-comb 
Black bantam. 



Black-breasted Red Malay bantam. — The Malay is 
also produced in bantam size, which is very popular. 

Ornamental bantam family. 

Sebright : Golden, Silver. — These are proud little 
birds. The cocks and hens are feathered alike. 
The plumage of the Golden Sebright has a yellow 
base, and each feather is distinctly laced with 
black. The plumage of the Silver Sebright has a 
white base, and the same black lacing as the 
Golden. 

Rose -comb bantam: Black 
(Fig. 581), White.— Both black 
and white types are found 
among these. Both sexes ot 
both varieties have a proud 
carriage, a large, white ear- 
lobe and a long tail. 

Booted White bantams. — 
The peculiarity of this breed 
is a heavily feathered vulture 
hock, which gives it the ap- 
pearance of wearing boots. 
Brahma bantams: Light, 
Dark. — These are simply the two standard vari- 
eties of this name in miniature. It has been very 
difficult to get them sufficiently dwarfed in size. 

Cochin bantam : Buff, Partridge, White, Black. — 
Each of the four standard Cochin varieties has its 
corresponding bantam, very grotesque little crea- 
tures. The Standard weight for cocks is thirty 
ounces and for hens twenty-six ounces. Weights 
four ounces higher disqualify. 

Japanese bantams: Black-tailed, White, Black. 
— The leading characteristic of Japanese bantams 
is that they are seemingly almost legless, that their 
long wings touch the ground, and that their big, 
high tails come as near as possible to touching the 
back of their heads. 

Polish bantams : Bearded White, Buff Laced, Non- 
Bearded. — These follow the standard Polish vari- 
eties already referred to, except in size. The cocks 
should weigh about twenty-six ounces and the hens 
about twenty-two ounces. 

Miscellaneous breeds. 

Silkies. — These are a peculiar white fowl of 
small size, with bluish red face and comb. Their 
leading characteristic is that their feathers are 
without quill or web, thus giving them a plumage 
that is soft, downy and fluffy, from which the 
name is derived. (Fig. 529.) 

Sultans. — These are booted Polish fowls, 
with both muff and beard. Their plumage is 
white. The comb should be invisible or very 
small V-shaped with two small spikes. The "i 
crest is large, full and compact, the feathers 
falling backward. 

Frizzles. — These are fowls of any size or color, 
but having the tip of each feather turned back so 
as to give them a peculiar ruffled appearance. (Fig. 
528.) 

Literature. 
For references', see page 527. 



Ducks. Anatidcs. Figs. 582-585. 
By Charles McClave. 

The domestic duck is a web-footed, short-legged 
fowl that is raised chiefly for its meat. The eggs 
cannot compete on the market with hen's eggs, and 
are seldom offered for sale except for hatching 
purposes. It is the general opinion of naturalists 
that the domestic duck of today is a descendant of 
the wild Mallard (Anos boschas), and that different 
types and colors have been produced only after 
many generations of careful selection and breed- 
ing. 

The American Standard of Perfection recognizes 
twelve varieties of domestic ducks as follows : 
Aylesbury, Rouen, Pekin, Cayuga, Crested White, 
Indian Runner, Blue Swedish, White Muscovey, 
Colored Muscovey, Gray Call, White Call, and Black 
East India. These twelve varieties comprise all 
colors, types, and sizes of the duck family, from 
the little two-and-one-half-pound Call to the twelve- 
pound Muscovey or Pekin. 

Aylesbury. 

The Aylesbury duck is the leading English mar- 
ket variety. It is native of the county of Aylesbury, 
England. It is to Europe as a market duck what 
the Pekin is to America. The Aylesbury is slaty 
white in color, of large size, with flesh-colored 
beak and yellow shanks and feet. It is a good layer, 
rapid grower, and ranks high as a market variety. 

Rouen. (Fig. 582.) 

The Rouen duck is a descendant of the wild Mal- 
lard, which it resembles in color. By careful selec- 
tion and breeding it has attained more than twice 
the weight of the Mallards. Some writers have 
designated it as a native of Rouen, a city in the 
province of Normandy, which is noted for its fine 




Fig. 582. Rouen ducks. 

poultry, but this cannot be verified, as larger and 
better specimens can be found in both England and 
America than in Normandy. The Rouen is the 
largest and most popular of all colored market 
varieties. The standard weight of mature speci- 
mens is nine pounds for drakes and eight pounds 
for ducks. 



570 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



Black Cayuga. 

This is the largest solid black duck known. It is 
strictly an American production and first made its 
appearance about Lake Cayuga, New York, from 
whence it derived its name. It is of fair size, a 
mature pair weighing fifteen pounds. The body is 
of good length. It is a good layer, the young grow 
rapidly, and as a market variety it ranks with the 
Rouen and Aylesbury. 

Pekin. (Fig. 583.) 

The Pekin is the greatest market duck of modern 
times. It was first imported to America from China 
in 1873. For two or three years following this 
importation, Pekin duck eggs for hatching were 
difficult to secure at ten to thirteen dollars per 
dozen. The Pekin is today the largest white duck 
in existence, exhibition specimens frequently weigh- 
ing as high as ten to twelve pounds each. As a 
market variety, it outranks all others. Without 
doubt, there are more Pekins grown for market in 
America than all other varieties combined. The 
head and beak are long, and of good size ; beak 
orange-yellow in color ; back, breast and body long, 
broad and deep, with deep keel ; color creamy 
white. It is a good layer, feathers early and 
matures rapidly. 

Crested White. 

This is a medium-sized white duck, with large 
white crest or topknot. It is about two-thirds the 
size of the Pekin, and resembles it in color and 
shape of body, with the exception of the crest. It 
is strictly an American production. It is a good 




Fig. 583. Pekin ducks. 

layer, and the young grow rapidly. The Crested 
White is an excellent market variety, and at the 
same time is very ornamental, so that it is in 
demand. 

Blue Swedish. 

The Blue Swedish is the latest acquisition to the 
standard varieties. It is an English production, 
and has been bred in England for several years. 
It is of good size, mature birds weighing fifteen 
pounds per pair, and is of the same general charac- 




Fig. 584. Indian Runner duck. 



ter as the Pekin, except in color. The color is a 
uniform steel-blue throughout, except on the bib or 
front of the breast, which is clear white and heart- 
shaped, extending to the throat. The beak in drakes 
is greenish blue in color, and in the duck smutty 
brown, with dark brown blotch, the eyes deep hazel ; 
shanks and feet 

reddish brown. S^T- 

//v •':-,; 

Indian Runner. 

(Fig. 584.) 

This is a small 
variety midway 
in size between 
the Call and the 
Crested White. 
It originated in 
England. It is 
termed the "Leg- 
horn of the duck 
family" because 
of its great lay- 
ing capacity. 
It is, without 
doubt, the best- 
known layer of 
the aquatic fam- 
ily. In color it is 
entirely different 
from any other standard variety of ducks. The 
head is long and flat, light fawn in color, cap and 
cheek-markings light fawn ; bill straight, green in 
color with black bean at tip ; eyes hazel ; neck 
white from head to point where breast-markings 
begin; back light fawn or gray; breast light fawn, 
evenly divided half-way between point of breast- 
bone and legs; body light fawn, the rear half white; 
shanks and feet orange-yellow; carriage very erect, 
almost in a perpendicular form. The young feather 
rapidly and come to maturity earlier than the larger 
varieties. 

Black East India. 

The Black East India duck is an exact counter- 
part of the Black Cayuga, except in size. It is 
rated with the Call as the bantam of the domesti- 
cated duck family. The best authorities inform us 
that it is a "sport" from the common or wild 
Mallard (Anos boschas). It has the same general 
characters as the Mallard. While it should be solid 
black in color, many specimens have white on the 
breast, which is a disqualification. It is more freely 
bred in England than in America. Really good 
specimens are scarce and hard to secure at any 
price. 

Colored Museovey. (Fig. 585.) 

The Colored Museovey is an entirely distinct 
species from all other standard varieties of ducks. 
It is a native of South America and inhabits the 
country along the equator from Guiana to Para- 
guay. It is the native wild duck of that locality 
and is not a migratory bird, as are nearly all other 
varieties of wild ducks. While it is somewhat slow 
and inclined to be awkward on foot, it is very 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



571 



active on wing and can. fly miles with a very little 
effort. The males are about twice the size of the 
females and pugnacious in disposition, especially at 
breeding time. The Muscovey will cross with other 
domestic ducks, but the progeny are useless for 
breeding purposes. 

The Colored Muscovey is of good size, black and 
white in color, the black predominating. The most 
peculiar characteristic is that the side of the head 
and the region around the eye are without feathers 
and are carunculated or corrugated and scarlet in 
color. Unlike many other varieties, this duck builds 
her nest and never scatters her eggs. She will sit, 
hatch and rear her young with diligent care. It 
requires the Muscovey five weeks to hatch, while 
other varieties hatch in four weeks. It is the duck 
that never quacks. 

White Muscovey. 

The White Muscovey has been bred from the 
Colored variety by careful selection of the whitest 
specimens for many years, and now breeds true to 
color. The young usually show some black at the 
top of the head and frequently on the back, under- 
neath the wings, but this disappears after the first 
molt. Unlike others, it molts but once a year. The 
White is the same as the Colored variety except in 
color. 

Gray Call. 

The Gray Call duck is the bantam of the duck 
family, and weighs only four to five pounds per 
pair. The color is identical with that of the wild 
Mallard or the Rouen. It is an ornamental variety 
and is used principally as a decoy to bring down wild 
ducks, and for ornamenting the waters of public 
and private parks. While domestic in its habits, it 
is very active on the wing and flies as well as any 
wild variety. The female prepares her nest very 
carefully in a secluded place and lays ten to four- 
teen eggs ; she is a good mother, rearing all her 
young, barring accident. The young are rapid 
growers and come to maturity at eight to ten 
weeks old. 

White Call. 

This has the same general characteristics as the 
Gray Call, except that in color it is a spotless 
white. The White has never been so popular as the 
Gray and good specimens are not plentiful. 

Wild ducks of America. 

There are more than fifty known species of wild 
ducks scattered over North America from the Canal 
zone to the Arctic ocean. Some varieties are much 
more numerous than others. It will be possible 
here to mention only a few varieties and to describe 
the one or two most important. The most important 
are the Wood duck, Mallard, Pintail, Shoveller, Cin- 
namon Teal, Blue Wing Teal, Green Wing Teal, 
Widgeon, Godwall, Mottled duck, Florida Dusky 
duck, Black duck and others. All of these are what 
are termed non-diving varieties, and derive most of 
their living from the vegetation found in the shal- 
low water of streams, pools and marshes. The 



fresh-water ducks also relish any kind of grain or 
animal food found in the water. All varieties are 
practically migratory in their habits, passing the 
summer and nesting in the North, and wintering 
in the South. 

There are fully twenty-five species of diving 
ducks, including the well-known Canvas-backs, 
Red-heads, Broad-bills, Labradors, American Eiders, 
Velvet Scooter and many others. Nearly aU vari- 
eties migrate more or less at night, especially v hen 
they are disturbed by hunters, and frequently pass 
the day on the water far from shore as a means of 
protection. 

Wood or Carolina duck (Aix sponsa). — This is 
the handsomest and most gorgeously colored of any 
American variety. While a migratory bird, it does 
not go so far north as most other varieties of wild 
ducks, and confines itself at all seasons of the year 
largely to the United States. The adult male has 







Fig. 585. Colored Muscovey ducks. 

a long flowing crest, extending backward nearly to 
the shoulder. It is purple and green in color, with 
bright metallic reflections. Two narrow lines of 
white, one starting from the upper base of the bill, 
the other at or behind the eye, pass backward to 
the point of the crest ; the throat and side of the 
neck are white, nearly enclosing the violet-black 
back of the head. The breast is chestnut, shaded 
with purple, and spangled with triangular patches 
of white ; the wing coverts and back are purple 
and black, with rich reflections ; the sides of the 
breast are marked with a broad black bar ; the 
sides of the body are barred with fine black lines 
with yellowish brown ground or undercolor, the 
longer feathers ending with a white bar. The bill 
is deep red or scarlet, with black at the base, and 
black bean or nail ; eyes bright red with scarlet 
eyelids ; legs and feet dusky yellow. The female is 
similar to the male in color, but much duller in 
shade. 

The Wood duck is rivaled only by the Mandarin 
duck of China, which is a smaller variety and some- 
what less gaudy in color. The Wood duck prefers a 
secluded place, near a small lake or swamp where 
trees abound. The nest is usually made in hollow 
trees near the water, and is composed of feathers 



572 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



and down only, plucked by the duck. Should the 
nest be far from the water, the young are carried 
by the mother in her beak, one at a time. Here 
they are at home, and like other wild varieties 
come to maturity in a very short period. 

The Mallard duck (Anos boschas) is the most 
numerous of all North American varieties, and is 
found more or less in Europe and parts of Asia and 
northern Africa. In color, it is the same as the 
standard Rouen ; medium in size ; head of the male 
clear lustrous green ; bill greenish yellow ; eyes 
dark hazel ; neck green, with distinct white ring 
nearly meeting at the back ; breast clear purple, 
brown extending well back; back ashy gray, shaded 
with green ; wings grayish brown shaded with 
green. The duck is entirely different in color from 
the drake, the entire plumage being light brown 
penciled with dark lustrous brown throughout. 

Literature. 

Geo. E. Howard, Ducks and Geese : Standard 
Varieties and Management, Farmers' Bulletin No. 
64, United States Department of Agriculture 
(1906). [For further references, see page 527.] 

Geese. Anatidce. Figs. 586-590. 
By Charles McClave. 

The goose is a water-fowl raised for its meat 
and feathers, and also to some extent for orna- 
nental purposes. The breeding and rearing of 
domesticated and wild varieties of geese is an 
industry that is not only interesting in many ways, 
but of value from a commercial standpoint. 

The goose may be said to be midway in general 
appearance and size between the swan and the 
duck. It is much smaller, with shorter body, wing 
and neck than the swan, and much larger than any 
known variety of ducks. The beak of the goose is 
different in form from that of the duck, being nar- 
rower and deeper and more like that of the swan. 
The tarsus or shank — that is, the part of the leg 
not covered by feathers — in the goose is covered 
by naked skin, marked with small lines, enclosing 
sections like meshes of a net. In the duck family 
this is very different ; the front of the shank or 
tarsus is covered with scales or scutellae, one over- 
lapping another and forming a perfect covering 
just as the scales cover a fish. In the goose the 
tarsus is said to be reticulate, while in the duck it 
is said to be scutellate. 

The origin of all our domestic and standard 
varieties of geese, except the wild or Canadian, is 
said to be the European gray-lag variety (Anser 
dnereus). By careful selection and breeding for 
a great number of years, man has wrought many 
changes in color, type, and general characteristics 
of the domestic varieties. The geese that excited 
the attention of the guard by their loud noise and 
saved the Roman capitol from destruction by the 
enemy, were of a very different type from our 
improved varieties of the present day. 

The varieties of geese recognized by the Ameri- 
can Standard of Perfection are the African, Emb- 
den, Toulouse, White Chinese, Brown Chinese, 



Wild or Canadian and Egyptian. All are natives 
of the eastern hemisphere except the Wild or Cana- 
dian. The first three varieties are generally desig- 
nated by breeders and specialists as the " heavy 
weight" or "market" varieties of the goose 
family. Mature geese, when fattened for market, 
weigh seventeen to twenty pounds each ; single 
specimens have been known to reach more than 
twenty -five pounds, but the latter figure is an 
extreme weight. 

The following notes on African, Embden and 
Toulouse geese, not prepared by the writer of this 
article, are inserted by the Editor to complete the 
discussion. 

African. 

African geese rank with the Embden and Tou- 
louse in size, and are considered more prolific than 
either. They are strong, vigorous and active 
birds. They are characterized by a large head, 
bearing a pronounced black knob, and a heavy gray 
dewlap under the throat. The neck is long, back 
broad and flat, breast full and round, body large 
and upright. The thighs are short and plump, and 
the shanks medium long and dark orange colored. 
The wings are of good size, and fit close to the 
body. The plumage of the neck is rather light gray 
in color, traversed from the head to the body by a 
stripe of dark gray color. The breast is gray, the 
under part of the body and thighs a lighter gray, 
and the back dark gray. The wings and tail are 
dark gray. The standard weights are given as fol- 
lows : Mature gander, 20 pounds ; mature goose, 
18 pounds ; young gander, 16 pounds ; young goose, 
14 pounds. 

African geese are most profitable because of 
their prolificacy and early maturity. Nine-pound 
market birds are ready in ten weeks. Their dark 
bill and skin is against them, and they are consid- 




Fig. 586. Embden. 

ered difficult to pick. But the flesh is fine-flavored, 
and esteemed for the table. The ganders are sure 
breeders, and mate readily with any geese and with 
large numbers. The females are splendid mothers, 
and fairly good layers. 

African geese are an old variety and were 
brought to America at an early date, variously 
known as African, India and Guinea geese. They 
have not been much shown, and consequently are 
not so well known as some other breeds, but are 
highly prized by a few breeders. 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



572 



Embden. 

The beautifu. white plumage, square, compact 
body, and tall, erect carriage of the Embden make 
it a very attractive bird. It is not so prolific, per- 
haps, as the Toulouse, averaging only about twenty 
eggs in a season, but it is highly esteemed as a 
practical bird. The neck is long and massive- 
appearing, carrying rather a large head and a 
medium -sized, orange -colored bill. The back is 
slightly arched, the breast round, deep and full, 
shanks short, stout, and deep orange in color, the 
thighs strong and well-proportioned, toes straight. 
The wings are large and strong and the tail short. 
The eyes are bright blue, indicating vigor and 
attention. The standard weights are given as fol- 
lows : Mature gander, 20 pounds ; mature goose, 
18 pounds; young gander, 18 pounds; young goose, 
16 pounds. 

Embden geese were originated by the north Ger- 
mans, and especially those living in or near the 
province of Westphalia. 

For breeding, it is well to choose a bright, active 
gander of good parentage, that is two to five years 
old. The goose should have similar qualities, and 
be clean and compact. Fall or early winter is the 
best time to mate. The gander and geese, one to 
three in number, should be put together and isolated 
until they become acquainted. Embden geese will 
breed profitably until ten to twelve years of age, 
but they are not generally allowed to do so. They 
like to hide their nests, and it is well to place the 
nests in out-of-the-way places, free from disturb- 
ance. A few nest-eggs should be provided so that 
the eggs may be removed each day, and stored at 
a temperature of 45° to 60°, until enough for a 
sitting have been secured. By that time the goose 
will be broody. Incubation takes thirty days. If 
the eggs are hatched under a hen, she will need 
attention at hatching time, until she gets familiar 
with her strange brood. 

Toulouse. 

Toulouse geese are an old French breed, and have 
long been popular in France for their superior fat- 
tening qualities and hardiness, making them very 
profitable. They derive their name from the city 
of Toulouse in France. They are bred largely on 
farms in America, and are in demand on the mar- 
ket. They are less esteemed for table purposes 
than some other breeds, owing to the coarse and 
flabby nature of the flesh. They are late maturing 
and prolific, averaging about forty eggs in a season. 

Toulouse geese are blue-gray in color, marked 
with brown ; the head is gray, the neck dark blue- 
gray, the back dark gray, the breast a light gray or 
steel-blue, the belly and under surface of the tail 
white ; the shanks and feet are deep orange-red 
colored, and the bill is orange colored. The prima- 
ries of the wings are brown, the secondaries a 
darker brown, edged with lighter gray, the coverts 
dark gray. The head is rather large but short, the 
bill short and stout, neck medium long and well 
carried ; body compact, medium length, deep, the 
belly almost touching the ground ; back broad, 
moderately long, slightly arched ; breast broad and 




Fig.. 587. 



Toulouse goose. 



deep ; wings large, strong, folded close to the body; 
tail short ; thighs and shanks stout. The standard 
weights are given as follows : Adult gander, 20 
pounds ; adult goose, 18 pounds ; young gander, 
18 pounds ; young 
goose, 15 pounds. 

The comparative 
value of the differ- 
ent breeds for mar- 
ket purposes is a 
matter of opinion. 
African geese are 
hardy, good breeders 
and prolific ; other- 
wise they are not so 
good for market pur- 
poses as either the 
Embden or the Tou- 
louse. African gan- 
ders are frequently 
used to cross on 
other breeds, but 
they are pugnacious, quarrelsome and hard to han- 
dle. The Embden is preeminently the market goose 
for family trade ; especially is this so where pro- 
ducer and consumer deal direct. 

Young geese are often as good or better breeders 
than old. Breeding qualities are to be judged by 
results rather than by age. It is well to keep the 
good breeders as long as they produce satisfac- 
torily. Geese that have been good breeders should 
not be condemned on one season's failure. All 
breeding geese have their "ups and downs," and 
results are not always good. It is better to set all 
but the last eggs under hens ; the latter are easier 
to handle, and the goose will usually lay two 
litters. 

White and Brown Chinese. ( Fig. 588.) 

The White and the Brown Chinese (Cygnopsis cyg- 
noides) have the same general characteristics, but 
are entirely different in color. The original Chi- 
nese were colored and the White has been bred 
from sports. It is thought that no entirely white 
variety of geese existed among any known wild 
species of the goose family. These two varieties 
are native of China, and are bred in Europe and 
America in large numbers. 

The Chinese are the most ornamental of all 
domestic varieties of geese. For ornamenting the 
lakes and lagoons of public and private parks they 
rank high, even rivaling the European swan in 
this respect. They are also a practical variety. In 
egg -production they outrival even the famous 
Toulouse. As a market goose, the Chinese are of 
very superior quality. The bodies are plump and 
round and the meat is of excellent quality. As 
feather-producers they are also valuable, being 
covered with a good coat of soft feathers and fine 
down. They are of medium size, mature specimens 
weighing ten to fourteen pounds each according to 
flesh. In general appearance, the Chinese have 
long arch necks, carried very upright, with a large 
round knob or protuberance at the base of the 
beak — the larger the knob the better. They dis- 



574 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 




rs^ 



Fig. 588. WWte Chinese geese. 



play a short erect body and carriage, giving them 
a novel appearance. They are especially valuable 
on farms on which marshy or broken land by 
stream or brook abounds, for this is their natural 

home. During 
the spring and 
warm months 
they gain nearly 
their entire liv- 
ing from pas- 
ture and water. 
During the win- 
ter, they need 
the protection 
of an open shed, 
and if supplied 
with clover hay 
and other rough 
fodder require 
only a small 
amount of grain 
each day. The 
breeding geese 
should be fed 
sparingly on 
corn or other grain, as fattened specimens are poor 
egg - producers and eggs from them hatch few 
goslings. 

Experience has taught that it is best to mate 
two geese with one gander, although some ganders 
will mate with three geese. When large flocks are 
kept together, they usually mate in pairs and trios, 
and at laying time the ganders become pugnacious 
among themselves and fight viciously. It is advis- 
able to allow the goose to sit and hatch her young, 
but the eggs can be hatched by chicken hens and 
reared by hand with good success. Should the 
latter method be adopted, the goose should be 
removed to new quarters as soon as she begins to 
be broody, and in a few days she will lay again. 
After the second laying it is well to allow the 
goose to hatch and grow the young. The young 
grow rapidly from the shell, and at four months of 
age are nearly mature. The gander will always 
care for and protect the young as well as the goose. 
The young hatched and cared for by the chicken 
hens can be turned over at any age to the flock, as 
the ganders will fight for the young at any age, 
and every old gander in the flock will endeavor to 
father the young goslings. 

Wild or Canadian. (Fig. 589.) 

The American wild or Canadian goose (Branta 
Canadensis) is a native of North America from the 
gulf of Mexico to the Hudson bay country and even 
Alaska. It is a migratory bird, spending the 
winters in southern United States and in Mexico 
and California. In the early spring great flocks are 
seen passing northward, beyond the eye and habi- 
tation of man to the silent desolations of unknown 
countries. It seeks the wild solitudes uninhabited 
by man, on the shores of lakes and marshes. It 
usually nests near the water on elevated patches of 
ground, and frequently on muskrat houses made of 
reeds in the water. The nest is carefully made and 



protected with diligent care by both gander and 
goose. The goose does not begin to lay until three 
years of age, and produces five to eight eggs of 
large and uniform size. Invariably all are fertile 
and each brings forth a strong, vigorous gosling. 
As soon as all are hatched, the young are taken to 
the water by the parent birds, where they feed 
mostly on vegetable matter and water insects. 
The young are very rapid growers and come to 
maturity in about twelve weeks, while other vari- 
eties of our domestic geese require four to five 
months to reach maturity. The Canadian Wild geese 
mate only in pairs. 

Wild geese were domesticated and bred on farms 
at an early period with varied success. No change 
in appearance or color has been wrought by man ; 
their appearance and habits are the same. The 
writer has had many years of experience in breed- 
ing and handling these wild fowls, and finds their 
wild instincts always foremost. Birds reared with 
our domestic geese will rise and fly if an opportun- 
ity presents itself. The only means of controlling 
them is to remove the last joint of one wing when 
the goslings are only a few days old so that they 
cannot fly. 

The standard weight of Wild geese is ten to 
twelve pounds. They are of medium size, with long 
arched neck, small, well-elevated head, with black 
beak and an ever-watchful eye ; head black, with 
a triangular white patch or cheek piece meeting 
under the throat ; neck black, shading to gray at 
base ; the back dark gray, breast light gray, shad- 
ing to white on under part of the body ; wings 
long, large and powerful, 
and in color 
approaching 
young are 
similar in 
color to the 
adult, except 
that they are 
a little duller 
in shade and 
the white 
cheek piece 
is marked 
with black. 
This disap- 
pears at ma- 
turity, however, and at one year old the young 
have precisely the same color as the adults. 

Egyptian (Chcnalopcx JEgypticus). (Fig. 590.) 

This variety is entirely different from all other 
standard or domestic varieties of the goose family. 
It produces only a small number of eggs and is of 
little value except for ornamental purposes. Its 
native home is north and central Africa and the 
shores of the Mediterranean sea. Historians and 
naturalists allude to the Egyptian as the oldest and 
most ancient variety of pure-bred geese. At pres- 
ent it is common over southern Europe and occa- 
sionally fine specimens can be found in America. 
It is the native wild goose of the River Nile 
country. Because of its small size and peculiar 




Fig. 589. Wild or Canadian geese. 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



575 




Fig. 590. Brown Chinese Geese. 



shape, some naturalists place the Egyptian as much 
in the duck family as in the goose family. It is the 
smallest standard or domesticated variety, weigh- 
ing six to ten pounds, the latter weight being the 
extreme for mature males. 

The male and female are alike both in shape and 
in color, and it is frequently difficult to distinguish 
the sexes under ordinary circumstances. It is 
necessary to " wing " both mature and young birds 
to prevent their flying away. They care little for 
other domestic vari- 
eties of geese and 
ducks, and prefer to 
remain by themselves 
near the pond or 
marsh. They are 
sought principally for 
parks and public ex- 
hibitions'. While 
small in stature, the 
old males are very 
pugnacious and quar- 
relsome with all other 
aquatic fowls, and es- 
pecially with males of 
their own species. 
With better domesti- 
cation this trouble- 
some characteristic 
will no doubt be 
overcome to a great 
extent. 

In color, the Egyptian goose is the most varied 
and gaudy of the goose tribe. The head is small 
and rather long, a little inclined to duck shape ; 
the bill of medium length and rather flat, and in 
color purple or shaded red ; the eyes orange color, 
prominent and bold ; the neck medium length, 
small, gray and black in color ; the back narrow 
and arched or egg-shaped from base of neck to 
tail, color grayish black ; the breast round and 
deep, with a chestnut-colored middle, the lower 
part dark gray. The same chestnut color extends 
around the eye, covering the side of the head in 
both male and female. The wings are large and 
powerful, and underneath the wing joints are pro- 
vided with a strong, horny spur five-eighths of an 
inch long, being entirely different in this respect 
from other varieties of geese. The surface of the 
wing is white, with a narrow black stripe or bar 
of clear metallic luster, wing flights clear black, 
tail medium size and metallic black, thighs pale 
buff or gray, feet reddish yellow. Altogether the 
Egyptian is a most interesting variety and worthy 
of more than passing attention. It breeds well in 
confinement under favorable conditions, the goose 
producing six to eight eggs, making a nest and 
hatching her young. If it has access to a pond or 
waterway, it requires very little attention or grain 
food. 

Sebastapool. 

The Sebastapool goose is a native of eastern 
Europe and western Asia and the Black sea, and 
was imported to America as early as 1860. It is a 



pure-bred, but not a standard variety, pure white 
in color, of medium size, mature specimens weigh- 
ing ten to eleven pounds each. The peculiarity of 
this most novel variety is its plumage, the back 
and wing surface feathers being long, inclining 
forward and downward, without shaft and curling 
as though fanned by the breezes. The irregular 
ribbon-like plumage attracts attention wherever 
exhibited. Very few good specimens are to be 
found in America. 

Wild geese of North America. 

Brant found some twenty distinct types or vari- 
eties of wild geese in North America. We here men- 
tion only a few of the more prominent. All North 
American varieties are birds of rapid and powerful 
flight, non-divers except when wounded, and nest 
on the ground in high latitude ; but nests have 
occasionally been found in the forks of a low tree 
a few feet from the ground. 

The wild Blue goose (Chen emruleseens) is a dis- 
tinct variety found in the interior in the Missis- 
sippi valley and north to the Hudson bay country. 
It is rarely seen on the Pacific or Atlantic coasts. 
It winters along the gulf of Mexico and nests in 
the interior of Labrador. It is somewhat smaller 
than the Canadian Wild goose and much shorter in 
neck. The head and the upper part of the neck are 
white, the breast, back and wings brown and blue 
tinged with gray, the tail brown edged with white, 
the bill pale pink with a black mark along each 
mandible, and the shanks and feet bright pink in 
color. 

Large Snow goose (Chen hyperborea). — This vari- 
ety is native from Alaska to Texas and Cuba. It 
feeds largely on the land from growing vegetables, 
and returns to the water for resting and drink. 
The adult specimen is white in color, except the 
primaries of the flights, which are black, shading 
to gray at the base. The bill and feet are bright 
red. 

Small Snow goose — The color and general char- 
acteristics of the Small Snow goose are the same as 
those of the Large Snow goose except as to size. It 
is found from the Mississippi valley to California, 
and from as far south as Lower California to as 
far north as Hudson bay. 

The Ross goose. — This goose is the same in color 
as the Snow goose, but very small in size, — in fact, 
it is the smallest of all wild varieties, mature 
specimens weighing only about three pounds. It is 
without doubt the bantam of the wild goose family. 
It is not numerous. In summer it occupies the 
country about the Arctic ocean and in winter is 
found along the Pacific coast and in southern Cali- 
fornia. 

The White-fronted goose (Anser albifrons) is of 
medium size and grayish brown in color. The first 
short feathers from the beak toward the eye are 
white bordered by dark brown, and hence the name, 
White-fronted goose. The bill, legs and feet are 
pink or red. It inhabits the entire western part of 
North America from Mexico to the Arctic ocean. 
It feeds almost entirely on grass and other vege- 
table matter, and occupies the water only at night 



576 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



and during the molting period. The nest is made 
on the low ground near fresh-water marshes and 
small lakes. The goose produces five to seven eggs 
of a cream color. 

The Hutching, Western, and Cackling varieties of 
wild geese are all similar in characteristics and 
color to the Canadian Wild goose except in size, 
and are less numerous. 

The Bernacle goose (Bcrnicla cucopsis) is said to 
be a straggler from Europe, where it is common. 
It is very scarce in America, and is found only 
along the Atlantic coast. It is a small bird about 
the size of the Brant. The head is white except 
the top, which is black ; the neck, back and wings 
are white, the under part of the body dull white, 
ending in clear white at the rear end ; the tail, 
bill and feet are black. 

The Emperor goose is a rare variety, found princi- 
pally about the Bering sea, and said by some writ- 
ers to be the handsomest of all American varieties. 
In color, the head and back of the neck are white, 
the front and sides of the neck are brownish black 
checked with white, the tail is dark gray at the 
base and white at the end. The wing and body 
plumage is of a bluish shade, each feather ending 
with a band of white and lace"d by crescent-shaped 
black markings ; the primaries of the wings are 
black, and the secondaries slaty black laced with 
white. It nests on the low marshy islands of Alaska, 
near the water mark. 

Black Brant. (Branta bcrnicla.) — This goose is 
of medium size, nearly black in color except the 
under rear part of the body. It inhabits nearly all 
of North America as far east as Greenland, and 
nsrth to the Arctic ocean. The nest is made on the 
ground on small islands in fresh water in Franklin 
bay. The nest usually contains four or five eggs. 

Wild varieties of the eastern hemisphere. 

Of the wild varieties of Europe, there are three 
distinct types: the Gray-lag goose, the Pink-footed 
goose and the Bean goose. The common domestic, 
or English variety, is no doubt a descendant of the 
wild Gray-lag. 

The wild Gray-lag goose (Anser cinereus), alone 
among wild varieties, will cross with domestic 
geese and produce fertile progeny. Very few Gray- 
lags are to be found in Europe except in the Shet- 
land islands and on the coast of Norway. As a 
variety it has become almost extinct. 

The Bean goose (Anser segetum) closely resembles 
the Gray-lag in many respects, but is shorter in 
beak and has greater length of wings or flight 
feathers. 

Pink-footed goose. — Very little can be said regard- 
ing the Pink-footed goose except that it resembles 
the Gray-lag and Bean varieties in color and gen- 
eral type, and is very difficult to distinguish from 
them. 

The Gamhian or Spur-winged goose is a native of 
the eastern hemisphere, and is very rare in Amer- 
ica. The plumage is black and white, the former 
predominating. The .goose is of medium size, erect 
in carriage, with a knob on the head similar to that 
in the Chinese variety. The eyes are bright brown, 



the beak and shanks dull red. Because of its wild 
nature it is rarely bred in confinement. 

The Ccreopsis goose is a native of New Holland 
and is becoming very scarce even in Europe. It is 
a handsome variety. It is very pugnacious in dis- 
position, and cannot be kept successfully with any 
other variety of water-fowl. 

Judging geese. 

For judging geese, the American Standard of 
Perfection provides a standard weight for each 
standard variety — adult male, adult female, 
young male and young female. In competition with 
others of the same kind, the specimen nearest the 
required weight, other conditions of color and form 
being equal, shall be the winner. However, in the 
large market varieties, such as the Toulouse, the 
Embden and the African, the writer thinks that, all 
other conditions being equal, the largest specimen 
should be the winner. 

Literature. 

Geo. E. Howard, Ducks and Geese : Standard 
Varieties and Management, Farmers' Bulletin No. 
64, United States Department of Agriculture 
(1906). [For further references, see page 527.] 

Grouse, Domestication of the Ruffed. Bonasa 
umbcllus. Tetraonidm. Figs. 591, 592. 

By C. F. Hodge. 

The possibility of rearing the ruffed grouse, or 
American partridge, in domestication is now a dem- 
onstrated fact. Six birds from a clutch of twelve 
were thus reared by the writer in 1904, and three 
were brought to maturity by Arthur Merrill, of 
the Massachusetts State Hatchery, at Wilkinson- 
ville, in 1906. One pair of the former lot bred 
successfully in captivity when they were ten 
months old, and those at the Wilkinsonville Hatch- 
ery are apparently breeding normally this season. 

Rearing the birds. 

The ruffed grouse lays ten to sixteen eggs in a 
slight depression in the ground, in a brush-pile or 
at the base of a tree. The clutches are usually 
completed in Massachusetts by May 1 to 10, and 
the incubation period is twenty-four days. At any 
stage of incubation the eggs may be transported by 
the " hat method " in perfect safety. This method 
consists in laying a pad of cotton-batting in the 
crown of a felt hat, placing the eggs on this and 
then simply wearing the hat with the eggs next to 
the head. One case is known in which the chicks 
actually hatched in the hat. The young pip the 
shell usually a full day before they finally emerge. 

The eggs hatch well under Cochin bantam hens 
(less so, thus far, in incubators), and the young 
may be allowed to remain undisturbed in the nest 
one day without feeding. The rule to be followed 
after this is, feed lightly and often, and keep them 
hungry : especially, keep them hungry and active. 
The only exception to this rule is at night, when 
they must be fed enough to send them to sleep con- 
tentedly. After feeding liberally one evening, for 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



577 



example, one four-days-old chick was found wan- 
dering disconsolately about in the dusk. It ate 
sixty-five full-grown maggots before it crept under 
the hen. This incidentally illustrates both quanti- 
tatively and qualitatively the food of the young 
chicks, which is, at first, almost wholly small insects 
and spiders. 

Feeding and care. — The best first-feed is supplied 
by cutting branches of apple, maple, chestnut, and 
elm, with leaves covered with aphides, and spread- 
ing them down before the brood ; or the chicks 
may be allowed to pick the small insects from the 
grass or from the plants in the garden. If the 
weather is cold or wet so that they cannot be risked 
out of the brooder, they may be fed for the first 
day or two on well-ripened and cleaned maggots, 
a "few at a time ; and if these fail, as they do in 
exceptionally cold seasons, the attendant may give 
sparingly of pheasants' custard. This is made by 
beating up a fresh egg with a half cup of fresh 
milk, and baking or scalding until coagulated. It 
is well to add a pinch of chick bone-meal to each 
feeding. The chicks will also need a good supply 
of grit, and it is well to keep a bunch of fresh 
chickweed, wood sorrel, shepherd's purse, or wild 
peppergrass before them from the first. They 
should, in fact, be encouraged to eat all the bulky, 
coarse, vegetable matter possible. Grated carrot is 
excellent during the first weeks. All this vegetable 
food may be kept constantly before them, as it 
always is in nature. This rule also applies to all 
kinds of fruits as they ripen through the season, 
from strawberries, mulberries and cherries to 
huckleberries and black cherries, which are a 
staple food through the summer, and grapes and 
apples, chestnuts and acorns in the late fall. 
Throughout the summer, grasshoppers form the 
staple insect diet. These can generally be secured 
in any desired quan- 
tity by sweeping the 
mowings with insect 
nets. 

In the late summer 
and fall, leaves of 
trees and shrubs form 
a large part of the 
bird's diet. It is 
strange that, with all 
sorts of fruits and 
grains before them, 
they will insist on 
eating leaves and 
buds; but queer as the 
taste may seem, there 
is no disputing it. 
The birds winter easily, in fact, winter them- 
selves if supplied with abundance of budding 
brush, poplar, apple or birch, some grains and 
seeds, as of kafir, corn, buckwheat, millet, wheat 
and sunflower, a cabbage head occasionally and 
apples. We may also add cranberries and winter- 
green berries, but these may be an unnecessary 
extravagance. If provided with a warm shelter 
with sunny windows, the partridges will spend 
their days in it wallowing and feeding. They 

C37 




Fig. 591. 

Ruffed grouse cock about five 

months old. 




Fig. 592. Ruffed grouse strutting. 



sleep, however, invariably outside, either perched 
in the brush, preferably a thick mass of spruce, 
pine or hemlock branches, or in snow burrows that 
they dig whenever the snow is deep enough. 

In the spring the flock must be carefully watched 
and the cocks must be put each into a separate 
cage as soon as any signs of fighting appear. The 
hens may be kept 
in a cage together, 
at least until 
mated, when it will 
probably be best 
to give each one 
a cage or run to 
herself. When the 
cocks begin to 
drum, place the 
hens with them 
and tney will mate 
immediately. The 
hens should then 
be removed, as it seems to be the rule for a cock 
to peck a hen to death if confined with her after 
mating. 

Difficulties in the way of domesticating ruffed grouse. 

It is usually stated that the ruffed grouse is 
untamable, and this is given as the reason why the 
species has not been successfully domesticated. 
The experience of the past five years has entirely 
disproved this theory. It has also been asserted 
that it is too nervous to submit to the necessary 
confinement of domesticated fowls. This, too, 
is disproved. If actually hatched under domestic 
conditions, the birds are quite as tame as barnyard 
fowls, and remain so ; and they are quiet, show no 
abnormal restlessness and appear quite as contented 
as ordinary fowls. The real reason why the Ameri- 
can partridge — and this probably applies to the 
bob white and other native grouse — has not been 
brought under domestication is, that the species 
succumbs to a disease, generally present in the 
domestic fowl. The disease is caused by a parasite 
which produces the "black-head" or "favus" 
of the turkey. This disease has made the rear- 
ing of turkeys over wide areas impossible on 
ground contaminated by the domestic fowl, and 
will render the rearing of grouse with fowls impos- 
sible in the same regions. Turkeys or grouse may 
be reared in these localities if the chicks are kept 
in brooders, off the contaminated ground, for the 
first two or three weeks, and are then taken to the 
woods where the ground is uncontaminated by 
fowls. It is possible that a resistant strain may 
be developed, but this will take time. Cochin ban- 
tams may also be reared in incubators and brood- 
ers so as to be entirely free from the parasite, 
and then, on uncontaminated ground, they might 
be used successfully to rear grouse or quail. How- 
ever, experiments have only recently been pro- 
jected along this line on the theory, which is 
probably safe, that the parasites are not trans- 
mitted through the egg. 

Another disease, known as the grouse disease, 
has recently been distributed among the breeding 



578 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



stations and has presented a new and serious dif- 
ficulty. This is bacterial in origin, due to B. Seoticus. 
All precautions should be taken against spreading 
or harboring this germ wherever the rearing of 
grouse is to be attempted. 

Literature. 

Sylvester D. Judd, The Grouse and Wild Turkeys 
of the United States and Their Economic Value, 
Bulletin No. 24, Bureau of Biological Survey, 
United States Department of Agriculture (19D5); 
C. F. Hodge, Domesticating the Ruffed Grouse, 
Country Life in America, April, 1906. 

Guinea-fowl. Numida meleagris. Numididce. Fig. 
593. 

By T. F. McGrew. 

The guinea-fowls belong to the gallinaceous 
division of birds. They were found originally in 
Africa, and are said to have been reared centuries 
ago by the Greeks and Romans as table poultry. 
They were brought into the West Indies by immi- 
grants, and from there were well distributed over the 
entire American continent. They are of a semi-wild 
nature ; even when domesticated they almost refuse 
to make their nests other than in hiding, where 
they deposit, hatch and rear their young. 

Varieties. 

The Pearl guinea, the most common variety of 
the family, has been so named from the fact that 
its plumage is dotted with white spots, the body 
color being purplish gray. The spots are of a pearl 
shape and color. The 
head is bare of plu- 
mage, with a bony pro- 
tuberance on the crown 
that is often called a 
helmet, sometimes 
spoken of as the comb 
of the guinea-fowl. It 
has small wattles, 
bright -colored eyes, 
and alert, quick car- 
riage. It is difficult to 
distinguish the male 
from the female. The 
male has a tendency 
to travel on tiptoe as 
he moves about, and his cry or call is a little louder 
and harsher than that of the female, and of greater 
duration. This variety is most valued because it is 
the largest and most vigorous. 

Vulturine guinea (AcryUium vulturinum). — The 
so-called Vulturine guinea-fowl is a most beau- 
tiful wild bird. It is not a true guinea-fowl, but 
'^ears a close resemblance. It is seldom produced in 
^aptivity. A few specimens have been known to 
deposit their eggs when confined in runways, but 
there is no record of their having reared any young 
in captivity. The Vulturine has a bare head, the 
neck, which is of a reddish color, is ornamented 
with flowing feathers of considerable length, which 
have a broad stripe of white down the center. The 




Fig. 593. Common guinea-fowl. 



feathers of the back are of similar form, dotted 
with white spots ; other parts of the body are 
blackish brown, ornamented with numerous spots. 
The breast and sides of the abdomen are of a beau- 
tiful metallic blue, shaded with black. The whole 
plumage is emblazoned with rich, metallic blue, 
and some parts are shaded with a dull pink. 

The wild crested variety is said to have come from 
Eastern and Central Africa. It has a black crest 
instead of the bony protrusion of the other varie- 
ties. It has also blue markings instead of white ; 
the neck and wattles are of a bluish cast. 

The white variety is thought to have originated 
from albino sports of the Pearl guinea. This, like the 
broken-colored varieties, is not natural to the breed, 
but has resulted from sports. Attention has been 
given the breeding of the white guinea-fowl within 
recent years, and much has been added to its size, 
vigor and attractive qualities. 

Raising. 

Guineas prefer to mate in pairs, but they do not 
object to mating with three to five females, or in 
trios when there are more females than males. 
They lay small eggs, about two-thirds the size of 
an ordinary hen's egg. The shell is very strong, of 
a dark color, and spotted throughout. The eggs 
are usually remarkably fertile. The fowls have 
been known to make a deep, tapering nest, in which 
they would lay twenty-seven to thirty eggs, and 
hatch the greater part of them in four weeks' time. 
They like to conceal their nest, and will leave it 
if they see a person near it. It is said that they 
are able to detect whether the hand has touched 
the nest in their absence, and if so they will de- 
sert it. If eggs are removed with a stick or 
spoon, either some should be left or others sub- 
stituted, so as to leave about five in the nest. 
When first hatched, the keets (young guineas) need 
to be fed frequently on finely broken particles of 
grains or seeds. As they grow older, whole wheat 
and cracked corn seem to be the best food to furnish 
them. Barley, oats, buckwheat and millet are also 
recommended. Guinea-fowls generally feed with 
the' chickens, and thrive on the same foods. They 
should not be over-fattened for market. A fatten- 
ing period of one to two weeks is ordinarily enough. 

Generally, only a few guinea-fowls are bred on 
a farm. A few attempts have been made to breed 
them in considerable numbers, the most successful 
of which were in Ohio, where a guinea broiler farm 
of modest pretensions has been conducted for 
several years. The place most suited to the guinea- 
fowl is the farm, from the fact that it prefers to 
live in a partially wild state. It is a wonderful 
forager, and will almost support itself and young 
during the entire summer months, if there is a 
good supply of bugs, worms and seeds over the 
range. It likes to wander over great distances. It 
retains in captivity its ability to fly almost as well 
as though it had never been domesticated. 

Guineas prosper remarkably well in the South. 
It is not unusual to see large numbers of them in 
flocks during the early fall. They seem to cluster 
in groups at that time, as do the blackbirds. They 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



579 



take up their abode at night in the trees near to 
buildings, or feed-lots, where they can gain a food 
supply from waste grain and other materials. 

Improvement 

If proper attention were given to the mating of 
guinea-fowls to improve their size and laying qual- 
ities, they could be developed into a most profitable 
kind of poultry. They are prolific egg-producers 
during the spring. Attention should be given to 
the culling out of inferior specimens and the 
smaller sized hens, breeding for improvement being 
done only by the best specimens. 

Uses. 

The eggs are more valued for cooking than for 
table use. The guinea-fowl is very wholesome meat, 
and the broiler is considered one of the delicacies 
in poultry. Both old and young are used as substi- 
tutes for game birds. Guineas are very watchful, 
and sound the alarm if the poultry-yard is molested. 

Literature. 

J. H. Edgerton, Guinea Culture, Marietta, Ohio ; 
The Guinea-Fowl' and Its Use as Food, Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 234, United States Department of Agri- 
culture. [For further references, see page 527.] 

Pheasants and Related Fowls. Phasianidce. Figs. 
594-597. 

By Homer Davenport. 

The pheasant family includes within its scope, 
the turkey (which see), peafowl and jungle-fowl, 
aside from what are called pheasants in common 
speech. The guinea-fowl is nearly related. The 
members of this group are valued chiefly for their 
feathers and for ornamental purposes. But the 
economic value of pheasants to the farmer is 
scarcely sufficiently appreciated. The birds destroy 
enormous numbers of injurious insects. Upwards 
of twelve hundred wire-worms have been taken out 
of the crop of a pheasant ; if this number were 
consumed at a single meal, the total destroyed 
must be almost incredible. There is no doubt that 
insects are preferred to grain, while the roots of 
various weeds are apparently relished. One pheas- 
ant, shot at the close of the shooting season, had 
in its crop 726 wire-worms, one acorn, one snail, 
nine berries and three grains of wheat. Yet it 
must be noted that in captivity grain forms the 
favorite food, and a field of standing beans, as is 
well known, will draw pheasants for miles. Pheas- 
ants are occasionally carnivorous. 

Description. 

The pheasants, typified by the genus Phasi- 
anus, are readily distinguished by their long, 
straight, pointed tail feathers, eighteen in number, 
the middle pair being much the longest, and the 
tail tapering to a point. These tail feathers attain 
their maximum development in the Reeve's pheas- 
ant, reaching, in that species, to a length exceed- 
ing five or six feet. The writer once exhibited a 
Reeve's pheasant that measured six feet and one 



inch from the first bar on his tail to the tip. The 
pheasants are all destitute of feathered crests or 
fleshy combs, but are furnished with small tufts of 
feathers behind the eyes. In their native state they 
are essentially forest birds, frequenting the mar- 
gins of woods, coming into the open tracts in 
search of food, and retreating into the thick under- 
wood at the slightest cause for alarm. 

The flight of the pheasant is strong, and is per- 
formed by rapid and frequent beats of the wings, 
the tail at the same time being expanded. The 
wings, considered with reference to the size and 
weight of the bird, are short and small (with the 
exception of those of the Argus pheasant), the sec- 
ondary quills being nearly as long as the primary ; 
they are very rounded in form. The third and 
fourth primary feathers are the longest. The wings 
are not adapted to very prolonged flight, although 
the denizens of the wilder districts in the country 
fly with a speed and cover distances that are 
unknown to the over-fattened birds in our pre- 
serves. Long flights, however, are not altogether 
beyond the powers of pheasants. The compara- 
tively small size of the wings necessitates their 
being moved with great force and velocity, and 
consequently the moving powers or muscles of the 
breast are very large and well developed, taking 
their origin from the deep keel on the breast-bone. 

Breeding notes. 

As the breeding season approaches, the crow of 
the male of the common pheasant (Torquatus) and 
others of like species, may be heard distinctly, 
resembling the imperfect attempt of a young fowl. 
It is followed, and not preceded, as in the game 
cock, by the clapping of the wings ; the pheasant 
and the domestic cock invariably reverse the order 
of succession of these two actions. Like the domes- 
tic fowl, pheasants will also answer any loud noise, 
occurring either by day or by night. The display of 
the plumage by the males during courtship varies 
in almost every species of gallinaceous birds. 
Pheasants seem to possess no other mode of .dis- 
play than the lateral or one-sided method. In this, 
the males disport themselves so as to exhibit to 
the females a greater number of their beautiful 
feathers than could otherwise be seen at one view. 

In a state of nature there is little doubt that 
the pheasant is polygamous. The males are armed 
with sharp spurs, with which they fight, the 
stronger driving away the weaker, and the most 
vigorous propagate their kind. This is true with 
the single exception of the Argus pheasant, most 
beautiful of all in plumage. The nest of the female 
is usually a simple hollow scraped in the ground. 
The eggs that are laid vary largely according to 
the species. The Torquatus pheasant in its wild 
state in Oregon generally lays fifteen to nineteen 
eggs in its nest before sitting, whereas the Pea- 
cock pheasant lays but two. As a rule, the male 
pheasant takes no heed of the eggs laid by the 
female, but he seems to have great regard for the 
offspring, and in some instances will defend them 
to his death. Pheasants usually nest to lay in the 
latter part of April, the date varying somewhat 



580 



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with the season and the latitude. The Silver pheas- 
ant usually is the first to lay, and the Impeyan, or 
Monaul pheasant, the last. 

DESCRIPTIVE NOTES 

Peafowl or peacock. 

The peafowl or peacock represents the genus 
Pavo of the sub-family Pavoninas, of the pheasant 
family (Phasianidaj). Of the peafowls there are 
two distinct species, both apparently coming from 
India or the neighbouring countries. The common 
or grey-winged peafowl is the one generally seen 
throughout the civilized world at the present time. 
The green or Java peafowl is found in Java and 
Burmah, and is a distinctly different species from 
the others. The black-winged peafowl, which is 
probably a variety, is said to have originated in 
Japan. Two other varieties are known, the white 
and the pied. 

The Green or Java (Pavo muticus). — This bird is 
a native of Chittagong, in the eastern part of 
India, through Burma to Java. Perhaps, if feather 
for feather were contrasted with other birds, this 
would rank as the most beautiful of all known 
birds, possessing in its majestic plumage every 
color of the rainbow, every tint and tone in the 
prismatic scale. Its neck feathers, less rich in hue 
than the blue of its rival, have a particularly 
beautiful effect, as if made of metal ; and the almost ' 
equal beauty of the hen places her far above the 
dowdy mate of the common peacock. It is much 
larger than other species, breeds readily in any cli- 
mate, and is a handsome ornament to any country 
home. Most important, perhaps, is the fact that 
it does not utter that shrill, ear-splitting scream 
that makes the common peacock a rather unpopular 
bird. 

The Common peafowl (Pavo cristatus). — Little 
need be said of this beautiful bird. It is found all 
over the world, breeds readily in any climate, and 
is very tame. 

The Japanned or Black-ivinged (Pavo nigripennis). 
— This peafowl, erroneously called the Japanese 
peacock, is attributed to Japan. It is among the 
really beautiful types of the peacocks. The male 
bird is the darkest of all the peacocks, and, 
strangely enough, the female is the lightest, being 
almost white. It is hardy, and can be reared in 
any climate where peacocks are bred. 

White and pied peacoeks. — Of the peacock family, 
there are two other varieties, the white and the 
pied. Both have attained wide popularity owing to 
their delicate beauty. The white peacock has 
reached its highest state of cultivation in India, 
and for a time, at least, was supposed to have been 
worshipped as a sacred bird by some of the people 
of India. The pied peafowl is one of the most 
attractive, and, possibly, is the result of the cross- 
ing of one or two species of the peacocks. 

Pheasant. 

The Argus (Argusianus argus) is classed by 
some naturalists in the peacock group. It is a 
native of Malacca, Siam and northwestern Borneo, 



frequenting the jungles. It is undoubtedly one of 
the most magnificent of the pheasant family. It is 
so extremely shy in its habits that there are few 
instances of its being shot, even by native hunters. 
It measures five feet in length, the tail being three 
feet and over in length. The prevailing color is 
ochreous red or brown, without brilliant relief. 
There is a pronounced harmony in the distribution 
of the tints, there being such a profusion of small 
spots, sometimes lighter and sometimes darker than 
the ground, that they assume, apparently at will, 
the tones of their environment. Its broad secondary 
feathers are covered in their entire length by a 
row of eye-like spots imitating half globes, and 
nothing from the brush of nature is more artistic 
or more beautiful. It is from these spots that 
the Argus takes its name. The naked skin of the 
face and neck is bright blue, contrasting well with 
the bronze hue of the plumage. The female pos- 
sesses none of the markings of beauty characteris- 
tic in the male, and is but twenty-six inches in 
length. Although the Argus is remarkably wild in 
its native state, it becomes unusually tame in cap- 
tivity, returning to its aviary at night after enjoy- 
ing full liberty during the day. 

The Impeyan (Lophophorus impeyanus). — The 
Monaul or Impeyan pheasant is one of the most 
gorgeous birds. The wonderful metallic brilliancy 
of the cock's plumage, gleaming in purple and gold, 
baffles description. It inhabits the high ranges of 
the Himalayas, seldom coming below an elevation 
of 6,000 feet. It is tough and hardy, and digs with 
its strong bill for roots and worms. It becomes 
tame enough in captivity to be allowed to run loose 
in the barnyard. Owing to its unsurpassed beauty, 
combined with its rugged nature, few species of 
pheasants are more attractive than the Impeyan. 

The Tragopan (Tragopan, or Ceriornis, spp). — 
There are five species of the Tragopan family : 
Crimson, Temminck's, Cabot's, Horned and Slater's. 
They are easily secured, with the exception of the 
last named. In the display of his plumage, the 
Tragopan cock is more interesting than any other 
of the pheasant family, mainly for the reason that 
under the proper conditions the male bird elevates a 
tiny pair of bluish fleshy horns on either side of the 
ears on top of the head. This gives the bird a 
satanic expression, bewildering and unparalleled 
in the bird family. Under the throat he drops down 
a fleshy bib. Then, with the tail scraping on the 
ground, and his wings down like those of a turkey, 
he struts in a semi-circle. The Tragopan is very 
tender. It is bred readily in captivity. 

Manchnrian or Eared pheasant (Crossoptilon Mant- 
churicum). — This bird is a native of Pekin. It is not 
of gorgeous plumage, although a majestic bird. It 
is hardy, with a glossy hair-like plumage of the 
richest bronze, shading to a delicate purple on the 
lower feathers of the tail ; the upper tail feathers 
are peculiarly curved up and down. Under the 
throat it has a white muff running up back of the 
head, giving the appearance of a person with a 
sore throat having a handkerchief tied round it. 
It is the only member of the pheasant family in 
which the plumage of the male and the female are 



POULTRY 



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581 



exactly the same. There are several species of the 
Manchurian or Eared pheasant. 

Peacock pheasant (Polyplectron cliinquis). — This 
strange pheasant is one of the most peculiar, and, 
at the same time, one of the most fascinating. It 
inhabits the deep gullies of the Asiatic mountains. 
It is small and quick of flight. The hen lays but 
two eggs before sitting. On the male bird, at the 

mmmm * 




Fig. 594. Common peacock. 

end of each gray feather, is a metallic purple or 
greenish spot, whence the name Peacock pheasant. 
Unlike other pheasants, the legs of the male are 
adorned with many spurs, and the writer has had 
males with as many as five spurs on one leg. The 
cock bird whistles so plainly that he has been 
known to call the dogs. 

Reeve's pheasant (Phasianus Reevesi). — This is 
the largest of the true pheasant family, and is 
one of the grandest. It is a very hardy bird, and 
is the swiftest of all the pheasant family on the 
wing. Its tail measures more than six feet. It 
inhabits the mountains of China. 

ScBmmer ring's pheasant (Phasianus Scemmer- 
ringi). — This bird, also called the Copper pheasant, 
is a native of Japan. It is one of the handsomest 
of the true pheasants. The males are very pugna- 
cious and sometimes battle to death with others of 
the same race. It is rather rare, both in aviaries 
and in the wild state, mainly, perhaps, because of 
the number killed for the feathers. The tail of this 
pheasant is frequently seen dangling from women's 
hats. 

Elliots pheasant {Phasianus Elliott). — This spe- 
cies, named after Prof. D. G. Elliot, of Chicago, is 
one of the very fine species of the true pheasant. 
It is very hardy. It inhabits the mountains near 
Ningpo, China. In aviaries, the hens have been 
known to hatch and rear their young without a 
single loss. 

The Mongolian (Phasianus Mongolicus), Fig. 595. 
— The Mongolian pheasant is a native of Asia. It 
comes from the valley of Syr-Daryr, and as far east 
as Lake Saisan, in the valley of the Black Irtish. In 
England, it has been crossed on the common Eng- 
lish pheasant, and the hybrid has produced a remark- 
able game bird. Only one pair is known to have 
reached America alive, and they were so wild that 
no young were ever reared from them. This pheas- 
ant is commonly mistaken for the Chinese ring- 
necked pheasant (P. torquatus), but the Mongolian 
is a much larger and more beautiful bird. 

Versicolor or Green Japanese (Phasianus versi- 
color). — This beautiful small bird inhabits nearly all 
parts of Japan. Owing to its use to the milliner, 
it is perhaps better known than any other variety, 



although the pure specimens are very rare in 
America. 

Ring-neck (Phasianus torquatus). — This hand- 
some game bird, called also the China torquatus, 
is the common pheasant of China. It is frequently 
miscalled the Mongolian pheasant. In 1884, a few 
specimens were liberated in Oregon, and today there 
are probably more in Oregon than in China. 
Throughout the Willamette valley, in Oregon, it 
can be found in great numbers. It is far superior 
to the English pheasant as a game bird, as it is 
much wilder and swifter on the wing. It is exceed- 
ingly hardy. 

English (Phasianus colchicus). — The common 
Black-necked English pheasant was a native of Cen- 
tral Asia, and is supposed to have been brought to 
England by the Romans. Owing to the infusion of 
Torquatus blood, it is almost impossible at the 
present time to find the old common English pheas- 
ant in its purity. 

Cheer (Catreus Wallichi). — This rather large 
pheasant inhabits the mountains of Asia. It is very 
hardy and relishes roots, but seldom eats grass. Its 
plumage is a sort of monotonous check of gray. 
The male and the female much resemble each other. 

Siamese Fireback (Lophura prmlata). — There 
are several species of the Fireback pheasant, the 
most common of which is the Siamese, which in- 
habits parts of Siam. It is a beautiful, small, gray 
bird, with a tassel on the head, and an oddly hooked 
black tail. The male displays the beauty of his 
plumage by lowering his wings, so that his bright 
yellow and red back are exposed to view. 

Bornean Fireback (Lophura nobilis). — This spe- 
cies is, perhaps, the next most familiar of the Fire- 
backs. It comes from Lower Borneo, and is very 
similar to the Siamese, except that the color of the 
flesh of the face, instead of being bright red, is 
deep blue. It is also a slightly larger bird. 

Villiot's Fireback (Lophura rufa). — This is pos- 
sibly a more beautiful bird, owing to its brilliant 
blues, than the other species of Fireback. It is a 
native of Siam, and is rarely seen in collections. 




Fig. 595. Torquatus pheasant. 

Silver pheasant (Gennceus nycthemerus). — The 
Silver pheasant is one of the most common species 
of the family known as the "Kaleege." It is a native 
of China. The males are strikingly marked, the 
upper part of the body being white, delicately 
marked with black diagonal stripes ; the lower part 
of the body is jet-black. 

Lineated pheasant (Gennmus lineatus). — This spe- 
cies of pheasant inhabits Burmese countries. It is 
very beautiful and graceful, quick on the wing and 
very hardy. 



582 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



Anderson's Kaleege (Gennmus Andersoni). — This 
type is native of the Himalayas. It is as handsome 
as any of the Kaleege, and as hardy. It is slightly 
lighter than the Lineated and darker than the Sil- 
ver pheasants. 

The Melanotus or Black -backed Kaleege {Gennmus 
Muthura). — This pheasant inhabits Sikhim, Napal. 
It is characteristic of the male to churn the air 
with his wings until he causes vibrations that are 
truly remarkable in their effect. 

Swinhoe's pheasant (Gennmus Swinhoii). — This 
bird inhabits Formosa. Its glossy feathers have the 
appearance of blue velvet. The female of this spe- 
cies is unlike most of the other dull brown hens, as 
her feathers resemble exquisite tapestry, so deli- 
cate and finely are they marked. 

The Lady Amherst (Chrysolophus Amherstim), Fig. 
596. — This bird, as an ornament for the aviary, 
cannot be surpassed. It is more striking, even, than 
its relative, the Golden pheasant. It is found in 
China, bordering on Eastern Tibet, and is called by 
the natives the Flower pheasant. The species de- 
rived its name from the fact that Lady Amherst, of 
England, is considered to have received the first 
pair that ever came to Europe. 

The Golden (Chrysolophus pictus). — This pheasant, 
perhaps, needs no description. It is to be seen in 
every zoological garden. It inhabits the mountains 
of Western and Central China. The male bird is 
much prized for his gaudy red and golden feathers. 

Black-throated Golden. — The habitat of this beau- 
tiful pheasant is not known. It varies slightly 
from the common species. The hens are darker 
and handsomer, and the chicks when small have 
white throats. 

Jungle-fowl. 

The jungle-fowl are of the genus Gallus, of the 
pheasant family. They are native of southeastern 
Asia, India, Sumatra, Java and Borneo. Four spe- 
cies are known, and all bear striking resemblance 
to the common domestic fowls, being rather over 
bantam size. They possess the carriage of the 




■ IP 

Fig. 596. Lady Amherst pheasant. 

pheasant, but the tail is vaulted and carried rather 
low. The cocks have single, small-sized combs and 
long sharp spurs. 

The Red (Gallus ferrugineus), Fig. 597. —This 
resembles the old Red-black Game of the English 
fighting type, and is frequently mistaken for small 
specimens of that breed. This gives rise, with jus- 
tice, to the conclusion that it is the direct ancestor 
of all our domestic breeds of fowls. It is easily 
tamed. The hen lays nine eggs. The cocks are very 




Fig. 597. Red jungle-fowl 
(Gallus ferrugineus or 
banldva.) 



pugnacious and will battle to the death. The Red 
jungle-fowl is found in India and most of the 
islands south as far as the Philippines. 

The Gray or Sonnerati (Gallus sonnerati). — Al- 
though rather somber, this species possesses a 
peculiar hackle feather, tipped with a wax-like sub- 
stance that resembles 
burnished gold. It is less 
hardy than the Red jun- 
gle-fowl, particularly in 
captivity. The Gray jun- 
gle-fowl is one of the rar- 
est of the pheasant fam- 
ily, and it is indeed un- 
usual to find one in any 
of the great "zoos" of the 
world. It inhabits lower 
India. The cock's cry re- 
sembles a scream more 
than a cry. It is impos- 
sible to domesticate this 
jungle-fowl. 

The Green or Java (Gallus varius). — This is the 
most distinct of all the species. The cock's comb is 
plain edged, and not serrated. The face is very 
naked, and instead of wattles he has a dewlap that 
expands and contracts like that of a turkey, the 
face and dewlap changing color when the latter is 
contracted. Under this condition the bird actually 
blushes a bright red. The neck, instead of being 
composed of hackles, is made up of green scale-like 
feathers that extend to the upper part of the back. 
The general plumage is a metallic-purple and 
golden-green. It is the rarest of all the jungle- 
fowls. Although the writer has bred this species in 
captivity, he has failed up to the present to rear 
any mature birds. 

The Ceylon (Gallus Lafayettii). — This is found on 
Ceylon, and is seldom met with in captivity. It is 
not, in any particular, so beautiful as the species 
above described. The peculiarity of the cock is the 
yellow center to his comb, and the peculiar note 
that he issues in his cry, which, at a distance, 
sounds like some one calling "George Joyce." 

Literature. 

Tegetmeier, Natural History and Management of 
Pheasants, new edition, New York (1907); Elliot, 
Monograph of the Phasianida?, London ( 1870-72 1; 
Stejneger, Standard Natural Historv, Vol. IV, Bos- 
ton (1885) Nolan, The Domestic Fowl. 

Pigeons and Squabs. Columba, spp. Columbidai. 
Fig. 598. 

By Thomas Wright. 

The raising of pigeons for fancy has long re- 
ceived attention, but it is only comparatively 
recently that the raising of squabs for meat pur- 
poses has assumed commercial importance. Fancy 
or "toy" pigeons are generally kept for amuse- 
ment, and are valued rather for their ornamenta- 
tion than for their usefulness. [See Pets.] Most of 
them are too small to be classed as utility birds, 
although occasionally a few grow to good size, and 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



583 



because of imperfect plumage are killed and dressed 
for the table. The following varieties, among a 
great many others, are raised for fancy : Tumbler, 
Owl, Turbit, Jacobin, Barb, Archangel, Fantail, 
English Carrier, Nun, Swallow. 

The utility or squab-breeding pigeons are receiv- 
ing more attention today, perhaps, than the toy 
pigeons. The breeder who grows squabs for the 
market not only has the pleasure of handling the 
pigeons, but gets a reward for his efforts in addi- 
tion. 

Choice of pigeons for squab-raising. 

Practical men differ in their opinions as to the 
best variety of pigeons for squab-raising purposes, 
just as there are advocates of certain breeds of 
dairy or beef cattle. By some breeders the Homer 
pigeon is held to be the best, and many of the 
squab plants in America raise only Homer pigeons. 
The writer, among others, has had best results 
from a bird that combines the qualities of the Runt 
(English), Mondaines (Swiss and French), and typ- 
ical Florentine Amalgamated, infused with the 
Homer. This pigeon produces a large, heavy 
squab for the same outlay as the Homer, and 
is equally prolific. 

In crossing for utility, the cock should 
always be the largest bird and should be 
young. One should never breed a bird that 
may often be seen with the wings drooped, 
as it is direct evidence of poor health or lack 
of constitution. The front of the legs and 
the beak should be a light color, as dark legs 
and beak denote dark meat. A black bird 
with a bright red leg is more desirable than 
a white bird with a dark leg or beak. The 
male should exhibit a good disposition ; the 
bird that does much cooing and promenading 
is likely to be a good breeder. A bird with 
an apparent sullen, phlegmatic disposition 
should not be used. The plumage should not 
be ruffled in any way, but the feathers should be 
close to the body. Any other condition of the 
plumage is unnatural in a perfectly healthy speci- 
men. One should not use a bird for breeding that 
is in any way related to its mate or that is bred 
from blood relations. Inbreeding is frequently in- 
dulged when type alone is required, but it is per- 
missible only under certain conditions. Market 
specimens need a vigorous, hardy constitution, and 
this depends much on the union. 

Feeding and care. 

In the matter of feeding, variety is essential. A 
good ration consists of equal parts of whole corn, 
cracked corn, red or amber wheat, Canada field- 
peas and kafir. Hemp seed, millet and rape may be 
fed occasionally at the rate of about one-tenth 
the quantity of other ingredients. Two kinds of 
green feed that may be fed safely are lettuce and 
plantain, and it is well to supply them in season. 
The drinking-water should be placed inside the 
pens, preferably in a galvanized fountain. A bath- 
pan, eighteen inches across and four inches deep, 
should be placed in the aviary outside, and should 



be accessible every day, except in the severe 
weather of winter, when it should be placed inside, 
twice each week. A box containing grit and oyster 
shells should be on the floor of the pen. A piece of 
mineral rock salt, similar to that used for cattle, 
should be always before the birds. Table salt, 
which is sometimes recommended, is likely to be 
used too freely for health and may better not be 
used. 

Housing. 

A house for pigeons should be entirely free from 
dampness and should be set up on posts at least 
two feet above the ground. Any building that is 
tight and dry may easily be converted into a 
pigeon house. A southern exposure is preferable. 
About one-third of the front should be of glass, so 
as not to admit of any draft. Pigeons are hardy 
and not very susceptible to disease, and owing to 
the fact that the blood is about 50° warmer than 
that of man, they can withstand rather severe 
weather without evil results. A warm house that 
is damp will promote disease very quickly. Three 




k$bw 



HH:I 



-FT 



■ - ::J& 



Fig. 598. A well-designed pigeon " fly. " 

square feet of floor space in the pen to every pair of 
breeding birds is about right. Perches may or may 
not be used in the lofts. If the birds are properly 
working, while one of the pair is sitting on the nest 
at night, its mate is roosting on the front of it. 
If roosts are desired they may be made by nailing 
a piece of scantling seven inches long to the end 
of a piece six inches long, each piece being five 
inches wide. When nailed they form the letter V. 
These pieces are turned up-side-down, and may be 
nailed to a strip the height of the pen, seven or 
eight inches apart. On these the birds may roost, 
one above another, without fouling one another. 
The droppings are easily gathered, and are always 
in demand by leather manufacturers, who pay 
about sixty cents per bushel, by florists and by 
gardeners. The use of earthern nest-pans, or "nap- 
pies " as they are more generally known, is a matter 
of dispute, and many large commercial plants have 
abandoned their use. The writer has had good suc- 
cess by using nest-pans nine or ten inches across 
and four inches deep, and has not been troubled 
with the squabs getting over the edges, as some 
growers have reported. 



584 



POULTRY 



Dressing. 

It is impossible to dictate a method of dressing, 
as so much depends on the wishes of the customer. 
Some buyers prefer the squabs simply with their 
necks broken ; others prefer to have the feathers 
removed ; still others prefer to have them bled as 
is done with poultry. If they are picked, they 
should be placed in cold water after picking, as it 
gives them a plump appearance. Picking should be 
done while the body is still warm. When sold un- 
picked, they should always be laid on a cool recep- 
tacle with the breast down, for the animal heat to 

leave the body. 

• 

Diseases. 

Pigeons are relatively free from disease, and will 
endure much privation and abuse without bad 
results. The most common ailments are atrophy 
or "going-light," megrim and canker. 

Atrophy may be treated most easily and success- 
fully by giving five or six drops of cod-liver oil 
night and morning for four or five days. All tail 
feathers should be drawn and a good variety of 
food should be fed, including bread crumbs, which 
never injure the birds. 

Megrim is generally the result of injudicious 
feeding, and afflicts only over-fat birds. Carbona- 
ceous food, such as corn, fed to excess, causes the 
blood to congest in the brain. The bird may be 
seen with the head twisted, and often throwing 
itself on its back as if in a convulsive state. The 
remedy is to isolate the patient in a perfectly dark 
pen, and give it a mild dose of Epsom salts. It is 
taken from its dark solitude once each day to drink. 
The bird is held in the hand and the beak inserted 
in the water. A few days should effect a cure. If 
this treatment is not successful the bird should be 

killed. 

Canker is a form of diphtheritic roup. Gener- 
ally, a bird afflicted with it should be killed. 

Literature. 

Money in Squabs, Howard Publishing Company, 
Washingfon, D. C; Tegetmeier, Pigeons, London 
(1868); Evans, Birds, New York (1900); Wm. E. 
Rice, Squab-Raising, Farmers' Bulletin No. 177, 
United States Department of Agriculture (1904). 
[For further references, see page 527.] 

Quail, Domestication of the Bobwhite or Ameri- 
can. Colinus Virginianus (sub-family Odonto- 
phorince). Tetraonidw. Figs. 599, 600. 

By C. F. Hodge. 

No bird is more prolific or more easily reared in 
domestication than the bobwhite ; and certainly 
none makes a more interesting and companionable 
household pet. The past season a pair nested and 
laid eighteen eggs in a window-box. Two hens 
with a cock in a yard at the Massachusetts State 
Hatchery produced seventy-six eggs. Merrill has 
found that bobwhite eggs can be hatched suc- 
cessfully in an incubator by allowing them long 
periods for cooling off, as much as one, and, in hot 
weather, even two hours a day. They also hatch 




Fig. 599. One-week-old bobwhites. 
hatched in an incubator. 



POULTRY 

well under bantam hens, the incubation period 
being normally twenty-four days. 

The young have been reared successfully simply 
by allowing them to range about the yard with 
their bantam mother, care being taken that they 
are well supplied with food for the first few days. 
This may consist 
of scalded or 
fresh "ants' 
' eggs," maggots 
or pheasants' 
custard, and, 
best of all, in- 
sec t s secured 
by sweeping the 
grass with an 
insect net. As 
with the ruffed 
grouse, there is 
danger of dis- 
ease, especially 
if the brood is 
confined with 

the hen. The safest method is probably to hatch 
and rear them with the incubator and brooder. 
Great numbers of eggs from nests broken up in 
cutting hay and grain might be saved and be made 
to supply a domesticated strain of the species. The 
eggs may always be prevented from chilling by 
wearing them in the crown of a hat, and they may 
be carried in this way for the better part of a day 
without injury. The young mature rapidly, being 
nearly full-grown in about ten weeks from hatching. 

Uses. 

Perhaps no bird is capable of rendering more 
varied and important service to American agricul- 
ture than the bobwhite. The young have been 
found to eat their weight of insects daily. For the 
year as a whole, animal matter, mainly insects, 
forms about 15 per cent of the bird's food ; and 
from May to September this item increases to 31.5 
per cent. The great variety and large numbers of 
the insect pests consumed by the bobwhite make 
this bird a more effect- 
ive ally of the farmer 
than many smaller birds, 
although the latter may 
eat a larger percentage 
of insect food. " Over 
one hundred potato bee- 
tles" and "a tablespoon- 
f ul of chinch-bugs " are 
reported from the crop 
of a single quail ; and, 
i if sufficiently numerous, 
probably similar num- 
bers of nearly one hun- 
dred other injurious in- 
sects would be eaten, 
among them the rose beetles, cucumber beetles, 
squash - bugs, cutworms, cotton - worms, tobacco- 
worms, clover-weevils, all kinds of grasshoppers 
and crickets, cabbage caterpillars, many plant-lice 
and mosquitoes. A bobwhite about three weeks old 







Fig. 600. Bobwhite, reared 
from the egg. 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



585 



ate 568 (all there were) mosquitoes as fast as it 
could catch them. The bobwhite eats the Hessian 
fly larva, pupa and adults, and would consume 
thousands daily if they were numerous and accessi- 
ble. A tame bobwhite hen was fed, in addition to 
all the seeds and grains she wished, 1,280 fully 
grown rose-slugs in one day. 

Weed seeds form over half the bobwhite's yearly 
food. Among the weeds whose seeds are thus con- 
sumed may be mentioned ragweed, pigweed, dock, 
bindweed, lamb's quarters, sorrel, wild buckwheat, 
beggar-ticks, witch -grass, crab-grass and barn- 
yard-grass, and perhaps one hundred others. The 
quantities taken at a meal are enormous : 300 
smartweed seeds, 500 red sorrel seeds, 1,000 rag- 
weed seeds, 2,000 ticktrefoil seeds, 5,000 foxtail 
grass seeds, and 10,000 pigweed seeds. It is little 
wonder that the farmer is beginning to lose sym- 
pathy for the sportsman. And to one who, as a 
boy, has lived on a birdless farm and seen more 
chinch-bugs than wheat on the platform of the 
reaper, it would seem that the farmer's judgment 
in the matter is correct. 

In addition to its value as a destroyer of insect 
pests and weed seeds, at present prices the bob- 
white might be reared to better profit than ordi- 
nary poultry. After securing breeding stock, a 
prime condition of success must be the strict con- 
trol of natural enemies, chief among which at 
present in most localities is the cat. If it were not 
for this arch enemy of bird life, we might soon 
have the bobwhite at home in every garden in the 
land. Other comparatively rare and occasional 
enemies, as snakes, foxes, weasels, minks, skunks, 
rats and certain hawks and owls, must be dealt 
with effectively. It is about as easy, and much 
more interesting, to keep traps always set in likely 
places as it is to have them lying about idle, as is 
commonly the case. 

Winter care of native quail. 

Great numbers of bobwhites are killed during 
severe winters, especially in sleet storms that may 
cover their food with ice or imprison whole coveys 
under the crust. Winter provision should be gener- 
ally made north of Virginia and Kentucky, by 
leaving clumps of sumac and wild rose under shelt- 
ered banks and on the south sides of groves. An 
ideal shelter with food combined may be made 
cheaply by laying down first a pile of weeds, chaff 
or hay-loft sweepings, placing over this a lot of 
brush, and then piling over all a rick of coarse 
weeds cut before the seeds drop, as ragweed, pig- 
weed, sunflower, dock, and the like, leaving the brush 
exposed on the south side. An arrangement of this 
sort, placed in a sunny, sheltered exposure, will pro- 
vide food accessible at all times as well as shelter 
and protection from hawks. Fresh supplies of 
screenings or grain may be thrown into the brush 
as needed during the winter. In this way great 
numbers of bobwhites might be carried safely 
through the winters, their numbers rapidly in- 
creased up to the natural limits of insect and weed- 
seed food -supply, and the range of the species 
extended northward considerably. 



Literature. 

Sylvester D. Judd, The Bobwhite and Other Quails 
of the United States in their Economic Relations, 
Bulletin No. 21, Bureau of Biological Survey, United 
States Department of Agriculture. 

Swan. Cygninm. Fig. 601. 

By Charles McClave. 

Swans are the largest aquatic fowls of the duck 
family and are found wild in the eastern and the 
western hemispheres, especially north of the equator. 

Black {Chenopis atrata). 

Australia, isolated south of the equator, has a 
distinct variety — the Black swan. Like many other 
so-called black varieties of water-fowl, it is not 
solid black in plumage. The bill is red, edged with 
white, the eyes scarlet, the plumage shaded black, 
edged with gray, and the wing flights slaty white 
or pure white. The slender, arched neck and curly 
appearance of plumage over wings and back give it 




Fig. 601. Swan. 

a novel appearance on the water. Though less 
common than the white swan, this species is a 
familiar sight in city parks. It is mute. 

Mute (Cygnus olor). 

The Mute swan is a native of Europe, Asia and 
Africa and is the common domesticated species. 
The neck is long and slender, the bill red, the eyes 
brown, the legs and feet brownish gray, and the 
entire plumage spotless white. The young cygnets 
for the first year are gray or dusky chestnut in 
color, but change to white after the first molt. 
When migrating, it is a very rapid flyer, and with 
a favorable wind has been known to travel fully 
one hundred miles an hour. 

Polish. 

The Polish swan is a large white variety of C. olor. 
found in Europe. It resembles the Mute swan, but 
the shape of the head is different. The young 
cygnets hatch white instead of gray or chestnut. 

Whistling (Cygnus musicus). 

The Whistling swan is also a white species, but 
is somewhat smaller than the foregoing species ; 
the neck is shorter and thicker, and the bill is 
yellow without protuberance. The naturalist, Olaf, 
writing of the notes of the Whistling swan, speaks 
as follows : " When a company of these birds passes 



586 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



through the air, their song is truly delightful, 
equal to the notes of a violin." It is a native of 
northern Europe and is seldom domesticated. 

Berwick {Cygnus Berwicki). 

The Berwick swan is the smallest white variety. 
The neck is short and very slender. This swan is 
very shy and wild in disposition and difficult to 
breed in confinement. 

Black-necked (Stenelus nigricollis). 

The Black -necked swan is native to South 
America. It is very rare and is seldom seen in pub- 
lic or private parks. It is of good size, with brown 
eyes, the bill a lead color with a red protuberance 
at the base, the legs a reddish orange. The plum- 
age is spotless white except on the head and neck, 
which are clear black with a narrow band of black 
across the eye. The carriage of the neck is much 
straighter than that of any other variety of swan. 

Trumpeter (Olor buccinator). 

The Trumpeter swan is a native of the United 
States and is found principally west of the Missis- 
sippi river, but has been seen as far east as Ohio. 
In former years it bred in Dakota, Montana and 
Idaho, but at the present time it nests in the 
country about Hudson bay. The nests are made on 
small islands and in the marshes and shores of 
lakes. Five to seven eggs is the usual number pro- 
duced. Mature birds are pure white, while cygnets 
are gray or rusty color. 

American (Olor Columbianus). 

The American swan is a pure white variety 
slightly smaller than the Trumpeter swan. It is a 
native of the United States and is found principally 
west of the Mississippi river, although often seen 
in autumn south to Florida and Maryland. It win- 
ters principally in Oregon, Washington and Cali- 
fornia. In early spring, it migrates north to Alaska 
and the Yukon country to nest. 

Literature. 

Stejneger, Proceedings of United States National 
Museum, Washington (1882); Newton, Dictionary 
of Birds, Vol. IV, London (1896); Grinnell, Ameri- 
can Duck Shooting, New York (1901). 

Turkeys. Mekagris spp. Phasianidm. Figs. 602- 
604. 

By T. F. McGrew. 

The present-day turkeys are all grouped in one 
breed, but represent a number of varieties. The 
origin of the present domestic turkey was undoubt- 
edly in what is known as the North American 
turkey, which existed in a wild state over the greater 
part of North America from the Carol inas well 
up into Canada. Records show that turkeys were 
grown or domesticated in England as early as 1541. 
They were reasonably plentiful in 1573 throughout 
the agricultural districts of England. Some writers 
think that the first ones were taken from the West 
India islands into Europe. 



Wild turkeys. (Fig. 602.) 

There are three distinct "originals" or wild 
turkeys, one known as the North American, one the 
Mexican, and the third, the most delicate of all, 
the Honduras or Ocellated turkey. 

The American, "original" or wild turkey, the 
one that frequented the United States north of 
Carolina and into Canada, is designated as Meka- 
gris Americana. The color of this type is black, 
shaded with a rich bronze ; the breast plumage is 
very brilliant, tinged with a finish of coppery gold 
inflection. In the rays of the sun the combination 
of bronze with the copper and gold glistens like 
burnished metal. From this wild 
original, crossed with the do- 
-i-'i*^ "\ mestic Black turkey, which was 

yjJff^Njjf'-vl undoubtedly brought by the 

i V .'"■ '''^",4 early settlers from England, was 

created the well-known variety 
of Bronze turkeys. 




Fig. 602. Wild turkey. 

The Mexican wild turkey (Mekagris Mexicana) is 
of shorter build than the northern turkey. The 
color is very much the same, but even more bril- 
liant in shading than the North American variety, 
with the distinction that the tail and other feathers 
are tipped with white. This species seems to have 
been the first introduced into Spain and other coun- 
tries. It is thought that the white markings of this 
variety had an influence in creating what is known 
as the Narragansett turkey. 

Honduras turkey. — The wild species known as 
the Honduras turkey (Mekagris ocellata), the origi- 
nal breed of Honduras and Central America, is 
described as the most beautifully colored of all the 
turkey family. The head and neck of this wild 
variety are naked. No breast tuft is found thereon. 
The caruncles cf the head and neck differ some- 
what from those of other turkeys. The plumage 
color is described as a beautiful bronze-green, 
banded with golden bronze-blue and red, with some 
bands of brilliant black. This variety has never 
been domesticated successfully. The few that have 
been kept in confinement have failed to produce of 



POULTRY 



POULTRY 



§87 



their kind, and live but a short time out of their 
own natural realm. They are of what might be 
termed a low carriage, the breast rather drooping, 
the tail usually carried in a downward or low 
position. 

Crested turkey. — A distinctive domestic variety 
is the crested turkey. This has a crest or topknot 
of feathers on the head, or rather just back of the 
head on the neck. This type cannot be classed as 
an original variety. 

Common domestic varieties of turkeys. 

The domestic varieties of turkeys, as known to 
this countrv, are the Bronze (Fig. 603), Narragan- 
set, Buff, Slate, White (Fig. 604) and Black. The 
Bronze, as originated in the United States by 
crossing the wild variety with the Black turkey, 
known in England as the Norfolk. It is the largest, 
hardiest and most admired of all varieties of tur- 
keys for the market. The Narragansett turkey 
undoubtedly had somewhat of the same original 
blood as the bronze, influenced, perhaps, by a cross 
of the variety from Mexico, which gave a mixture 
of white in the bronze and black plumage of this 
variety. It is second in size only to the Bronze, 
and has been most favorably considered in many 
parts of New England. The Buff turkey should 
nave true buff plumage throughout. As usually 
seen, the feathers are of a reddish buff, the wing 
flights, and at times other feathers of the wing, 
being white. The Bourbon Red, which is undoubt- 
edly a kindred variety of the Buff, that originated 
in Kentucky, perhaps, is of deep reddish buff in 
plumage, and somewhat larger than the Buff 
variety. It is thought to have been created through 
a mixture of the wild and the Buff varieties. The 
Slate turkey might be called a blue variety, the 
plumage color being of a bluish, slaty shade. The 

White variety 
is pure white 
in plumage 
throughout, and 
has pinkish 
white shanks. 
The Black vari- 
ety is pure black 
throughout the 
entire plumage. 
As we now see 
it, it has un- 
doubtedly been 
crossed with the 
Bronze variety 
to improve its 
size, and this 
cross has illuminated the plumage somewhat with 
coppery shading. 

Turkey-raising. 

Considerable attention has been given to the 
raising of turkeys for market throughout the 
world. The early tendency to neglect the constitu- 
tional requirements and permit constant inbreeding 
without the intermingling of new blood reduced 
the vitality and permitted a disease to creep in, 




Fig. 603. Bronze turkey. 




known as black-head, which can be obliterated only 
through care in selecting the most vigorous speci- 
mens and introducing them as new blood into the 
flocks. 

Turkeys seem to adapt themselves to diverse 
climatic conditions. They do equally well far north 
into Canada and 
south into Texas. 
The climate both 
of New England 
and of California 
seems fitted for the 
growing of large 
numbers of them 
for market pur- 
poses. Locality 
does not seem to 
influence their cul- 
tivation, provided 
the parent is strong 
and healthy and the 
young are pro- 
tected from the 
cold, damp and in- 
sect vermin, all of 
which may be con- 
sidered most dire- , 

j, , . „ Fig. 604. White Holland turkey. 

ful enemies of 

young turkeys. Being of a rather semi-wild nature, 
they do best when permitted to have their freedom 
and range with their young over an extended area. 
Where the natural food on the range is unbounded, 
they prosper best. 

These fowls do not seem to do so well in confine- 
ment as other poultry, being more like the guinea- 
fowl. They become nervous and restless when con- 
fined in limited quarters. A few of them may be 
handled successfully in enclosures, as are poultry. 
Under such conditions they will not grow so large 
nor prosper so well as they will in freedom. The 
turkey hen lays thirty-five to forty eggs in a season. 
It takes twenty-eight days for the eggs to hatch. 
The young turkeys feed themselves as soon as they 
come from the nest. "Little and often" is the 
rule for feeding the young turkey for the first few 
days after coming from the shell. [See article on 
Feeding Poultry.] 

Turkeys for breeding purposes should be strong, 
vigorous, healthy, well matured and not akin. 
Constitutional vigor is of first importance in the 
male or torn, as it is called. A medium-sized male 
with good fair-sized females of strong constitu- 
tional vigor and mature age will give best results. 
The best rule for mating is to have four or five 
females to one male, although greater numbers of 
females have been used with good results. 

Literature. 

T'. F. McGrew, Turkeys ; Standard Varieties and 
Management, Farmers' Bulletin No. 200, United 
States Department of Agriculture (1904) ; J. F. 
Crangle and others, Turkey Culture ; Herbert Myr- 
ick, Turkeys : How to Grow Them ; Turkeys : Their 
Care and Management, Reliable Poultry Journal, 
Quincy, 111. [For further references, see page 527.] 



588 



REINDEER 



REINDEER 



REINDEER. Rangifer tarandus, Linn.; Rangifer 
lapponicus, Frisch. (Rangifer refers to the old 
French word '" rangier," plus the Latin " fera," 
wild beast, while the common name, reindeer, is 
probably an adaptation of the Lapp "reino," pas- 
turage, or of the Icelandic " hreinn," reindeer.) 
Cervidm. Figs. 7, 605, 606. 

By C. C. Georgeson. 

The reindeer has been successfully introduced 
into Alaska, and efforts are now being made to 
■ introduce it into Labrador, to supply the inhabit- 
ants of the barren lands with meat and other 
products, and to afford a means of transportation. 
The reindeer is the only domesticated member of 
the deer family. Fundamentally, it is identical with 
the American caribou, although the latter has been 
divided into several species by mammalogists, the 
name "reindeer" being now applied, however, only 
to the European deer, both wild and domesticated, 
while caribou is the name of the wild deer found 
on the American continent. 

Description. 

Reindeer vary much in size. The food supply is 
an important factor in their development, as in 
the case of other animals. Again, breed — or, per- 
haps, we should call it race — characteristics are a 
factor having an influence on size. The average 
animal is three feet and nine inches to four feet at 
the withers, but some breeds are larger, as for 
example, the Tunguse deer in Siberia. Many of 
them stand five feet high and can carry a burden of 
two hundred pounds on their backs, and because of 
their strength are rather generally used for riding. 
Compared with other members of the deer family, 
the reindeer is not a graceful animal. The head is 
large, muzzle broad and nose covered with hair ; 
neck short, set low and usually carried horizontally; 
when the animal walks, the top line of the neck is 
below that of the back ; the withers are high, 
reaching above the line of the back ; shoulders 
rather heavy, with prominent shoulder points. The 
back is narrow, rump sloping, hind-quarters light, 
flank low and rather full, and the under-line nearly 
parallel with the back. In the fawns, the legs 
seem disproportionately long, but in the mature 
animal, on the contrary, they appear rather short. 
The fore-legs are straight, but the hind-legs are 
crooked and spread outward from the hock as if to 
brace the hind-quarters. The feet are large and the 
hoofs spread when pressed against the ground — a 
provision of nature which aids the animal to get 
over soft snow or mud. The prevailing color of the 
domestic reindeer is a grayish brown — darker in 
summer, lighter in winter, but many are more or 
less spotted and some almost white. All are lighter 
on neck, shoulder and belly than on the back. The 
coat is thick, longer in winter than in summer, 
and underneath the neck the hair is five or six 
inches long. There is no mossy undercoat, such as 
most animals have that are indigenous to arctic 
latitudes. The hair is brittle and breaks readily 
when handled. For this reason, reindeer skins do 
not make good rugs. The hide is thick and imper- 



vious to water to a marked degree, and, by a cer- 
tain mode of tanning practiced by the Lapps, it 
can be made perfectly impervious. On the face and 
lower parts of the legs, the skin is particularly 
thick and durable, for which reason the Lapps use 
these parts for footwear. 

A peculiarity of the genus is that both males 
and' females have horns, or antlers. They shed 
them annually in March and April, after which a 
new pair immediately starts to grow. The young 
animal has cylindrical horns, which grow to a foot 
or more the first summer ; as the animal grows 
older the horns become palmated and curve outward 
and backward. The prongs or branches increase in 
number annually up to the age of seven or eight 
years ; from that time they decrease in number, 
until in old animals there are only a few points on 
the outer ends of the horns. In the prime of life, 
one, or sometimes both horns produce flattened 
branches that reach down over the face. The size 
of the antlers varies with the size of the animal ; 
those on females are smaller than those on males. 
Antlers have been found that measured four feet 
in length and weighed as much as forty pounds ; 
but this is extreme. Half this length and weight 
more nearly represent the average on the domesti- 
cated animal. 

It is not easy to see just what function the 
horns fulfill in the animal economy. They appear 
to be a hindrance rather than a help in the struggle 
for existence. It must be a vast drain on the sys- 
tem to furnish nourishment for their rapid and 
prodigious growth, and they are tender and of but 
little use for defence during the summer months 
while growing. They are at this season covered 
with skin, which is abundantly supplied with blood 
vessels, and a coat of fine hair. This condition is 
technically called being " in the velvet." They are 
full grown about the time the breeding season 
begins in the fall of the year, and then the males 
use them freely on each other. Otherwise, they are 
not of use either for offence or defence ; instead, 
reindeer strike their antagonists with their fore- 
feet. Nor does the animal use the antler in digging 
away the snow to reach the moss underneath, for 
this is done with the feet and nose. The natural 
life of the reindeer is about fourteen years, and it 
does not reach its prime until it is six or seven 
years of age. 

History of reindeer in Alaska. 

Although the reindeer has been domesticated for 
ages by the Eskimos on the Siberian side of Bering 
Strait, the Eskimos on the American side have nut 
kept it. They could not have been ignorant of the 
value of the deer, because trading expeditions from 
one side of the Straits to the other were of fre- 
quent occurrence. One is forced to the conclusion 
that they lacked the enterprise and thrift neces- 
sary to take up the work of reindeer-breeding. 
Instead, they hunted the wild caribou, which was 
abundant ; they hunted the whale, the walrus and 
the seal, and the spoils of the hunt gave them their 
food, and the furs and skins afforded them goods 
for barter. With the coming of the white man all 



REINDEER 



REINDEER 



589 



this was changed. He killed or drove away the 
whale, beyond the reach of the Eskimo with the 
means at his command. The fur animals became 
reduced to the point of extinction ; the caribou was 
killed or driven away. In addition to this, the 
white man introduced intoxicants, and his vices 
spread disease and destruction among these primi- 
tive people so as to reduce their power to pursue, 
as well as the amount of their food supply. This 
was the condition of the Eskimos in arctic Alaska, 
when, in 1830, Dr. Sheldon Jackson was sent to 
that region by the United States Commissioner of 
Education to establish schools. It became apparent 
to him at once that something must be done to 
provide the Eskimo with a food supply, and, in cast- 
ing about for means to that end, it occurred to him 
that the reindeer would solve the problem. On his 
return to Washington, he urged that Congress 
should make an appropriation for the introduction 
of reindeer in Alaska. Congress did not act imme- 
diately, however, and as the needs were urgent, 
Dr. Jackson, with the approval and aid of the Com- 
missioner of Education, Dr. W. T. Harris, made an 
appeal for funds through the public press, where- 
with to begin the work. In response, the sum of 
$2,146 was received, and with this fund he began 
the purchase of reindeer in Siberia and their 
transfer to Alaska. The first importation consisted 
of sixteen head, which were landed in Unalaska in 
the autumn of 1891. During the summer of 1892, 
he made five visits to Siberia and purchased and 
imported 171 head of reindeer. These deer were 
landed at Port Clarence, where, on the 29th of 
June of the same year, the first institution in 
Alaska for the breeding of reindeer was estab- 
lished. It was named Teller Reindeer Station, in 
honor of Senator Teller, of Colorado, who had taken 
much interest in the enterprise. The government 
aided in the work, however, by assigning a revenue 
cutter to transport the purchased deer to Alaska. 
The first appropriation by Congress for the intro- 
duction of reindeer into Alaska was made March 
3, 1893, and consisted of $6,000, to be expended 
under the direction of the Secretary of the In- 
terior, who delegated the work to the Bureau of 
Education, and Dr. Harris, the Commissioner of 
Education, assigned the task to Dr. Jackson, who 
has thus been the prime mover of the enterprise 
throughout. The object was primarily to provide 
food for the Eskimos, but, before the deer could 
become of real benefit to them, it became neces- 
sary to teach them how to care for and handle the 
deer. The task was beset with difficulties. It 
meant a change in the mode of life of these primi- 
tive people. As fishermen and hunters their chief 
accomplishment was to destroy life ; now they had 
to learn to foster and preserve it. It was a process 
of education. They had first to learn the advan- 
tages of the new life and then slowly and labori- 
ously be introduced to it, and the plans that were 
finally adopted for the breeding and distribution of 
the deer were formulated with a view to meet 
these conditions. 

Appropriations and purchase of deer. — From the 
first appropriation, in 1893, to the close of the 



fiscal year 1906, Congress had appropriated $222,- 
500 for this purpose, in varying amounts from 
$6,000 to $25,000 annually, and in all, twelve hun- 
dred and eighty deer were imported from Siberia 
between the years 1892 and 1902. No importations 
have been made since 1902. Of these imported 
deer, 254 were the large Tunguse deer, a race or 
breed kept by the Tunguse people in central Siberia. 
These were purchased and introduced by Lieut. E. 
P. Bertholf of the Revenue Cutter Service, who 
was detailed for that duty. They are noted for 
their great size and strength. The herds brought 
here have done so well that it is deemed unneces- 
sary to make further importations. 

Plan of distribution. — Since the object of their 
introduction was to benefit the Eskimos, it was 
evident that the sooner they could be taught to 
handle and care for them the sooner the end in 
view would be attained. Arrangements were there- 
fore made with a number of mission stations, 
already established at all the main settlements of 
natives, to become teachers of their wards. The 
government made loans of small herds, usually one 
hundred head, to these stations, as an outfit of 




Fig. 605. Reindeer as pack animal. 

industrial apparatus, the loan to be returned to the 
government at the end of five years, but the 
increase to remain the property of the mission. 
The slaughter or sale of female deer was strictly 
prohibited. Male deer might be sold, but only with 
the advice and consent of the government reindeer 
superintendent. The mission obligated itself to 
support a corps of apprentices, while under instruc- 
tion in the art of herding and training the deer. 
The apprentices were selected from the brightest 
young men, and the average period of apprentice- 
ship was fixed at five years. As a reward of merit, 
each of these young men who faithfully completed 
the stipulated period as a pupil was given a few 
deer, which were to form the nucleus of a personal 
herd. Competent teachers to instruct the appren- 
tices were hired by the government. These instruct- 
ors were Lapps who had been reindeer masters in 
their native country and who were brought to Alaska 
for the purpose. The government assumed general 
supervision over all the herds. At present, the 
reindeer territory is divided between two general 



590 



REINDEER 



REINDEER 



superintendents in the employ of the government, 
one having charge of the herds along the shores of 
the Arctic ocean and northern Bering sea, and the 
other having charge of the herds on the shores of 
Golovin bay, Norton Sound, and in the valleys of 
the Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers. 

Stations. — According to Dr. Jackson's report, 
there were, in 1906, the following stations, with 
the number of deer at each : 

Deer 

Barrow and Wainwright (Presbyterian mission) . 797 

Kivalina (native Eskimos) 279 

Kotzebue (Society of Friends) 900* 

Deering (Society of Friends) 649 

Wales and Shishmaref (Congregational mission). 1,770* 
Gambell, St. Lawrence island (Presbyterian) . 250 
Teller (Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran) . . 1,169 
Golovin (Swedish Evangelical Union) .... 1,434 
Unalakleet (Swedish Evangelical Union) . . . 1,177 

Eaton (Swedish Evangelical Union) 1,395 

Bethel, Kuskokwim rivsr (Moravian) .... 1,700* 

Illiamna (Government) 535 

Koserefsky (Roman Catholic) 320* 

Tanana (Episcopal) 440* 

Bettles, Koyukuk river (Government) .... 400* 



*Estimated. Report not in. 



13,215 



The missionary societies here named do not own 
all the deer accredited to their respective stations. 
In 1905, seventy-eight Eskimo apprentices had 
become the owners of a total of 3,817 deer, acquired 
partly as rewards of merit and partly through 
loans from the government on the same basis as to 
the missions. Several of the Lapp herders had in 
like manner received loans of deer from the gov- 
ernment, as wages for their services, and all these 
various owners, with their herds, were located at 
the stations named. In 1905, when the total num- 
ber of deer aggregated 10,241, the ownership was 
divided thus : Eskimo apprentices 3,817, govern- 
ment 3,073, mission stations 2,127, Lapp herders 
1,224. These various owners kept their herds at 
the stations named, scattered from Point Barrow 
in the extreme north to Lake Illiamna on Cook 
Inlet. 

Increase. — The average annual increase in the 
herds by fawns, from 1893 to 1905, was 45 per 
cent. This does not mean the number of fawns 
born, but the number that survived each year. As 
the herds increase in size the percentage of fawns 
that survive, however, is slightly diminished, prob- 
ably due to the fact that the native herders are 
less vigilant than their Lapp teachers, who could 
give every deer individual attention when the herds 
were small ; but it is assumed as a safe basis of 
computation that the increase will not fall below 
33 per cent, and at that rate there will be 256,000 
deer in Alaska in 1919. From 1892 to 1905, 4,184 
deer were sold, butchered or died. 

An importation from Lapland. — An experiment, 
which proved a failure, should be mentioned, because 
it has been advanced as a proof against the practi- 
cability of the reindeer enterprise. In the winter 
of 1897 the rumor spread that many American 
miners in the Yukon valley were on the point of 



starvation. Congress appropriated money for their 
relief, and it was thought that the best way to 
transport provisions to them was by means of rein- 
deer. Pursuant to this plan, 539 trained reindeer 
and sixty-eight Lapp drivers with their families 
were imported from Norway and brought to the 
head of Lynn Canal, Alaska, from which point they 
were to start overland. Owing to unforeseen delays, 
the moss brought from Norway, on which to feed 
the deer, became exhausted before the start was 
made, and the alfalfa and other hay given them 
caused digestive disturbances which resulted in the 
death of most of the deer before they could reach 
the moss fields in the interior. In the meantime, 
word came that the report of starvation was untrue, 
and the expedition was abandoned. These deer 
were geldings, and form no part of the breeding 
experiments. 

Distribution. 

The reindeer occupies the arctic zone on both 
hemispheres. In the western part of the American 
continent the caribou ranges from the shores of 
the Arctic ocean, along the Alaskan range, through 
British Columbia to the boundary of the United 
States, and in the eastern part through Labrador to 
New Brunswick and Newfoundland, where it is 
yet numerous, while on the plains it ranges as far 
South as latitude 64. The domestic reindeer can 
also maintain itself, therefore, through the whole ■ 
of this range. 

In Europe, the reindeer is found throughout the 
northern regions of Norway, Sweden, Russia and 
Siberia, the range extending far below the arctic 
circle. It is found in Iceland, in Greenland, in 
Spitzbergen and other islands of the Arctic ocean, 
even beyond the eightieth. parallel. It is domesti- 
cated in this extensive region, wherever man has 
a permanent abode, but more particularly by the 
Lapps in Norway, Sweden and Russia, and also by 
the tribes occupying Eastern Siberia from Kamt- 
chatka to the sea of Okhotsk, and other regions of 
northern Siberia. In short, the present range of 
the reindeer and caribou is bounded on the south 
by the isothermal, which determines the character 
of the vegetation on which they feed, and on the 
north by the limit of mosses and lichens in quantity 
sufficient to sustain it. 

In a by-gone epoch, the reindeer inhabited all of 
Europe, even down to the Mediterranean, having 
apparently been driven south by the advancing ice. 
Its remains have been found in France and else- 
where in continental Europe, and in Scotland and 
Ireland. 

Caribou were numerous in Alaska until recent 
years. But, since the influx of the white man in 
pursuit of gold, the number is rapidly decreasing. 
In the Kenai peninsula they may still be found, 
although scarce, while in the interior they are now 
numerous only in the unexploited regions, more 
particularly in the so-called Alaskan range, in 
which Mt. McKinley is the principal peak In the 
winter of 1905-6, thousands of them crossed the 
Tanana river some miles below Fairbanks, and were 
slaughtered by the hundreds. 



REINDEER 



REINDEER 



591 



The reindeer occupies a zone wholly outside that 
in which agriculture is possible. It lives on lichen 
and herbage peculiar to the region where no agri- 
cultural plants will grow. It does not thrive in 
the warmer regions where agriculture is practicable, 
and it cannot live on the kind of forage we feed to 
cattle and horses. But it is by far the most useful 
animal under domestication for the region north of 
the agricultural belt. It is a means of transmuting 
a vast amount of otherwise useless vegetation into 
forms that can be utilized" by man for food and 
shelter. 

Training. 

Training for the sled begins at the age of three 
years, and the stoutest males and geldings are 
selected. The lessons begin by lassoing the se- 
lected animals. The poor beasts are much scared 
and jump about in frantic efforts to escape. When 
quieted, they are led about for some time, or tied 
to a post to accustom them to confinement. They 
are then released, to have the lesson repeated day 
by day until they are tame enough to be harnessed, 
and in the same manner accustomed to draw light 
loads. This takes a long time and persistent work. 

There are several methods of harnessing them. 
The most primitive and least humane consists in 
putting a raw-hide strap about the neck, and to 
this attach a single trace, which is either drawn 
between the legs, or simply stretched along the 
side of the animal, and fastened to the sled. An 
improved harness used in Alaska consists of a col- 
lar and a pair of light hames, from which a short 
trace goes back on each side to the ends of a swingle- 
tree, suspended under the body by a strap over the 
back. From the center of this, a single trace goes 
back to the sled, either between, or on one side of 
the hind-leg. This trace is covered with fur, to 
prevent it chafing the legs. A single line is fastened 
to the left side of the halter, and with this the 
animal is guided and held in check. In Alaska, as 
in Lapland, there is seldom more than one hitched 
to a sled. 

The accompanying illustration (Fig. 606) shows 
two forms of the sleds used. The one placed 
above is imported from Lapland, and is there 
called a "pulka." It is seven feet long and two 
feet broad, pointed in front, and square in the 
back, and rounded underneath like a boat. It pulls 
easily and does not sink into soft snow. The other 
sled figured is like the dog sled or hand sled in 
common use. It is largely home-made, and varies 
in size and shape with the art and fancy of the 
maker. It is usually nine feet long and two feet 
broad, built of thin slats, and the top inclosed by a 
railing" a foot high. It may or may not have han- 
dles behind to use in guiding it, or to hold on to 
when the driver runs behind for exercise. 

Habits. 

The reindeer is gregarious, and, when left to 
itself, pastures in great herds, sometimes number- 
ing thousands. In summer it feeds on the twigs 
and leaves of the alder, willow and other shrubby 
plants, on lichens and mosses, and to a less extent 



on grass. In winter it lives almost exclusively on 
a whitish nutritious lichen (Cladonia rangiferina), 
which for this reason has been termed reindeei 
moss. It feeds also on other mosses and lichens, 
however, and is very fond of mushrooms. It is of 
a roaming disposition and is almost constantly on 
the move from place to place in search of food. 
For this reason a herd requires constant watching 
day and night to prevent its breaking up and stray- 




Fig. 606. Two forms of sleds used with reindeer. 

ing off in different directions. It is timid like other 
members of the deer family, and a herd is easily 
scattered by dogs, wolves or other wild animals. 
It is polygamous, as are cattle. The rutting season 
occurs in the fall, and the fawns are dropped in 
March and April. If the weather then happens to 
be severe, there is large mortality among the new- 
born fawns. The herder's life then becomes stren- 
uous, indeed. He cannot seek shelter himself, but 
must face the storm and give succor to the fawns 
by way of shelter and warmth. 

Uses. 

In Siberia and among the Lapps, where the rein- 
deer is almost the only domestic animal, it supplies 
all the frugal needs of its owner. The meat is his 
chief food ; from the milk he makes cheese, or he 
keeps it in frozen chunks for use in cooking, or it 
is made into butter ; the blood is saved and eaten ; 
the fat is used for food, for candles, and for making 
footwear and clothing waterproof ; the skins are 
used for clothing, for tents, mats and blankets, 
straps and thongs ; the bones and horns are used 
for tools and utensils, or, together with the hoofs, 
they are used in boiling glue ; during life, the 
animal draws his sled over the snow and carries 
his burden. The reindeer thus enables part of the 
human race to secure a livelihood in a region where, 
without it, life would be well nigh impossible. 

Their value tested. — That the reindeer is an 
unqualified success both as a source of food and 
as a means of transportation has been proved re- 
peatedly in the last ten years. The most severe 
test to which they have been put was, perhaps, the 
relief expedition to Point Barrow, under the leader- 
ship of Lieut. D. H. Jarvis of the Revenue-Cutter 
Service, in the winter of 1897-98, when the whaling 
fleet froze in and some 300 whalemen faced starva- 
tion. Lieutenant Jarvis, assisted by Lieut. E. P. 
Bertholf, Surg. S. J. Call, Mr. W. T. Lopp, and some 
natives, drove a herd of several hundred deer for 
more than 800 miles, across the barren snow-cov- 



592 



REINDEER 



SHEEP 



ered, uninhabited waste, from Norton Sound to 
Point Barrow, during the dead of winter, with the 
temperature 20° to 50° below zero, and brought 
them safely to their destination. The deer found 
their own food in the moss which they uncovered 
by scraping away the snow, and on arrival in April 
a large number of healthy fawns were born to the 
herd. Tne leading participants were awarded gold 
medals and the thanks of Congress. Reindeer have 
also been employed to carry the mails between the 
scattered settlements along Bering sea. They have 
the advantage over dogs that it is not necessary 
to carry their food with them. 

Diseases and disabilities. 

Hoof disease, perhaps, is the most troublesome 
affliction of the reindeer. It produces a swelling 
above the hoof, with a formation of pus. Opening 
the swelling and treating it with disinfectants may 
result in a cure ; or it may become systemic, in 
which case the animal usually dies. An affliction 
designated " liver and lung disease," resulting from 
an affection of the spleen and from congestion of 
the brain, is usually fatal. No adequate remedies 
appear to have been discovered. The great number 
of savage, wolf-like dogs that infest all Indian and 
Eskimo settlements in Alaska wound and kill many 
deer, and are a great drawback to the handling of 
the herds. The reindeer is also very prone to acci- 
dent. The bones are brittle, especially during the 
summer, when the antlers are growing fast. Many 
deer break their legs, their necks, or their backs 
while running about, or while fighting with each 
other. 

Reindeer for Labrador. 

By D. W. Prowse. 

Guided by the good results secured in the intro- 
duction of tame reindeer into Alaska by Dr. Sheldon 
Jackson, the Governor of Newfoundland, Sir Wil- 
liam Macgregor, and Dr. Grenfell, of the Deep Sea 
Mission to Labrador, very earnestly took up the 
project of introducing domesticated reindeer into 
Labrador. Before the scheme could be carried out 
practically, measures were taken by the Governor 
and Dr. Grenfell, assisted by the Moravian mission- 
aries at Labrador, to ascertain whether the common 
food of the caribou existed in sufficient quantities 
all over the peninsula. Specimens of mosses, lichens 
and grasses from every part of the great peninsula 
were collected. These were carefully arranged and 
sent to the authorities at Kew, England, for classi- 
fication and identification. They were pronounced 
to be the true reindeer moss and the actual common 
food of the reindeer. This was a foregone conclusion, 
as the native caribou were known to have been 
abundant at Labrador. The indiscriminate slaugh- 
ter of the herds by the Eskimos has driven them 
farther inland, but they are still fairly abundant, 
although not to be compared with the vast herds 
of Newfoundland. 

With these preliminaries settled, the next prob- 
lem was to secure funds for the experiment. Dr. 
Grenfell toured the United States and Canada, and 



aroused much interest in the undertaking. The 
Canadian government made a grant of $5,000 for 
the work. The Newfoundland administration may 
alsoassist. Togetherwith private subscriptions, suffi- 
cient funds were collected to begin the enterprise, 
and it is now in the process of accomplishment. 

The purpose of the undertaking is largely the 
same as in the Alaska importations, namely, to 
provide food and other products, and a means of 
transportation for the people living on barren 
Labrador. The place for the landing of the rein- 
deer has been carefully chosen. Lapland herdsmen 
will instruct chosen apprentices from among the 
natives in the handling of the reindeer, and, even- 
tually, if the experiment succeeds, the animals will 
be parceled out to the natives. Much interest cen- 
ters in this venture, as far-reaching results may be 
expected if it is successful. 

In this connection, the question arises, why not 
domesticate the native wild caribou? Every year 
fawns are taken and trained, and they make delight- 
ful pets. But thus far it has been impossible to erad- 
icate the wild nature, and it would probably require 
many generations to develop a domesticated type. 

About $13,000 was collected, and in 1907, after 
a highly satisfactory voyage, a herd of 300 domes- 
ticated Lapland reindeer were landed in northern 
Newfoundland, accompanied by Lapland herdsmen 
and dogs. As soon as navigation opens up, a part 
of the herd will be taken to Labrador. Some fifty 
reindeer were also brought over by the rlarmsworth 
Company, and have been placed on their estate at 
Grand Falls, Newfoundland. So far, the experiment 
has been a complete success, and the reindeer are 
reported to be in excellent condition. 

SHEEP. Ovis aries, Linn. Bovidm. Figs. 50-54, 
133, 288, 607-638. 

Sheep-farming in North America has passed 
through several phases, and it is now represented 
by several rather distinct types of effort. In the 
eastern states, sheep-farming is a business of small 
flocks that are kept within fenced fields and are 
housed in winter in regular barns. The European 
system of shepherded flocks is practically unknown 
anywhere in this country, due to the price of labor, 
the fact that persons are not trained to the busi- 
ness of shepherds, and to general economic and 
social conditions. 

In the great West, a characteristic American 
type of sheep-ranching has developed, on a very 
large base. This ranching is subject to ups and 
downs, depending on the price of wool and mutton; 
but as a general statement it may be said that it is 
following the large-area cattle-ranching, which is 
now passing away. Sheep can subsist on lands that 
are not adapted to cattle-ranching, and the returns 
from sheep are rapid, as there is a crop each year 
of both wool and lambs. 

The business of winter sheep-feeding has now 
grown to great proportions. This consists in the 
feeding of purchased sheep — chiefly range sheep 
of the West — for the winter and spring market. 
Immense feeding enterprises of this kind are con- 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



593 



ducted in the sheep states, as in Colorado, Montana, 
Wyoming, the animals being brought down to the 
feeding-pens from the high summer ranges. These 
" feeders " are also shipped into the East, as far as 
New York, where great numbers are now fed in 
barns and sheds, in close proximity to the markets. 

Because of the great areas of cheap lands and 
public range in parts of the West, sheep-farming 
has largely passed out of the East. The equilibrium 
promises soon to be restored, however. Not only 
will the old style of sheep-farming be revived, but 
it is probable that something like the range effort 
of the West will come into the cheap-land hill 
regions of the East. Many of the semi-abandoned 
areas are excellently adapted to sheep, particularly 
when several farms can be combined, or when the 
owners can agree to engage in a similar business. 
In some cases it will probably be found to be more 
economical to introduce a system of shepherding 
than to attempt to re-fence the old arms. 

Another type of sheep business is the rearing of 
"hothouse lambs." Ewes are bred at such time 
that the lambs are dropped early in winter, and 
the lambs are fattened by forced feeding and extra 
care, and are ready for market in about sixty days. 
Not all sheep, or all kinds of sheep, will breed 
freely at this time of the year (in June or summer : 
the period of gestation for the sheep is five months), 
and importations of Dorsets and others have been 
made for this purpose. It is now a prevailing 
opinion that the mountain-bred sheep of the West 
are well adapted to this business, whether because 
they are mountain-bred or because they are of the 
proper type for this business, is not determined. 
The long-wool kinds do not breed well for this pur- 
pose, nor do the lambs fatten quickly. The Merino 
types give better results but the pure Merinos 
seem to lack in milk-producing and other qualities 
for the best production of winter lambs. The middle- 
wools, as the Dorset, are now preferred, the large 
producers of hothouse lambs securing their ewes 
mostly from the West, but the smaller producers 
breeding their own stock. The ideal season for win- 
ter lambs to be dropped is November, but it is difficult 
to make sheep breed early enough for this, so that 
December-dropped lambs are more common. The hot- 
house-lamb business depends on very special markets 
and it does not appear to be increasing at present. 

It must not be inferred that the sheep business 
has actually left the East, for this would be erro- 
neous ; but in some regions it has decreased, and 
in few has it developed coordinately with other 
agricultural business. The business of breeding 
sheep, as well as the general rearing for mutton 
and wool, is important in many eastern regions, 
particularly in parts of Canada ; the interest in 
high-class animals has not died out for sheep more 
than for other live-stock ; there are many sheep- 
breeders' societies in the East ; and at present the 
interest in sheep in that region is rapidly increas- 
ing. One of the great handicaps to sheep-hus- 
bandry is the danger from dogs. Tight woven- 
wire fences prove to be effective barriers to dogs ; 
but the only real relief is to make all dog-owners 
legally responsible for the acts of their dogs, and 

C38 



this can readily be done and the law can be effec- 
tively enforced when the sheep-growing sentiment 
of the community is well developed. 

The western ranching. 

The sheep-farming of the mountain states of 
the West is practically a pasturage business. 
Advantage is taken of the very high pastures in 
summer, and of the plains in winter. Immense 
flocks or " bands " are kept, being moved from 
place to place as the pasturage dictates. This 
nomadic business requires men and a regular " out- 
fit " of camp equipment that move with the sheep. 
The work is done in a wholesale way, with very 
few of the niceties of care and feeding but with an 
excellent business management of the entire enter- 
prise. The sheep are exposed to many risks and 
the losses of animals are likely to be great. The 
real range ranching business is largely speculative. 
It is often spoken of as a " game." With the pass- 
ing of the public range, this type of business will 
recede, and a kind of fenced farming, with fewer 
risks, will take its place, although, because of the 
character of the land, great areas will still be held 
in single ownerships and large flocks will be kept. 

For years there has been dispute and contention 
between the cow-men and the sheep-men as to the 
occupancy of the public range. This contention 
has often taken the form of open violence, usually, 
in the past, to the disadvantage of the sheep-men, 
who have sometimes lost whole flocks by having 
them driven over cliffs and into canyons and by 
other means. With the passing of the big cow- 
men, however, and the growth of the sheep busi- 
ness, the sheep-men have now gained supremacy 
in many parts. This old strife will soon be a part 
of the romantic history of an unsettled country. 

In so vast a region, it is to be expected that the 
practices will vary greatly; but it is possible to pre- 
sent a graphic picture of features of the business 
as it is followed in at least part of the great West. 

The essential features of the sheep-ranching of 
the West are the winter range and the summer 
range. The winter range is the home area or the 
place of business. It is on the plains or in a val- 
ley. It may be an enclosure or domain of several 
hundred acres or several thousand. It usually 
becomes parched in summer, and it is also too hot 
for the best success with sheep. - 

The summer range is on the high lands, often 
above timber-line and near the snow-line. Here 
the grasses are fresh and nutritious, and the cli- 
mate is cool. To the summer range the sheep are 
taken — either " trailed " or shipped by train — just 
after shearing, and here they remain till the sea- 
son closes. The summer range is usually not owned 
by the sheep-man. The summer range will be una- 
vailable with the settling of the country, and this 
will determine the extent of the business. 

On the summer range the sheep are in charge of 
herders, whose business it is to see that the band 
is moved on to fresh pastures, that the band is 
kept together, that poisonous weeds (page 119) 
and wolves are avoided, and to look after the sheep 
that are dropping lambs and to take care of the 



594 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



lambs themselves. The herder remains with the 
band the entire season. The sheep may be herded 
by corralling them or by allowing them to run 
free. The corral is made of board fencing in panels 
fourteen to sixteen feet long and about four feet 
high, which is transported by wagons. The corral 
is made near a water-hole or spring, and is moved 
when the pasturage becomes poor. 

The free ranging allows the sheep to drift over 
the country, being guided by the herder and his 
dogs. The herder lives in a covered wagon. Often 
there are two men, one man doing most of the herd- 
ing, on horseback, and the other cooking and acting 
as assistant. If the band contains only 2,000 to 
2,500 sheep, only one herder may be needed and he 
may not have a horse ; the camp-tender visits him 
two or three times a week, bringing provisions 
and moving camp. 

In whatever way the herding is done, the men 
on the range are supplied with "grub" from head- 



The weather is often rainy at the lambing season. 
The new arrivals, when first dropped, must be kept 
under cover if the weather is not bright and warm. 
The herder in charge of the "drop band" must 
keep a sharp lookout for ewes that are having 
lambs, for these sheep, with their lambs, must be 
hauled to the main corral. The wagon for this 
work is divided into compartments, altogether hold- 
ing about twelve ewes. The man driving this wagon 
goes to the herder and determines how many ewes 
have had lambs and where they are. The teamster 
then catches the ewes and, seeing that the lamb 
has had milk, he puts ewe and lamb in a compart- 
ment. He then takes them to the main corral, 
where the man in charge checks up the ewes and 
sees that they all claim their lambs. 

There is often trouble if the ewe is roughly 
handled and she is frightened, for when turned 
loose she may leave her lamb. In this case, the corral 
man catches her and puts her in a "claiming pen.' 




.■^VSm*** 




Fig. 607. A Montana sheep corral and range. Water-hole in the distance. 



quarters once or twice a week, taken out by a 
camp-tender. One tender makes the rounds of all 
the herders in an " outfit " or single ownership. A 
hardy and self-reliant lot of men are bred in this 
herding business, but the occupation lacks the pic- 
turesqueness of the old cowboy days. When the 
summer ranging is over, the herders go to head- 
quarters and are assigned duty on the winter range. 

Plains that are apparently lifeless in summer 
often afford excellent grazing after the rains come. 
The sheep roam at large all winter, securing feed 
from various plants and the natural hay made of 
the dry grasses. In many establishments, cheap 
sheds are provided on the winter range where 
supplemental feeding may be given in very cold 
weather or when the snowfall is heavy. These 
sheds are usually covered with wild hay. A shed 
one hundred feet square will provide feeding-place 
for 2,000 to 3,000 sheep. Seventy-five tons or less 
of hay should provide winter feed for 2,500 sheep. 

Wethers are handled in bands of 2,000 to 3,000 
animals. Ewes are handled in bands about half 
this size, for the care of lambing sheep is arduous. 



This pen is just large enough for her to stand in, 
and yet give the lamb a chance to get milk without 
being butted away. If the ewes all " claim," they 
are taken to a small corral that will hold about one 
day's drop, with good pasturage near. One day's 
drop on the start, with 2,500 ewes, will be 25 to 30 
lambs, increasing to a maximum of 100 to 150 in 
the middle of the period. These small bunches of 
ewes and lambs are moved from one small corral to 
another to make way for different days' drop ; and 
after ten days they are merged into what is called 
a " lamb band." This band is added to daily as the 
lambs become strong, and, finally, when all the 
ewes have lambed, it becomes the main band. The 
lambs that come in the night are separated, with 
their mothers, by the night man, who patrols the 
corral all night. 

It requires about ten men to "lamb" a band of 
2,500 ewes, and this is as many as can be lambed 
together with good results. When the lambs are 
about a month old, their tails are cut off, they are 
ear -marked, and the ram lambs castrated. To 
ascertain the percentage of increase, the tails are 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



595 



counted, this giving the exact number of lambs. 
The average increase, one year with another, will 
be from 75 to 80 per cent. This means the lambs 
that are counted in the autumn. It is generally 
estimated that it costs twenty-five cents per head 
for every lamb dropped, but this depends on how 
close expenses are watched. 

Probably there is no place in the world where 
the sheep-dog is more useful than in this ranching 
in the great West. The dog is a Collie, light, quick, 
intelligent. The pup is usually trained by working 
him with an older dog. The dogs bring in the 
straggling sheep, round up the flock, look out for 
wolves and other dangers, and guard the outfit. 
They are the objects of much affection by the 
sheep-men. They work persistently on rough and 
often cactus-covered lands, and share with the 
herder his privations of food and water. This use 
of the sheep-dog (see page 383) is in marked con- 
trast to the damage done the sheep industry in 
other regions by untrained and irresponsible dogs. 

It is said that the dog and western wolf cross, 
and that the hybrid animal is preferred by some 
herders as being hardier and also tougher in the 
feet. Others say that the dog and coyote cross. 
This cross is said to partake of the color of the 
coyote, but, when the dog parent is a collie, the 
animal carries himself more like a dog, holding his 
head in the air rather than carrying it down as the 
coyote does. The fact that no systematic efforts 
are put forth to make either of these crosses, 
raises a question as to their value, if they occur. 

As a general proposition, the sheep-rancher cal- 
culates that the wool crop will pay the cost of the 
business. This leaves mutton and lambs to repre- 
sent the profits. Although the chief crop is wool, 
yet, where so many sheep are raised, there are a 
great number of mutton wethers shipped out each 
year. The major part of this mutton product goes 
East, chiefly to Chicago. The sheep that are in 
prime condition and fat go directly on the market. 
They will average about 110 pounds, and bring 
from $3.50 to $4 per hundred live weight. It costs 
from 60 to 75 cents per head to ship and care for 
them in transit. They are shipped in double-decked 
cars, each car holding about 225 sheep, this, how- 
ever, depending on the size of the sheep. From 
points in Montana, these sheep are unloaded and 
fed twice before reaching Chicago. They are 
finally delivered at some of the numerous feeding 
stations near the market, where they are held for 
a few days and generally put on the market in 
from two- to six-car lots. The commission man 
regulates the quantity, however, and orders from 
day to day the number of cars he thinks he can 
sell to the best advantage. The sheep that are not 
in shape to send to market at once, are put on feed. 
This feed consists of mill screenings, corn and hay, 
all of which is given them for about ninety days. 

The sheep intended for long feeding are gener- 
ally put in the feed-pens during the autumn and 
winter. Very few, if any, are fed in summer. 
In late years, the farmers of Michigan, Illinois and 
Indiana have fed great numbers of western sheep. 
They seem to have made good profit, for they secure 



the market price or better for their grain and hay 
by feeding it, and they have the manure and are 
able to find employment for their men. 

The shearing on these ranches is performed by 
men who go from place to place, beginning early 
in the South and working northward with the sea- 
son. The work is done by piece or contract, either 
by hand or with clippers run by electric, steam or 
gasolene power. Although the machine is nearly as 
slow as hand-shearing, it does cleaner work and 
therefore gives the owner a heavier fleece. An 
expert workman will shear about one hundred sheep 
per day on an average, although the number runs as 
high as 150 sheep in ten hours, and it is said that 
there is a record of 308 in this time. At eight cents 
each, a shearer expects to earn $8 to $10 a day. 

Great numbers of high-class sheep have been 
introduced into the western sheep regions in recent 
years, largely of the fine-wool and middle-wool 
classes, and these are having a marked effect on the 
flocks. Sheep-breeding centers are developing in the 
West. From its natural adaptabilities, the region 
will always remain a great mutton and wool country. 

The number and farm value of sheep in the 
United States, and in the seven leading states (all 
above a farm value of $10,000,000), on January 1, 
1907, are given in the Yearbook of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture (1906) as follows : 



United States 
Montana . . 
Wyoming . 
Ohio . . . 
New Mexico 
Idaho . . . 
Utah . . . 
Michigan 



Number 

53,240,282 
5,636,711 
4,986,796 
3,140,720 
4,558,365 
3,648,133 
2,853,250 
2,108,795 



Farm value 
$204,210,129 
20,833,283 
19,244,045 
15,119,427 
13,468,363 
13,184,353 
11,131,953 
10,314,117 



The wool-product for the United States, and of 
the eight leading states (all above 10,000,000 
pounds), is given in the same Yearbook as follows : 

Wool washed 
No. of sheep and unwashed 
April 1, 1906 lbs. 

United States . . . 38,540,798 256,915,130 

Montana 4,940,000 35,815,000 

Wyoming 4,531,000 32,849,750 

Idaho 2,300,000 16,905,000 

New Mexico .... 2,900,000 15,950,000 

Oregon 1,800,000 15,300,000 

California 1,750,000 13,125,000 

Utah 1,900,000 12,350,000 

Ohio 1,850,000 11,562,500 

The imports and exports of wool, unmanufac- 
tured and raw, for the seven months ending Jan- 
uary 1, 1906, 1907, 1908, are given as follows in 
the Quarterly Report of the Treasury of the United 
States : 

Imports— Pounds Value 

1906 100,180,796 $18,165,727 

1907 95,339,555 17,532,704 

1908 71,205,366 13,860,068 

Exports — 

1906 11,375 $2,126 

1907 169,824 40,118 

1908 41,763 12,005 



396 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



The Yearbook of the United States Department 
of Agriculture for 1906, gives the number of sheep 
in Canada as follows : 

Year Number 

Total Canada 2,971,212 

New Brunswick .... 1905 183,000 

Ontario 1906 1,304,809 

Manitoba 1906 28,975 

Saskatchewan 1906 121,290 

Alberta 1906 154,266 

Other 1901 1,178,872 

The Canada Yearbook for 1905, gives the value 
of sheep in 1901 as follows : Total Canada, $10,- 
490,594; British Columbia, $164,679; Manitoba, 
$144,018; New Brunswick, $538,682; Nova 
Scotia, $757,278; Ontario, $5,518,403; Prince 
Edward Island, $384,790; Quebec, $2,376,471; 
Territories, $606,273. 

Literature. 

Probably the one book that has had most influ- 
ence on American sheep-husbandry is Randall's 
" Practical Shepherd," by H. S. Randall of Cort- 
land, N. Y. Since the publication of this work the 
character of the business has changed radically, 
and no single book now has undisputed precedence. 
Following are some of the titles : Youatt, Sheep : 
Their Breeds, Management and Diseases, London 
(1837); L. A. Morrell, The American Shepherd, 
New York (1846) ; H. S. Randall, The Practical 
Shepherd, Rochester (1863); same, Fine Wool Sheep 
Husbandry, New York (1868); same, Sheep Hus- 
bandry, New York (1883); Powers, The American 
Merino, New York (1887) ; Spooner, Sheep ; His- 
tory, Structure, Economy, Diseases, London (1888) ; 
Henry Stewart, The Shepherd's Manual, New York 
(1890); same, The Domestic Sheep, Chicago (1898); 
Carman, Heath and Minto, Special Report on the 
History and Present Condition of the Sheep Indus- 
try of the United States, Washington (1892); 
Wrightson, Sheep : Breed sand Management, (1893); 
Coleman, Cattle, Sheep and Pigs of Great Britain, 
London (1887); Craig, Judging Live Stock, The 
Author (1904); George W. Curtis, Horses, Cattle, 
Sheep and Swine (1888); David Low, On the Do- 
mesticated Animals of the British Islands, London 
(1842); Wallace, Farm Live Stock of Great Bri- 
tain, Edinburgh (1907); Shaw, The Study of Breeds 
in America, New York (1905); Sanders, The Breeds 
of Live Stock, Chicago (1887); The Best Breeds of 
British Stock, London (1898); Plumb, Types and 
Breeds of Farm Animals (1906); J. E. Wing, Sheep 
Farming in America, Chicago (1905); Rushworth, 
The Sheep, Buffalo (1899); Milburn, Sheep and 
Shepherding ; Bennett, Wool and Sheep ; Miller 
and Wing, The Winter Lamb ; Clarke, Fitting 
Sheep for the Show Ring and Market. 

It is seen that the literature on sheep is abun- 
dant. These little animals have long been popular 
with writers, popular and scientific, and as well 
with those who delight to use the camera. Numerous 
illustrated articles are to be found in the current 
magazines. There are many experiment station and 
government publications on sheep, which may be 
traced through the Experiment Station Record. 



Index to Sheep Articles 

Page 

Origin of Domestic Sheep 596 

Wool- and Mutton-Production 598 

The Feeding of Sheep 600 

Determining the Age of Sheep 603 

Common Ailments of Sheep 603 

Cheviot Sheep 609 

Cotswold Sheep 611 

Dorset-Horn Sheep 612 

Hampshire Down Sheep 614 

Leicester Sheep 615 

Lincoln Sheep 617 

Merino Sheep 618 

American Merino 621 

Delaine Merino 622 

Rambouillet or French Merino 623 

Oxford Down Sheep 624 

Shropshire Down Sheep 626 

Southdown Sheep 627 

Suffolk Down Sheep 629 

Miscellaneous Breeds of Sheep 631 

Origin of the Domestic Sheep. 

Our domestic sheep have probably been derived 
from more than one species of the genus Ovis. 
They are supposed to have been descended from 
the argali, or wild sheep, of Asia (Ovis amnion), 
and the musimon of the south of Europe (Ovis 
musimori). 

The argali, or wild sheep of Asia, is a larger 
animal than our common sheep, being somewhat 
smaller than a stag. The argali possesses enormous 
horns, sometimes a foot in circumference at the 
base and three to four feet long. The color of fur 
is brown, with a buff-colored streak along the back 
and a large spot of buff color on the haunch. 
These animals are found on the elevated plains of 
Asia from the Caucasus northward and eastward to 
Kamschatka and the ocean. They are very agile 
and strong, but wary and suspicious. They roam 
together in small flocks. They are hunted for their 
flesh and their skins, which are made into clothing. 
Taken young, it has been found possible to tame 
them, but adult wild animals never become thor- 
oughly domesticated. 

The musmon or mouflon (Fig. 608) inhabits the 
islands of Crete and Cyprus and the mountains of 
Greece. It is also still found in Corsica and Sar- 
dinia. It is much smaller than the argali, less pow- 
erful and active and inhabits a lower range of 
mountains. The musmon roams in large herds, and 
is with difficulty domesticated. The musmon has 
been crossed with the common sheep and the prog- 
eny are fruitful. 

Whether these two wild forms are really to be 
regarded as distinct species, and whether our com- 
mon sheep have descended from them, or either 
one of them directly, or from a related form now 
extinct, are questions that do not appear to have 
been settled by zoologists. There are other forms 
of wild sheep in many parts of the world, but they 
apparently have not contributed to the common 
domestic races. All members of the sheep tribes 
are mountain and highland animals. In fact, there 
are few animals that live in more inaccessible and 
inhospitable heights. Our domestic sheep inherit 






SHEEP 



SHEEP 



597 



this peculiarity, preferring cool climates, high 
lands, open ranges, and quickly suffering when 
closely housed for any length of time. 

In North America there are three species of 
wild sheep, — the big-horn (Ovis canadensis, some- 
times called 0. cervinus and 0. montanus), the 
black sheep (Ovis stonei), the white sheep (0. 
dalli). There are two or three subspecies or forms 
of these. Of these, the best known is the big-horn, 
native to the mountain region from Mexico to 




Fig. 608. The musimon (Ovis musimon). 
Adapted from Brehm. 

British Columbia, but are most abundant in the 
northern parts of the United States and parts of 
Canada. This animal, which is considered as one 
of the " big game " of the West, is characterized 
by immense horns curled downward at the sides 
of the head. It stands, when mature, about forty 
inches high and weighs 325 pounds. It is yellow- 
ish in summer and gray-brown in winter. It is 
exceedingly alert and very difficult to capture. 
There is now a herd of about two hundred head of 
these fine animals in the Yellowstone Park, roam- 
ing free. There appears to be none in captivity, 
nor has any effort been made to breed them. The 
white sheep and black sheep are smaller than the 
big-horn, with much lighter horns. The white is 
an Alaskan species ; efforts to bring it into cap- 
tivity have failed. The black sheep is native to 
British Columbia ; specimens are in several zoo- 
logical parks. 

Not to be confounded with the big-horn or other 
mountain sheep are the " wild sheep " or " native 
sheep " of the West and South, which are degener- 
ate and run-wild forms of domestic sheep early 
introduced by the Spaniards or others. With the set- 
tlement of the country, better blood is being intro- 
duced and the scrub range sheep are passing out. 

An animal that may be confused in the popular 
mind with the big-horn and the " native sheep" is 
the mountain goat (Oreamnos montanus). This is a 



goat only in looks. It is more nearly allied to the 
antelopes. It inhabits the highest ranges and 
peaks from Idaho and Washington to Alaska. The 
male animals weigh as much as 300 pounds when 
mature. The mountain goat has a coarse shaggy 
coat of white hair and nearly straight erect shin- 
ing black horns. It is a peculiar beast, quite unlike 
any other animal in any part of the world. No 
efforts have been made to domesticate this animal, 
but a few specimens are in captivity. 

As is to be expected of an animal that has been 
long under domestication in many countries, the 
sheep presents many forms. The animal is grown 
chiefly for wool and meat, and there are breeds 
valuable primarily for wool and others primarily 
for mutton. There are variations that are not cor- 
related with these uses, however, as those with 
three, four or more horns, and those with no horns. 
There are short-tailed and long-tailed breeds, and 
there is an Asian breed with very thick fat tails. 
There are also dwarf races, as the Shetland and 
Faroe island sheep, yielding a fleece of two pounds 
or less, which is pulled instead of being sheared. 
There are many kinds of fleece. Some kinds of 
sheep have a marked double coat, and in tropical 
countries there are woolless sheep. The Shetland 
and similar sheep have a fleece with hair inter- 
mixed ; in fact, this intermixture is characteristic 
in cold, moist climates. Sheep differ greatly in 
color, the exposed parts being soft white or some- 
times jet-black. There are Asian forms with an 
extreme development of fat on the haunches. 

In Roman times, the mountains of Spain were 
recognized as excellent sheep countries ; and as 
more northern regions were not then civilized, the 
Spanish sheep early gained great prominence. The 
Spanish sheep is a fine-wool type. The English de- 
veloped coarse -wool types, apparently not from 
Spanish foundations. The early Spanish introduc- 
tions to North America gave character to our early 
sheep husbandry. Later, the long wools and middle 
wools of England were introduced, and they are now 
the prevailing types. The character of the introduc- 
tions from Europe has changed from time to time, 
depending very largely on the tariff conditions and 
the general nature of the demand for wool-stuffs. 

The domestic sheep is a good illustration of the 
influence of domestication. The modern animal has 
very few characters that would indicate its descent 
from the wild species. Sheep have been under sub- 
jection to man from earliest recorded time. Abra- 
ham's wealth was measured by his "sheep and oxen 
and camels." The peculiar sheep-herding methods 
recorded in scripture are followed today by the 
Kurds, Turcomans and Arabs of Asia. There are 
remains of sheep in the prehistoric lake dwellings 
of Switzerland. 

The character of the wool has given rise to the 
classification of breeds. The domesticated varieties 
of sheep are numerous. In this article only those 
of most importance to America are considered. 
The breeds most prevalent in America are the 
Merino, a breed noted for the fineness of its fleece, 
and the Shropshire, Hampshire, Oxfordshire, South- 
down, Horned Dorset and Cheviot, sometimes 



598 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



called middle-wooled breeds, but more frequently 
spoken of as mutton sheep. The Lincoln, Leicester 
and Cotswold are large breeds with long, coarse 
fleeces, primarily raised for their flesh. 

It has been a common practice to classify sheep 
according to the length or quality of fleece pro- 
duced. Thus, we have (1) fine-wool breeds : Ameri- 
can, Delaine and Rambouillet or French Merinos ; 
(2) medium-wool breeds : Dorset-Horn, Hampshire 
Down, Oxford Down, Shropshire Down, Southdown, 
Suffolk Down, Tunis; (3) long-wool breeds: Cheviot, 
Cotswold, Leicester, Lincoln. Another classifica- 
tion would group the breeds, according to utility, 
into the fine-wool type, as (1) above, and place all 
the others together under the mutton type. There 
are numerous miscellaneous breeds, not included in 
this classification, as Black-Faced Highland, Kent 
or Romney Marsh, Wensleydale, Herdwick, Ryeland, 
Barbados. 

Wool- and Mutton-Production. 

By G. C. Humphrey. 

The production of wool and mutton is an indus- 
try of very great proportions, and of increasing 
national interest. 

Wool-production. 

Wool is a staple article, very essential to all 
mankind. Next to cotton, it is the product most 
extensively used in the manufacture of cloth, felt 
and other fabrics. Argentina, Australia, America, 
Russia, Great Britain and British India are the 
most noted wool-producing countries. According 
to an estimate made by the National Association 
of Wool Manufacturers, the world's wool clip for 
1900 was 2,685,000,000 pounds. The United States, 
in 1905, as reported by the National Department 
of Agriculture, produced 298,915,130 pounds of 
wool, equivalent, when scoured and ready for the 
manufacturer, to 129,410,942 pounds. 

For many years, sheep-breeders in America 
devoted their main efforts to the improvement of 
wool, and developed some excellent types of the 
American and Delaine Merino breeds. These were 
most popular when sheep were reared principally 
for wool-production, and prices for wool were com- 
paratively high. Since the marked decline in the 
prices in 1S93, and the demand and prices for mut- 
ton have increased, sheep-growers, especially in 
the East and middle West, have turned their atten- 
tion largely to the medium-wool mutton breeds, 
and have had little regard for the improvement of 
wool. The time undoubtedly will never come when 
the sheep-grower can afford to ignore the value 
of his flock for mutton-production, but he likewise 
cannot afford to ignore or neglect the improvement 
of wool. 

Improvement of wool. — In all instances, wool is 
incidental to the growth and existence of sheep, 
and any improvement in its character insures 
greater profits in sheep-rearing. At the present 
time, to say the most, wool is very much neglected 
and badly handled in America. On the ranches of 
the West and the Southwest, more attention is 



given at present to wool -growing than in the 
eastern states. Experience has taught that the 
fine-wool breeds, especially the strong-bodied, well- 
wooled Rambouillets, are more hardy and more 
capable of withstanding range conditions than are 
the Down breeds. The ranchman has also learned 
that he can better afford to produce and market a 
good clip of wool than attempt to fatten sheep for 
market. He can grow lambs for feeders, and for 
this reason, a breed that will combine wool and 
mutton qualities is being sought. The United 
States Department of Agriculture is lending aid 
to this project through the Wyoming Agricultural 
Experiment Station, which is endeavoring to estab- 
lish and develop a breed of sheep highly adapted 
to the range. 

Great improvement can be made in the wool of 
all breeds, without altering their other character- 
istics, by giving careful attention to the selection 
of pure-bred rams that are well-wooled, providing 
better feed and shelter, and giving more heed to 
keeping dirt and foreign substances out of the 
fleece. A good fleece should be dense and even 
over the entire body ; be free from foreign sub- 
stances, kemp and cot ; possess a strong, well- 
crimped fiber of bright and lustrous appearance ; 
and have sufficient yolk or oil to preserve and keep 
the fiber strong. Exposure and lack of proper 
nourishment affect the value of wool from the 
point of view of the manufacturer, who buys wool 
on its merits and is dependent on the grower for 
the quality. There should be a close relationship 
between the grower and the manufacturer, which 
would force the local buyers and commission men 
to make more distinction between prices paid for 
different lots of wool than they are accustomed to 
make. 

Classification and grades of wool. — According to 
Mumford, wools are classified on the basis of their 
length and strength as (1), clothing wools, com- 
prising short, fine wools suitable for making high- 
grade woolen cloth ; (2), combing wools, which 
are strong, over three inches long, used for worsted 
goods ; and (3), delaine wools, which are fine, 
strong wools, two to three inches long, desirable 
for making delaine cloth. 

Clothing wools, according to the fineness of 
their quality, grade as Picklock, XXX, XX, X, No. 
1 or h blood, No. 2 or f blood and No. 3 or £ blood. 
Picklock and XXX are very rare grades, which 
formerly found their way to American markets 
among imported wools. Combing wools do not 
grade higher than £ blood. Delaine wools grade 
as fine, medium and low. 

Marketing wool. — All wools that are bright and 
comparatively clean are termed "domestic wools." 
Dirty and discolored wools are quoted as "territory 
wools." The bulk of wool is marketed today as 
"unwashed" or in the grease," which refers to 
wool with dirt and yolk adhering to it. Formerly, 
it was the common practice to wash sheep and 
remove a part of the dirt and yolk, when the wool 
was marketed as "washed wool." "Tub-washed 
wool" is wool that has been washed by hand or 
machinery after it has been taken from the sheep. 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



599 



"Scoured wool" is factory-washed wool, from which 
all dirt and yolk have been removed and which is 
ready for the manufacturer. 

Growers should familiarize themselves with 
market demands and quotations, endeavor to re- 
move all features that are objectionable to the 
manufacturer, and insist that local buyers and com- 
mission men pay prices corresponding to the merits 
of the wool. 

Mutton-production. 

The rearing and feeding of sheep for the produc- 
tion of mutton is today a prominent feature of the 
live-stock industry. The number of sheep slaugh- 
tered during the years 1880 and 1907, respectively, 
at the Chicago Union Stock Yards, the greatest 
packing-house and live-stock center in the world, 
indicates the growth of the sheep industry and the 
popularity of mutton as an article of food. In 1907, 
there were 3,069,391 sheep slaughtered at this 
point, as compared with 179,300 in 1880. Prices 
paid per hundred pounds in 1907 for sheep, 
grouped in the following classes, ranged, according 
to the grade, as follows : Native sheep, $2 to $7; 
native yearlings and lambs, $4 to $8.60 ; western 
sheep, $2 to $7.25 ; western and Mexican lambs, 
$4 to $9.25. These prices, on the average, have 
not fluctuated materially for the past ten years, 
although the sheep market tends to fluctuate at 
certain seasons of the year in a manner greatly to 
concern feeders having large flocks to market. 

Methods of producing mutton. — Several methods 
of feeding and fitting sheep for the market are 
in practice. One is the forcing of lambs from the 
time they are dropped until they are six to ten 
weeks old, when, if properly fitted, they furnish the 
finest quality of mutton and bring the highest 
market price. When special houses are provided in 
which to force this class of lambs, whatever may 
be the season of the year, the term "hothouse 
lambs" is given them. Such lambs, depending on 
the season they are produced, are also termed 
"Christmas," "winter," "Easter" or "spring lambs." 
They are much sought, and, when one understands 
breeding and forcing them, large profits are derived. 
The cost of production, so far as feed is concerned, 
is relatively low ; but unless one has suitable build- 
ings and is willing to devote the utmost care and 
attention to the work, he had better be satisfied to 
produce mutton after some other method. 

The selection of ewes that will breed at the 
proper season of the year, be prolific and produce 
an abundance of milk, is the first consideration. 
The profits come in having the lambs at some 
extraordinary season, when extremely high prices 
will be paid for them. Consequently, one must aim 
to breed the ewes much earlier than the usual time. 
Dorsets are the most popular for early lamb pro- 
duction, since it is characteristic of them to breed 
at any season of the year, be prolific and produce 
an abundance of milk. The Rambouillet, Tunis, 
Hampshire and Delaine breeds are also worthy of 
consideration, if one can select choice deep-milking 
ewes. 

At the Wisconsin Agriculturul Experiment 



Station, six ewes, four being grade Dorsets and two 
Shropshire-Merino grades, produced seven lambs at 
about New Year's time. A warm pen having arti- 
ficial heat was provided for the ewes at lambing 
time, and the feed for ewes and lambs was care- 
fully recorded after the lambs were dropped. The 
ewes were fed oats, bran and oil-meal, 20:10:1, 
with clover, alfalfa, cabbage, roots and silage. By 
providing a lamb-creep, the lambs were fed, sepa- 
rately, bran, oats, corn meal and oil-meal, 4:2:2:1, 
and alfalfa hay. The lambs were marketed when 
seventy-five days old. They averaged 60.4 pounds 
per head, and returned a profit over and above the 
cost of feed for ewes and lambs, and of marketing 
lambs, of $6.43 per head. 

Another method more commonly practiced than 
the above, is to carry the lambs until fall and sell 
them at a time when they otherwise would have to 
be housed. By feeding well-bred lambs continuously 
a small amount of grain, perhaps one-half pound 
per head daily, while on good pasture, it is possible 
to make them weigh close to one hundred pounds 
at the age of eight months at a comparatively low 
cost. To sow rape (Brassica campestris, Dwarf 
Essex variety) in corn or on ground specially set 
apart for it, and pasture it supplementary to grass, 
greatly assists in this method of fattening sheep. 

A third popular method of fattening sheep for 
market is feeding native or western lambs and 
yearlings, beginning at about the ages of eight or 
twenty months, respectively. Corn is the principal 
grain, used in conjunction with clover or mixed 
hay, corn stover or other dry roughage. Oats are 
excellent at the beginning of the feeding period, 
since sheep like them and will eat them at once 
without harm. They produce little gain, however, 
and should be substituted by corn as rapidly as 
sheep will bear the change and continue to mani- 
fest a keen appetite, which is essential to insure 
good results. Peas produce excellent results, but 
are usually too expensive. Barley has been tried 
and produces fair returns, but will prove more 
satisfactory if mixed with other grains, as peas and 
corn. Some succulent feed, silage or roots, tends 
to keep fattening sheep healthier, and thus make 
better gains. Pea-straw and corn stover are next 
to alfalfa and clover hay as roughage for fattening 
sheep. 

Cull ewes are usually marketed soon after shear- 
ing, when a sacrifice can be made, if necessary, on 
the amount they will bring for mutton. Using good, 
pure-bred rams, docking and castrating lambs at 
ten days to two weeks old, and giving them a good 
start, are factors to be emphasized in attempting 
to produce mutton. 

Literature. 

Mumford, The Production and Marketing of 
Wool, Bulletin 178, Michigan Agricultural College 
(1900); National Association of Wool Manufactur- 
ers, Annual Wool Review, Boston; Wisconsin Experi- 
ment Station, Twenty-third Annual Report (1906); 
Union Stock Yard and Transit Company of Chicago, 
Annual Live Stock Report (1907). [For further 
references, see page 596.] 



600 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



The Feeding of Sheep. Figs. 609, 610. 
By John A. Craig. 

It is noticeable that the most successful shep- 
herds are invariably quiet in manner, low-voiced 
and gentle in their ways. Sheep respond to such 
characteristics on the part of their care-takers more 
sympathetically than other classes of stock, and at 
no other time more than at the feeding hour. They 
are easily frightened and stampeded, and con- 
versely, they are very trustful and dependent on 
those having charge of them. Boisterousness, 
coupled with rough usage and reckless driving in 
changing about from pasture to feed-lot, and any 
carelessness in management, are directly opposed 
to thrift and well doing. 

It is necessary to see that the food and the 
troughs are clean. This requires that the troughs 
should always be cleaned before the sheep are fed 
from them ; and, furthermore, especially in the case 
of lambs, the troughs should have a strip along the 
top which will prevent the lambs crowding into 
the trough, or putting their feet into the feed. They 
dislike damp and muddy conditions, so that a clean 
and dry feeding-place is necessary. Sheep can 
stand almost any amount of cold, provided the 
quarters are dry and they are sheltered from 
wind. The latter not only materially interferes 
with their comfort, but also induces eye troubles 
under some circumstances. Regularity in feeding 
is imperative. Irregularity will make the sheep 
restless, which will retard their thrift and gain. 
Under most conditions, it will be advisable to feed 
sheep twice a day. The more the shepherd sees his 



rwim 




t.; -.te: = :-.»i— 



!__,"! ,|l f ( ' ] 










Fig. 609. Sheep-ieeding scene. 

sheep, and the more he is with them, the better 
they are likely to thrive. 

When only a pound of grain, or less, is fed, it is 
hardly necessary to divide it into two feeds. The 
usual practice, unless self-feeders are used, is to 
feed the grain first, and then fill the racks. In this 
way the shepherd may follow the feeding more 
closely, for at no time is it easier to gauge the 
thrift of the sheep than when they are lined up at 
the feeding trough. It is often good practice to go 
among the sheep, and by feeling their backs make 
accurate noteof their condition. 

As a rule, it does not pay to grind grain of any 
kind for sheep, although this statement should be 



qualified when peas or beans are fed, for sheep do 
very decidedly better when these are cracked. In 
the case of young lambs, ground corn will give 
gains so much greater over the whole corn as to 
pay for the grinding. In the case of old ewes with 
lost teeth, it will pay too, although when feedir.g 
such, especially in the summer, soaked corn will 
give even more satisfactory results. It will likely 
prove profitable to shred or cut corn fodder, owing 
to the reduced waste ; but clover hay, pea-straw, 
oat hay and other forage of this class, may just as 
well be fed uncut. Roots may be fed sliced, more 
satisfactorily, as a rule. As accessories to success- 
ful feeding, the sheep need to have access to salt 
and water at all times. Some shepherds are of the 
opinion that water is not necessary where snow is 
abundant ; but clean, fresh water at all times 
certainly contributes to their well-being. It is a 
common practice to mix some sulfur with the salt, 
and this may be considered good practice for a few 
days at a time during dry weather. 

Feeding Iambs bejore weaning. 

When a ewe has but a single lamb and she has 
an abundance of milk, there is no need of feeding 
the lamb any grain until near weaning time. In 
fact, some ewes give too much milk for a single 
lamb, and the latter may become too fat in the 
early stages of its life to secure the best ultimate 
results in health and thrift. When a ewe has two 
lambs, the latter are the better for getting some 
grain. It is generally advisable to feed some grain 
prior to weaning, so that when the lambs are being 
weaned they can be carried on without any check 
in growth or thrift because of the withdrawal of 
the mother's milk. It is very easy to teach lambs 
to eat grain before weaning by arranging a creep 
that they can go through into a small lot or sec- 
tion of the fold and get the grain without the ewes 
going through. 

When the ewes are getting nourishing and succu- 
lent food, there is nothing gained by feeding them 
grain while they are suckling lambs ; hence, if 
any grain is to be fed, it should be given to the 
lambs direct. If the lambs are to be sold before 
weaning, or at that time, and it is advisable to 
have them then as fat as possible, it is necessary 
to begin feeding them grain as early as possible. 
When they are two weeks old, they may sometimes 
be induced to eat a little grain, but it is not likely 
they will do so until they are about a month old. 
The most satisfactory mixture, if rapid gains are 
desired, is, perhaps, a combination of three-fourths 
corn meal and one-fourth bran by weight. The 
lambs will take their time in beginning to eat, but 
soon after they start to eat. this ration they will be 
eating one-fourth to one-half pound per head, daily. 
When they begin to eat it, it is well not to feed 
them enough to cloy their appetites. They should 
be given only what they will eat up clean, and 
always with a relish. If they are somewhat back- 
ward in eating after they have been started nicely, 
old feed should not be left in the feeding-trough, 
but regularly changed, so that the feed may not be 
stale at any time. Lambs intended for breeding 






SHEEP 



SHEEP 



601 



purposes, as a rule, do not require any grain until 
very shortly before weaning; then they should have 
it in order that they may not become checked in 
growth incident to weaning. The aim in feeding 
lambs intended for breeding purposes should be to 
keep them in nice flesh and splendid growing con- 
dition. 

Feeding lambs after weaning. 

To keep the lambs unchecked in growth after 
weaning, they should have the best of feed and 
care just at this time. It is well to have for them 
fresh pasture, or rape, or some other succulent 
feed which they like. If grain has been fed before 
weaning, the lambs have gradually become accus- 
tomed to grazing, and have relied more and more 
on the grain as the milk of their dams has dried 
up. So, when the lambs reach the weaning age, 
they are relying mostly on their own rations, and 
they will not miss the milk. It is advisable to 
remove the ewes as far as possible from the lambs, 
so that they will be encouraged to forget each 
other. 

In addition to good pasture, or rape or some 
other green food, the lambs should be fed liberally 
on grain. Those intended for breeding purposes 
should get such food as tends to favor growth as 
well as condition, such as bran and oats, while 
those that are intended for market should be fed 
more fattening food. For these reasons it is well 
to separate the wether lambs from the breeding 
lambs. Again, the latter should be separated so 
that the ewe lambs are together and the ram lambs 
by themselves. 

If the wether lambs are to be fattened for the 
early fall market, they should be given a liberal 
allowance of grain. There is no grain more fatten- 
ing for lambs and wethers than corn. But to get the 
best results from it, some other grain should be fed 
with it, so that the appetites of the lambs may be 
sustained and the gain in flesh progress steadily. 
Bran is always a safe food to feed wethers, and it 
is always advisable to feed some of it, although it 
has never proved very fattening in any feeding 
experiments. The same is true of oats. They are 
both very wholesome and nutritious feeds, greatly 
relished by sheep. When it comes to making fat or 
gain, however, corn or cracked peas are the most 
satisfactory. Cracked corn and peas, with some 
bran, make a very superior ration for fattening. In 
feeding wethers that have already had grain, it is 
an easy matter to start them gaining quickly and 
sustain the increase ; while some care is needed, 
yet there is seldom any danger, as in the case of 
feeding sheep unaccustomed to grain. Lambs fed 
grain before weaning will take a pound of grain 
daily, per head, after weaning, and make satisfac- 
tory gain on it, while, to feed lambs unaccustomed 
to grain that amount, immediately after weaning, 
would likely result in serious loss. 

When the lambs are being fed so that they may 
go on the market fat, sometime during January or 
thereabouts, they do not need such rapid crowding 
during the fall months, for it is easy to get mature 
lambs too fat and heavy for the highest market price 



per pound. It is a fact that the general market 
prefers a fat lamb of one hundred pounds or under 
to one that is over that weight, provided the con- 
dition as to fleshiness is the same. For fattening 
mature lambs during the fall season, there is noth- 
ing better than good grass pasturage and rape or 
rutabagas, with a mixture of grains, such as corn 
and oats. The grass pasture should be used to 
turn the lambs on in the morning before they are 
permitted to go on the rape. If the lambs get a 
small grain ration, too, in the morning, before be- 
ing permitted to graze on the rape, there is very 
little danger from bloating. This grain ration may 
consist of bran and corn or oats and corn, half and 
half by weight. 

After the season for rape and roots and pasture 
is passed, the wether lambs being fattened should 
be penned or yarded. They apparently do better 




Fig. 610. A sheep-feeding shed in Utah. 

when limited in range at this time. A nice, dry 
yard adjoining the feeding-pen is very desirable to 
turn them in. In the North, fattening lambs need 
dry shelter but do not need to be closed in so 
as to be warm. Dryness, with free ventilation of 
the quarters, are the main considerations. In the 
South, it is advisable to have a corral on a high 
dry site, where the lambs can be put during 
feeding time and at night. A woven wire corral, 
dog and wolf proof, is a necessity under such con- 
ditions. In the South, the lambs can be allowed to 
run on rape or turnips during the greater part of 
the winter season, and fed dry fodders only a short 
time before shipping, so that the shrinkage may be 
reduced. In the North, fodder-feeding becomes a 
necessity during the yard-feeding, although such 
foods as wheat screenings, or others in which 
there is considerable chaff or roughage, may be 
fed alone. Both dry and succulent fodder, with 
some grass, will give the best results. Of the dry 
fodders for fattening, it is hardly likely that any 
will surpass alfalfa or the clovers. For succulence, 
corn silage or roots are very satisfactory, while 
for grain, corn, oats and bran and, perhaps, some 
oil-meal or cottonseed meal, if not too high in 
price, may be used to advantage. The lambs, when 
put in the feeding yard or pens, should be taking 
about a pound per head daily of the oats-and-corn 
mixture. This should be increased gradually. 
Highly bred mature lambs, accustomed to grain 
all their lives, will ultimately take two and one- 
half to three pounds of grain per head daily when 
they are ripe for market or show ; but, of course, 
this high feeding cannot be continued long. They 



602 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



will make corresponding gain on it, thus showing 
what careful training in feeding will do, coupled 
with inherited fattening tendencies. The lambs 
need just enough exercise in the yards to keep 
them strong and sound on their legs ; more than 
this or any excitement tells in reduced gain. 

Referring back to the breeding lambs, they 
should have a run of rape and pasture and have 
some oats and bran, although, if they keep in good 
growthy condition without the grain, it would be 
good economy to withhold it. By keeping the ewe 
lambs growing steadily and feeding them nourish- 
ing fodders during winter, such as clover hay, 
corn fodder, and some oats or bran during the 
winter, they grow into good large yearlings and 
clip a surprisingly heavy fleece in the spring. 

The ram lambs should also have an abundance 
of nourishing food, — clover hay, oats, roots and 
such foods as tend to encourage growth and flesh 
rather than fat. Both the ewe lambs and the ram 
lambs should have abundant exercise. This may 
be encouraged in the North by feeding them their 
fodders some distance from the sheds, and thus 
inducing them to take exercise to get their feed. 

Short fattening period. — The majority of the 
lambs that go on the fat market have had a short 
fattening period of three to four months. Western 
lambs, or those from the ranches, are fed in this 
way. In feeding these lambs, the first point to 
remember is that they have never had any grain, — 
nothing except grasses. To feed such lambs on the 
farm, it is advisable to get them comparatively 
early in the season, unless the market is not favor- 
able for purchasing. When they are brought on 
the farm early, they may do a great deal of good 
in cleaning up stubble corn-fields, weedy pastures 
and the like before the feeding begins, provided 
the fields are free from burs. For such lambs 
there is nothing better than a month or so of pre- 
paratory feeding on rape or roots, as it puts them 
in sappy and thrifty condition. They need to be 
managed very carefully while becoming accustomed 
to the rape. Of all things, they need most the run 
of a pasture before being turned on the rape, and 
when on the latter, they should be hurdled ; that 
is, a temporary fence should be used in such a way 
that the lambs get only a limited amount of rape. 
For grain, bran or oats is about the safest feed 
to begin with. At first, put about one-fourth of a 
pound per head daily in the trough. As soon as they 
realize what the grain is for, they will be anxious 
for more. Whether the grain should be increased 
rapidly or very slowly will depend greatly on the 
quality and previous feeding of the lambs. At any 
rate, it is always safest to increase the quantity 
slowly. At the end of two weeks, they may have 
one-half pound per head daily, and by the end of a 
month, one pound per head daily will be about as 
much as they should have. When this quantity is 
reached, make the grain ration one-half corn and 
one-half bran or oats by weight, and feed this mix- 
ture in two feeds, one in the morning and the other 
in the afternoon. For fodder, feed clover hay, corn- 
stalks, or pea-straw, varying the ration according 
to the foods available. 



At the end of three months of careful feeding, 
the lambs will be taking one and one-half to two 
pounds of grain, and about two or three pounds of 
clover hay, according to the quality and their 
relish for it. A pound and a half to two pounds per 
head per week may be considered to be the ran^e 
of gain in live weight from such feeding. A western 
lamb weighing fifty to sixty pounds when purchased 
may be expected to weigh eighty to ninety pounds 
at the end of three and one-half months of feeding, 
provided the lamb is of a smooth, thrifty type, and 
continues to do well on such feeds as those men- 
tioned. 

Feeding breeding ewes. 

While sheep will eat a wider range of weeds and 
other plants than other classes of stock, yet they 
show very decided preferences for some fodders. 
To carry breeding ewes over winter successfully, 
in the North, it is very necessary to know their 
likes and dislikes. Breeding ewes, and, in fact, all 
classes of sheep, have a decided liking for clover 
hay, and the finer it is in leaf and stem the cleaner 
they will eat it up. For this reason, alfalfa and 
alsike are greatly liked, although second crops may 
surpass either of these. Pea-straw, shredded corn 
fodder and oat hay are good. The fodders may be 
fed some distance from the fold so that the ewes 
are forced to take some exercise. A mutton grade 
ewe, weighing 100 to 150 pounds, will eat two to 
three pounds of these fodders daily during the 
winter season. If the breeding ewes have had good 
grass in the fall, they will have gained in flesh after 
the weaning of the lambs, and they are not likely 
to need any grain unless just at breeding time. 
They should certainly have some oats if the pasture 
has not been sufficient and they have not received 
any rape to supplement it. The ewes should go into 
winter in strong condition. It is advisable to cor- 
ral them and handle their backs, to be satisfied on 
that point, although most shepherds can tell by a 
ewe's appearance as to whether or not she is 
thrifty enough. 

As lambing time approaches, the ewes should be 
fed liberally on a variety of roughage. Some suc- 
culent food, such as corn silage and roots, is 
thought to induce a free flow of milk. As soon as 
the ewes lamb, they should receive some grain. 
Wheat bran and oats are very satisfactory. Corn 
may be fed in moderation, but it cannot be con- 
sidered as wholesome a food for breeding ewes as 
bran or oats. If the ewes lamb about the time 
grass is ready for them, there will be no need of 
feeding them further on grain, although, if the 
grass is very lush and immature, some grain may 
be fed profitably. Frequent change of pasture, with 
some rape cut and fed, should keep the ewes milk- 
ing well. They may become thin, but it is not 
advisable to feed them grain if the succulent feed 
is available and the ewes remain in good condition. 

Feeding rams. 

In the feeding of ram lambs, there is no grain 
more satisfactory than clean heavy oats. The ram 
lambs should get oats from weaning time. This, 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



603 



with good pasture, will be all that is necessary 
until winter. Then clover hay and corn fodder, 
with roots or silage, should constitute the ration. 
The ram lamb should be given little service, if 
any. A ram lamb that was born very early and 
has made an uninterrupted growth, and has been 
fed well, may be used for service as a lamb, but as 
a rule it is best to delay until a year old. During 
the winter the ram lambs should be run together. 
They should get their fodder outside, so that they 
are made to take as much exercise as possible. 

During the breeding season, a ram requires 
extra attention, especially in feeding. Bran and 
oats are splendid foods, and these should be fed 
liberally if necessary to maintain the ram's condi- 
tion. A ram in good condition, with firm flesh, 
will prove more satisfactory as a breeder than one 
over- or under-fed. To secure such condition, 
experience teaches that the most effective method 
is to include liberal feeding on clover hay, roots 
and oats, coupled with abundant exercise. 

Literature. 

For references, see page 596 . 

Determining the Age of Sheep. 

By H. H. Wing. 

Sheep have two sets of incisor teeth, on the 
lower jaw only. The first or middle pair of tempo- 
rary teeth is replaced by permanent ones when the 
lamb is thirteen to fifteen months old, and there- 
after the succeeding pairs of permanent teeth 
appear at intervals of a little less than a year. 
Most shepherds reckon a year for each pair, so 
that, when the last pair is fully up and in wear, the 
sheep is four years old. As age advances, the teeth 
grow narrower and slimmer until advanced age, 
eight or nine years, when they often shorten 
rapidly from wear and finally disappear. So long 
as the teeth remain strong and fairly firm, the 
sheep may be said to be in good working condition. 

Common Ailments of Sheep. Figs. 611-614. 

By Louis A. Klein. 

We may group the ailments of sheep that are 
to be discussed in this connection under three 
general heads : (1) Diseases caused by animal 
parasites; (2) bacterial diseases; (3) non-con- 
tagious diseases. It is possible to consider here 
only the more common ailments that come under 
these three heads. 

I. Diseases Caused by Animal Parasites 

The diseases that are most common among sheep, 
and that are of the greatest economical import- 
ance, are caused by animal parasites — worms, 
flukes, ticks, mites, lice, grubs. Because of their 
smaller size and strength and, to a less extent, 
their habit of cropping forage close to the ground, 
sheep are more vulnerable to the attacks of these 
pests than the domestic animals of other species; 
while the custom of keeping them in flocks favors 



the reproduction and development of the parasites. 
Lambs are more- susceptible than older sheep. The 
warm season of the year is the most favorable 
period for the development of the parasites and the 
infestation of the sheep, which fact explains why 
these diseases are more severe in the warmer sec- 
tions of the country; but the symptoms of disease 
do not usually appear until late summer or in the 
fall. Low-lying wet pastures, and those with a 
retentive soil or with a clay subsoil near the top, 
supply conditions favorable to the development of 
the parasites. Keeping sheep continually in the 
same lot or pasture also assists in the propaga- 
tion of the parasites, and the smaller the pasture 
in comparison with the size of the flock, and the 
longer it is used, the more severely will the sheep 
suffer from these diseases. 

Stomach-worm disease. 

This is the common name for a condition which 
occurs when the fourth stomach is infested with a 
large number of thread-like worms (Hmnonchus or 
Strongylus eontortus, Fig. 611) one-half 
to one inch long, of a whitish color with 
a red spiral running through the body 
like a cork-screw. The infested animals 
are unthrifty, dull, and gradually lose 
flesh and strength. After a time, a soft, 
non-inflammatory swelling appears under 
the jaws and diarrhea develops. Thirst 
is increased. The appetite for food may 
be diminished or it may continue to the 
end, the animals eating after they are too 
weak to stand. The eggs of the worms 
pass out with the manure and young 
worms hatched from them are swallowed 
by sheep and cattle feeding on infested 
ground. In this way the disease is trans- 
mitted from one animal to another. 

Treatment. — Changing the flock to high, dry, 
well-drained land which has not been occupied by 
sheep for at least a year, feeding generously and 
providing plenty of salt, will bring about an im- 
provement and usually stop losses, although it will 
not save those animals that are in the advanced 
stages ; and, if the sheep are moved from time to 
time to other lots or pastures, the improvement 
will continue. No drug or combination of drugs 
can be absolutely depended on to remove the worms 
from the sheep, but good results may be obtained 
with coal-tar creosote or gasoline. Ten drams of 
coal-tar creosote are shaken up in a gallon of water, 
and of this mixture four to six tablespoonfuls are 
given to lambs, and eight to ten tablespoonfuls to 
yearlings and older sheep, every other day until 
three doses have been given. The mixture should 
be well shaken before measuring out each dose. 
The gasoline is given in milk, raw linseed oil or 
flaxseed tea, two teaspoonfuls for lambs and one 
tablespoonful for sheep daily, for three successive 
days, each dose being measured and mixed sepa- 
rately. The sheep should have no feed for at least 
twelve hours before the medicine is given, and no 
feed or water for at least three hours after. All 
the sheep in the flock should receive treatment. 




604 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



Medicines intended to operate in the fourth 
stomach or in the bowels are most effective when 
given in a liquid, being poured slowly into the 
mouth from a bottle, with the sheep standing in a 
natural position and the head slightly elevated. 
Those who may prefer the easier but less effective 
method of giving medicine with the feed can use: 
Arsenious acid 1 dram, sulfate of iron 5 drams, 
powdered nux vomica 2 drams, powdered areca nut 
2 ounces, common salt 4 ounces ; mix thoroughly, 
divide into thirty doses and give each sheep one 
dose daily in ground feed for ten days. 

Eradication of the worms from infested lots or 
pastures has been attempted in several ways. 
Burning off the grass in the spring or fall has 
proved effective. Keeping sheep out of a pasture 
will not cause the worms to die out unless cattle 
are also excluded for at least a year. 

Nodular disease. 

Nodular disease is characterized by the presence 
in the wall of the intestines of tumors or nodules, 
in which is found a miniature worm about one- 
eighth of an inch long, which is the cause of the 
disease. This is the larval stage of the CEsophagos- 
toma columbianum. The fully developed worms are 
one-half to three-fourths of an inch long, and are 
found attached to the inner lining of the large intes- 
tines. The eggs and worms pass out with the manure, 
and the pastures or feeding lots, and pools receiving 
the surface drainage from them, become infested. 

Lack of condition may be the only indication of 
the disease. When the infection is more extensive 
the sheep is dull, weak and thin, the wool dry and 
the eyes and lips pale. In severe cases there is 
rapid emaciation and diarrhea. 

Treatment, — The entire flock should be removed 
from the infested pastures to land that has not 
been used by sheep for at least eight months, 
should be given as much range as possible, and 
should be shifted about as often as conditions will 
permit. A plentiful supply of salt, with some grain 
in addition to the grass, would also be beneficial. 
Water free from infection should be provided. 
Much can be accomplished in this way in repressing 
the disease even if it is not eradicated, especially 
if the sheep are placed on high, dry land. If prac- 
ticable, each sheep should receive a dose of thymol, 
thirty to forty-five grains, shaken up in water or 
in the coal-tar creosote solution prescribed for 
stomach worms, before the flock is removed to the 
clean pasture. Repeat in a week or ten days. The 
greatest benefit will be derived from the medical 
treatment, if the sheep are removed in about a week 
or ten days from the inclosure in which they are 
placed after treatment, to another clean pasture. 

Tape-worms. 

Two species of tape-worm are found in sheep 
in America, the fringed tape -worm (Tmnia fim- 
briata) and the broad tape -worm (Toznia expansa). 
When fully developed, the fringed tape-worm is 
six to twelve inches long and consists of a head 
and a large number of small joints or segments ; 
but in the immature form in which it is swallowed 



by the sheep, it is only one-fifth of an inch in 
length. The broad tape-worm also consists of p. 
head with many joints or segments attached, and 
is found only in the intestines. It attains a length 
of five yards and grows very rapidly. The seg- 
ments or joints at the end become separated and 
pass out with the manure, and, as these are filled 
with eggs or embryos, pastures are infested. 

The indications of infestation develop slowly. 
Unthriftiness is usually the first sign. Later, there 
is gradually increasing weakness and loss of flesh, 
the flanks are drawn up or distended with gas and 
the gait is unsteady. The appetite for feed and 
water is often increased, or preference is shown 
for unusual substances. In cases of extensive infes- 
tation, the weakness and emaciation is extreme and 
there is pronounced diarrhea. Segments or joints of 
the worms may be observed in the bowel discharges. 

Treatment. — Sheep that do not show symptoms 
of infestation should be removed to a pasture or 
lot which is not infested and provided with clean 
drinking-water, fed well, given plenty of salt, and 
provided with sufficient protection against severely 
cold weather and storms. Those that are visibly 
affected should be cared for in the same way, and if 
they can also be placed on land free from the worms 
it will be advisable to do it. The pastures should not 
be overcrowded, and the sheep should be moved fre- 
quently from one pasture to another. Planting for- 
age crops will greatly facilitate the change to fresh 
feeding-ground at frequent intervals. 

Drugs are of little or no value in combating the 
fringed tape-worm, as it is not possible to reach 
the worms in the bile ducts ; but when the broad 
tape-worm is present, every sheep in the flock 
should receive one-half to one dram of the extract 
of male fern in two to four ounces of castor-oil, or 
one to one and one-half drams of kamala. They 
should have no feed the night before, nor on the 
morning of the day on which the medicine is to 
be given, and they should receive no water for 
five or six hours after treatment. Feeding pine 
sprouts is recommended ; also pumpkin seeds, 
twenty to thirty seeds to each animal. 

The species of tape-worm present can be deter- 
mined by making a post-mortem examination of 
one of the most seriously affected sheep. Pastures 
that are badly affected with the fringed tape-worm 
can be most economically cleaned by excluding 
sheep and using them for horses and cattle until 
the worms die out. Where the broad tape- 
worm is present, cattle must also be ex- 
cluded, as this worm infests cattle as 
well as sheep. 

Fluke disease or liver-rot. 

This disease is caused by flat, leaf- 
shaped parasites (Distomum hepaticum, D. 
lanceolatum Fig. 612) which, after having ^ B ' 612, 
been swallowed with the food or water, uver fluke, 
migrate to the liver and destroy the sub- Natural 
stance of that organ. The eggs deposited 
by the flukes are carried out with the manure, but 
the embryos that are hatched from them must 
pass a period in certain snails {Limnaus truncula- 




SHEEP 



SHEEP 



605 



tus s. minutis), and another stage in the water 
before they are capable of infesting sheep. Damp, 
swampy pastures and stagnant pools of water fur- 
nish the conditions favorable to the development of 
the parasites. 

Lambs and yearlings and sheep of feeble consti- 
tution suffer most readily. The symptoms of the 
disease do not appear until the damage to the 
liver is extensive — about one and one-half to two 
months after infection. Then, there is a rapid loss 
of condition and weakness ; the wool becomes dry 
and may drop off ; the eyes and lips become blood- 
less and puffy swellings may appear around the 
eyelids, under the jaw and along the brisket ; the 
appetite is poor, or unusual substances may be 
eaten ; the bowels are irregular, constipation 
alternating with diarrhoea. 

Treatment. — Preventive measures are of more 
value in combating the disease than medicinal 
treatment, as the flukes are so located that drugs 
cannot operate on them with sufficient effect, and, 
in those sheep showing symptoms of infestation, 
the changes in the liver are too extensive to be 
repaired by drugs. The sheep should be removed 
to high, dry pastures, the sick being separated 
from the well ; they should be given nourishing 
food with a plentiful supply of salt. Infested past- 
ures and pools should be drained and should not be 
used by cattle or sheep for a time. As snails are 
essential to the development of the flukes, their 
destruction will assist in the eradication of the 
parasites. Frogs, toads and carp have been used 
for this purpose with good results. The introduc- 
tion of carp into the Willamette and Columbia 
rivers was followed by a great decrease in fluke 
disease in sheep pasturing in slough lands along 
the lower parts of those streams. 

Gid, sturdy, staggers, turn-sick (Fig. 613). 

The most prominent and characteristic symp- 
toms of this disease are the peculiar, unconscious 
and uncontrollable movements of the victims — 
moving in a circle, twisting 
or turning as on a pivot, 
swaying and reeling, running 
straight forward with the 
head elevated, and the like. 
It is caused by the presence 
in the brain or spinal cord of 
the gid bladder worm (Ccenuris 
cerebralis), the cystic or blad- 
der stage of one of the tape- 
worms infesting the dog 
(Taenia ccenuris). The eggs 
are scattered by the dog on 
the grass or in the drinking 
places, and the embryos that 
are hatched from them when 
they are swallowed by sheep 
migrate in some manner to the brain or spinal cord. 
This period of migration lasts eight to ten days and 
is attended in some animals with little or no dis- 
turbance, while others are more seriously affected, 
depending on the number of parasites. There may 
only be some depression, a clumsy gait or stupid- 




Fig. 613. 
Skull of sheep, showing 
brain infested with 
gid bladder-worms. 



ness. When the infestation is more extensive, the 
head is hot, the eyes red, the head is held in a 
peculiar position, and the animal may run aimlessly 
about, turn in a circle, press to one side, or stag- 
ger. Death may occur in four to six days, but 
usually the symptoms subside when the embryos 
•have established themselves in the brain or spinal 
cord, to reappear in four to six months when the 
bladders have reached a sufficient size to seriously 
affect the functions of these organs. The animal 
will stop eating suddenly without any apparent 
cause, there is dullness and weakness, the eyes are 
glassy and staring, sight is lost, and the uncon- 
trollable and unconscious movements referred to 
above occur at intervals several times during a day. 
Treatment. — It will be found most economical to 
slaughter infested animals when the first symp- 
toms of the final stage appear, and while they are 
still in good flesh. Preventive measures are very 
important. Carcasses of infested sheep should be 
disposed of in such a manner that the brain or 
spinal cord cannot be eaten by dogs ; and the dogs 
on the place should be treated at regular intervals 
for tape-worms. This treatment should be given 
as follows : the dog should receive one to two 
tablespoonfuls of castor-oil to empty the bowels, 
and should receive no food for a day except a lit- 
tle soup or milk. The next morning, fifteen to 
forty minims of extract of male fern should be 
given, followed in two hours with a tablespoonful 
of castor-oil. During the course of treatment the 
dog should be kept tied up, and the bowel dis- 
charges should be buried in quicklime or burned. 

Grub in the head. 

This is a disease of the cavities of the nose and 
sinuses of the head, which is caused by the larva? 
or grubs of the sheep gadfly (CEstrus ovis). On the 
appearance of the flies the sheep become greatly 
excited, and seek to protect themselves by thrust- 
ing their noses between the fore-legs, holding their 
heads close to the ground, or by crowding together 
in a circle with heads depressed. If larva? are de- 
posited about the nostrils they shake their heads, 
run about and rub their noses against their fore- 
legs or any object that may be accessible. No 
symptoms of disease appear until the following 
spring, when the larva? begin to emigrate. Then a 
nasal discharge occurs, which is sometimes bloody, 
and there is also considerable sneezing and snort- 
ing, during which larva? are often cast out. These 
are three-quarters to one inch long and of yellowish 
brown color. There is also shaking and swinging 
of the head and rubbing of the nose ; the eyelids 
are often swollen and there is a discharge of tears; 
sometimes the brain is also affected and then there 
is dullness, fits of dizziness, an unsteady gait, or 
convulsions. 

Treatment. — It is possible to open the sinuses 
with a trephine and remove most of the larva?, but 
this method of treatment is not available to the 
average flock-master. Injections are of no value 
as they cannot be used in sufficient strength to 
destroy the larva? without injuring the membranes 
of the nasal cavities and sinuses. All animals 



606 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



severely affected should be sent to market ; the 
others will recover as soon as all the larva? have 
emigrated. All larva? found on the ground should 
be destroyed and the heads of any infested sheep 
that may be slaughtered should be disposed of in a 
manner that will destroy the larva?. Where the 
gadfly abounds, the noses of the sheep should be 
smeared every three or four days during the 
swarming season with a mixture of equal parts of 
tar and grease, or tar and fish-oil, or tar and whale- 
oil. Another method of prevention is to plow a 
furrow in the pasture to give the sheep an oppor- 
tunity to bury their noses when the fly approaches. 

Hoose, husk, paper-skin, lung-worm disease. 

These terms are used to designate a disease of 
the lungs and bronchial tubes produced by two 
species of parasites, the thread lung-worm {Strongy- 
lusfilaria) and the hair lung-worm (Strongylus ovis- 
pulmonalis). The thread lung-worm is one-half to 
two inches long and is found in the bronchial tubes. 
The hair lung-worm is much smaller, two-thirds to 
one inch long and of the diameter of a hair, and is 
found in the air cells and lung tissue. 

Infested sheep do not show any signs of disease 
until many worms are present and extensive 
changes have occurred in the bronchial tubes and 
lungs. The most prominent symptom is a cough, 
which occurs in fits or spasms, leaving the victim 
almost suffocated. During these coughing spells 
the worms are ejected and scattered about, and as 
these discharges contain the embryos, food and 
water contaminated in this way become infectious. 
There is also a discharge from the nostrils in which 
the young worms and fragments of old worms can 
likewise be found. In the later stages, the skin is 
dry and harsh, whence the name paper-skin ; the 
wool is dry and can easily be pulled out ; the eyes 
and lips are bloodless and there is loss of flesh and 
gradually increasing weakness. The appetite is 
fair in the beginning but later it may disappear 
entirely. 

Treatment. — It will be best for the flock in which 
this disease appears to send all the sheep which 
seem to be most infested to market, unless they are 
of value for breeding purposes, or unless the dis- 
ease has advanced so far that they are weak and 
emaciated ; in any case, they should be separated 
from the flock, as they are a source of infection 
to the others. The entire flock should be removed 
to non-infested enclosures and given nourishing 
feed, plenty of salt, and water free from the para- 
sites. Lambs should be weaned as soon as possible, 
and placed in a pasture or lot which has not been 
occupied by sheep since the previous winter at least. 
Injections of vermicides into the wind-pipe, either 
in solution or in the form of a spray, have given 
good results in the treatment of sheep infested 
with the thread lung-worm, but these methods are 
not available to the ordinary flock-master. A more 
simple method of treatment is fumigation. To carry 
this out, it is necessary to have a tightly-closed 
room in which to place the sheep. A mixture of 
flowers of sulfur and alcohol in a deep dish or pan 
floating in a vessel of water is then placed in the 




Fig. 614. A case of sheep scab. 



room ; the alcohol and sulfur is ignited, and the 
door closed. Some one should remain in the room 
with the sheep, or they should be closely watched, 
so that they will not be suffocated. A mixture of 
one part of salt to twenty-five parts of copperas is 
also advised, to be kept constantly before the sheep. 
For the eradication of the worms from infested lots 
or pastures, the same methods can be used as for 
stomach worms. 

Scab. (Fig. 614.) 

Scab is an itch or disease of the skin caused by 
a species of mite (Psoroptes communis) just large 
enough to be visible. These little insects bite the 
skin to obtain food, and the irritation or itching 
thus produced causes the sheep to scratch, rub and 
bite the infested 
places; little 
blisters form 
where the mites 
bite, and the rub- 
bing, scratching 
and biting of the 
sheep inflames 
the skin, which 
becomes red, 
thickened, hot 
and tender. The 
blisters rupture and the yellowish liquid they con- 
tain, drying on the skin with the sweat and dan- 
druff, forms the yellowish-brown scab from which 
the disease takes its common name. The wool be- 
comes " tagged " or glued together in tufts and 
finally falls out, exposing the rough, dry, scab, 
which may be full of cracks or fissures and ulcera- 
tions. The disease is very contagious from one ani- 
mal to another. Tags of wool from infected sheep, 
fences or posts against which scabby sheep have 
rubbed, sheds or buildings occupied by them, or old 
bedding may harbor the mites and convey the dis- 
ease to healthy sheep. The common variety of scab 
affects the back, sides, rump and shoulders. The 
other varieties — head scab or black muzzle, foot 
scab and follicular scab — occur very rarely in this 
country. Itching caused by ticks and lice, inflam- 
mation of the skin glands, and rain-rot have been 
mistaken for scab; but such mistakes will not occur 
if the mange mite is always searched for in the 
edges of the scab. 

Treatment. — When scab appears in a flock, all of 
the sheep should be sheared and confined to one 
part of the farm or in a certain pasture for two 
to four weeks, after which each animal should be 
"dipped" in a mixture that will kill the mange 
mites, and returned to the same part of the farm, 
or to the same pasture. Seven to ten days later 
they should be "dipped" again, and then placed in 
that part of the farm or pasture from which 
they have been excluded since shearing. The lime 
and sulfur dip is one of the most satisfactory mix- 
tures for treating scabby sheep. It is made as fol- 
lows : To eight to eleven pounds of unslaked lime 
add enough water to slake to a paste ; sift into this 
paste exactly three times as many pounds of flowers 
of sulfur as of lime used, weighing the sulfur and 






SHEEP 



SHEEP 



607 



lime accurately ; place the mixture in a boiler, add 
twenty-five gallons of water, and boil for at least 
two hours, stirring frequently ; allow the sediment 
to settle, and then dip off the fluid and add enough 
water to make one hundred gallons. While using 
the dip, it must be kept at a temperature of 100° 
to 110° Fahr., the temperature being determined 
by a thermometer. Each sheep should be kept in 
the dip for two minutes by the watch, the entire 
body being covered with the liquid, and the head 
immersed at least once. When only a small flock is 
to be treated, an ordinary kettle may be used for 
preparing the dip, and a wash-tub for the dipping ; 
but when large numbers of sheep are to be dipped, 
involving much work, special apparatus will be 
found most economical. 

Sheep ticks. 

The sheep tick, which is really not a tick but a 
wingless fly with a leathery, bristly, flattened body 
about a quarter of an inch long, inhabits the fleece 
of the sheep and bites the skin at intervals to suck 
blood. When the ticks are few in number, they 
have little effect on the sheep, but when they are 
numerous the itching and pain caused by the bites 
of the insects keep the sheep biting and scratching 
most of the time, affecting their general condition. 
Lambs suffer most severely. 

Treatment. — Dipping the flock in the lime and 
sulfur mixture or in a kerosene emulsion will rid 
them of the parasites. The kerosene emulsion is 
made as follows : shave a pound of soap into a 
gallon of water and dissolve by boiling, add two 
gallons of kerosene and churn or mix until the oil 
is "cut" or emulsified; use one gallon of the 
emulsion to eight of water. It is best to dip twice, 
with an interval of two weeks, and to keep the 
sheep out of the old pens or pastures for a week. 
The pens and other resting-places should be 
scraped out and cleaned. 

Sheep lice. 

The sheep louse is very small, only one twenty- 
fifth of an inch in length, with a reddish head and 
whitish body. Itching is a symptom of the pres- 
ence of this parasite, which also causes the skin to 
become thickened, rough, and covered with small 
black scabs, while the wool covering these places 
becomes short, dry and twisted. Infested flocks 
should be dipped in the kerosene emulsion. 

Maggots. 

Maggots are sometimes found in wounds on 
sheep. These are the larvas of a fly (Lucilia macel- 
laria) that is common in America, especially in the 
warmer sections, and that is to be recognized by 
its blue body, streaked with darker blue or purple 
bands. The fly deposits its eggs on the wool or in 
the wounds or sores, and when the larva? are 
hatched they burrow into the diseased tissues, 
causing much distress to the sheep. Flowers of 
sulfur and benzoated lard, mixed in equal parts, or 
oil of tar, applied to the diseased areas will destroy 
the maggots and also prevent the fly from depositing 
eggs. 



II. Bacterial Diseases 

For information concerning those contagious or 
infectious diseases which affect sheep as well as 
the domestic animals of other species, the reader 
is referred to the article on Infectious Diseases 
of Animals, pages 124-146. 

Foot-rot. 

Foot-rot usually begins in one foot and subse- 
quently attacks one or more of the others. Lame- 
ness is the first indication of the disease, and when 
the foot is examined a red, moist spot is found in 
the cleft just above the horny part. The disease 
extends beneath the horn, and in a short time there 
is a thin, sticky discharge of a disagreeable odor 
from a hole in the horn. The region above the 
hoof becomes swollen, hot and tender. If the dis- 
ease is neglected, a large part of the horn is under- 
mined and loosened, and the extension may continue 
until even the bones are affected. During warm 
weather, maggots may attack the affected parts. 
The disease is caused by a germ (Bacillus necro- 
phorous), which exists in large numbers in the dis- 
charge from the diseased feet, and healthy sheep 
placed on ground or in sheds contaminated with 
this material are liable to contract the disease. 
Contagious foot-rot should not be confused with 
foul-foot, which results from muddy lots or marshy 
pastures, or from wounds from sharp stones and 
the like ; or with the swelling, suppuration and 
lameness that occurs when the opening of the lit- 
tle oil gland in the cleft of the hoof is choked up 
with mud or sand. 

Treatment. — When the disease is discovered, the 
feet of the healthy sheep should be treated with a 
solution of one pound of chlorid of lime to each 
twelve quarts of water, or one pound of carbolic 
acid crystals to each four gallons of water, after 
which they should be removed to uncontaminated 
lots or pastures. When the flock is large, the solu- 
tion may be placed in a wooden trough about six 
feet long, twenty inches wide and one foot deep, 
the solution being about four inches deep, and the 
sheep made to walk through it slowly. The diseased 
sheep should be treated as follows : Cut away all 
loose or undermined horn and all proud flesh, and 
stand the animal for ten minutes in a solution con- 
taining four pounds of copper sulfate in each five 
gallons of water, applying a soft bandage when 
deep cutting has been necessary. When the disease 
has extended into the deeper parts, the affected 
area should be carefully washed with a solution 
containing one ounce of carbolic acid crystals in 
twenty ounces of water, then dusted with a pow- 
der consisting of equal parts of boric acid and 
oxid of zinc, and covered with a soft bandage. 
After treatment is begun, the diseased sheep should 
be placed in lots or pastures free from infection. 

In order to prevent the introduction of the dis- 
ease, sheep purchased for addition to the flock 
should be kept under observation in separate quar- 
ters for a few days. Keeping the feet of the sheep 
properly trimmed will assist in keeping the cleft 
of the foot free of dirt and help to prevent the 



60S 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



spread of the disease. Pastures occupied by dis- 
eased sheep can be used safely for healthy sheep 
the following spring, but infected lots and sheds 
should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. 

Sore mouth and feet. 
I The contagious foot-and-mouth disease of Europe 
does not exist in this country, but sheep are some- 
times affected with an ulcerative condition of the 
mouth and feet that is often referred to by this 
name. This disease, which is caused by the Bacillus 
necrophorous, does not spread from animal to ani- 
mal like the true foot-and-mouth disease, but cer- 
tain lots, pastures or sheds become infected with 
the germs, which enter the tissues when the mouth 
or foot is injured by stiff, brittle forage or briars, 
and set up the disease. Ulcers appear in the skin 
of the leg above the hoof, and in the membrane 
lining the lips. If the disease is neglected, these 
ulcers may spread over a large area and extend 
deep into the tissues ; the ulcers may also appear 
on the face. When the feet are affected there is 
lameness, while disease of the lips is accompanied 
by an interference with feeding. 

Treatment. — Removing the scabs or shreds of 
tissue from the diseased areas and washing them 
twice daily with a solution of one tablespoonful of 
creoline in a quart of water, then painting with 
Lugal's solution of iodine, will result in a complete 
cure, if treatment is begun in time. In using the 
latter solution on sores in the mouth, care should 
be taken to confine the application to the diseased 
places. Infected lots and sheds should be cleaned 
and disinfected. 

Sore mouth may also result from the sheep feed- 
ing on grains or grasses affected with fungi and 
other vegetable organisms, a condition which may 
exist in wet seasons. Blisters or ulcers are seen on 
the membrane lining the mouth and lips, and the 
breath may have a sour odor. These blisters and 
ulcers sometimes occur on the teats of the ewes, and 
lambs suckling them suffer an attack of the mouth 
disease. The treatment consists in changing the 
feed, washing the mouth with a solution contain- 
ing a half ounce of boric acid to a pint of water, 
and afterward placing a little powdered alum on 
the tongue. Affected teats can be treated with the 
same drugs. Sore mouth has occurred in sheep fed 
on wheat screenings rich in mustard seeds, and 
ulceration of the gums and jaw-bones has occurred 
from the barbed awns of squirrel-tail grass. 

Malignant catarrhal fever. 

This disease usually affects a number of sheep 
simultaneously. There is a discharge from the nos- 
trils ; the eyelids are swollen and may be stuck 
together with a greasy matter; in addition, there 
is a cough, rapid breathing, constipation or diar- 
rhea, and loss of appetite. 

Treatment. — Sheep that are severely affected 
should be slaughtered, and the healthy animals 
should be separated from those slightly affected. 
The sheds occupied by the diseased animals should 
be cleaned and disinfected. The entire flock should 
be given nourishing feed and each sheep should 



receive a tablespoonful of the following tonic mix- 
ture in the feed twice daily : Powdered nux vomica 
3 drams, powdered sulfate of iron 3 ounces, powdered 
gentian root 4 ounces, powdered potassium nitrate 
1 ounce, linseed meal 8 ounces, mix thoroughly. 

III. Non-contagious Diseases 
Wool-eating. 

Wool-eating is regarded as a habit and also as 
an indication of a deficiency in certain food ele- 
ments. As a rule, the general health is not affected, 
but, when the vice is practiced excessively, wool is 
swallowed in such quantity that digestion is dis- 
turbed, and there is loss of condition. The affection 
usually develops during the winter, when the sheep 
are confined and are being fed on dry feed, and 
disappears when they are turned out to pasture. 

Treatment. — Wool-eaters should be immediately 
separated from the flock, and there should be a 
change of feed, especially of the hay or roughage. 
The feeding of corn often has a good effect. A 
generous ration should be fed, and the following 
should be mixed with the ground feed, one tea- 
spoonful being allowed for each sheep in the flock : 
Powdered gentian 4 ounces, common salt 8 ounces, 
bicarbonate of soda 4 ounces, and sulfate of soda 4 
ounces. Some veterinarians have used with great 
success hypodermic injections of apomorphine, one 
and one-half grains daily for three successive days. 
Lambs usually begin the practice of the vice by 
gnawing the soiled "tags" of wool about the udders 
of the ewes, and for this reason trimming the 
udders has been recommended. 

Bloating. 

Bloating usually occurs when green corn, rape, 
clover and other succulent plants are eaten by sheep 
unaccustomed to them, or when these plants are 
consumed in unusual quantity ; the condition is 
especially liable to occur if the plants are wet 
from dew or rain. Drinking cold water in large 
amount immediately after eating, and frozen feed, 
are other causes. The digestive processes of the 
paunch are deranged and the material in this organ 
ferments, forming gas. The abdomen becomes 
swollen or bloated, especially on the left side, and 
emits a drum-like sound when struck with the 
fingers ; feeding and rumination ceases, there is 
dullness or depression, and breathing is difficult. 
Usually a number of sheep are affected, and prompt 
action is necessary to save them from suffocation. 

Treatment. — Relief can be afforded most quickly 
and certainly by letting the gas out of the paunch 
with a trocar and canula ; if one of these instru- 
ments is not available, a knife may be used, but 
the blade should be clean. Following the operation 
each sheep should receive a tablespoonful of baking 
soda dissolved in a half pint of warm water to 
check the fermentation. Driving the sheep into a 
stream will often cause the expulsion of the gas. 
After the acute symptoms have subsided, each ani- 
mal should receive the following dose : Sodium sul- 
fate 3 ounces, powdered Jamaica ginger 2 drams, 
tincture of nux vomica i dram, water 1 pint. 



wn^lP'ip *»* Mj 




Oxford Down ewes 
Romney Marsh ram 



Plate XXII. Breeds of long-wool sheep 

3. Border Leicester ram 5. Shropshire ewes 

4. Lincoln ram 6. Shropshire ram 



7. Hampshire ram 

8. Cotswold 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



609 



Bloating may also occur in choking. In such 
cases it will disappear with the removal of the 
obstruction in the gullet. 

Scaurs. 

The chief sign of this disease is a diarrhea, the 
foul-smelling discharges soiling the tail, hips and 
legs ; the appetite is lost ; the abdomen is dis- 
tended ; there is abdominal pain, which is mani- 
fested by restlessness and switching the tail ; 
gradually increasing weakness and emaciation fol- 
low. In sucklings, the condition results from faulty 
feeding or mismanagement of the ewe, or is due to 
a contagion that enters through the navel cord 
immediately after the lamb is dropped. In the lat- 
ter case, the lambing pens must be thoroughly 
cleaned and disinfected, and as soon as the lambs 
are dropped the stump of the navel cord must be 
washed with a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid 
and then painted with tincture of iodine. Over- 
feeding, sudden changes from dry to green feed, 
cold and damp quarters, are some of the causes of 
the condition in weanlings. In these cases, two 
teaspoonfuls of castor-oil containing two or three 
drops of creolin should be given at once, and fol- 
lowed with a tablespoonful of the following mix- 
ture three times daily : Paregoric 1 dram, sherry 
wine 3 drams, subnitrate of bismuth 2 drams, salol 
i dram, mucilage of acacia 5 ounces. Attention 
should also be given to the feeding, and clean, 
dry, sunny quarters provided. 

Grass staggers. 

Grass staggers is a term used to describe chronic 
catarrh of the stomach and intestines when it is 
associated with a staggering gait, restlessness, 
delirium, running into objects, drowsiness, or other 
symptoms of nervous derangement. The condition 
sometimes occurs when dry, woody, and innutri- 
tious feed is eaten in large amount with insufficient 
water ; when sudden changes of feed are made 
repeatedly ; and when rich concentrates are fed in 
excess, and the roughage or bulky feeds are insuf- 
ficient. Millet hay rich in seeds has also caused it. 
Usually, the disease develops slowly. At first, 
there is only diminished appetite and irregular 
rumination ; then, constipation, abdominal pain, 
grinding of the teeth, groaning, and fever, which 
is indicated by the dry, hot nose and staring eyes ; 
later, the nervous symptoms mentioned above may 
appear. The condition should not be confused with 
gid. 

Treatment. — Affected animals should receive the 
purge prescribed under "Overloading," and this 
should be followed with two tablespoonfuls of the 
following mixture in a half-pint of linseed tea 
twice daily : Aromatic spirits of ammonia 1J 
ounces, fluid extract of nux vomica § dram, alco- 
hol 2J ounces. When the appetite returns, easily 
digested feed should be given, with oil-meal. 

Garget. 

There are two diseases commonly known under 
this name. One is a simple inflammation of the 
udder, which results from increasing the - grain 



feed too rapidly after lambing, lying on cold 
ground, the bunting of the lamb, or from the milk 
not being removed, as may occur when a lamb 
dies. The udder, or a part of it, is swollen, hot and 
tense ; the milk contains clumps of pus or streaks 
of blood. The other disease is a malignant inflam- 
mation in which the udder is swollen but soft or 
doughy, and the skin is red or purple. In addition, 
the general health is affected ; the ewe is dull, 
stops eating, is feverish and loses flesh rapidly. 
Finally, the- affected part of the gland becomes 
gangrenous and sloughs off. This form is infec- 
tious. 

Treatment. — In the simple form of garget, five 
ounces of epsom salts, dissolved in a pint of water, 
should be given ; the udder should be bathed fre- 
quently with warm water and rubbed with cam- 
phorated oil and kept milked out clean. Treatment 
of the malignant form is very unsatisfactory, but 
much good can be accomplished by preventive 
measures in controlling the disease. Affected ani- 
mals must be isolated, and the places they have 
occupied cleaned and disinfected. When gangrene 
has set in, the affected part should be amputated. 
Injections of antiseptics into the udder are of no 
value. 

Literature. 

For references to literature on ailments of sheep, 
the reader should consult the publications cited on 
pages 124-146, 330, 446, 657. [Figs. 611-614 
adapted from publications of the Bureau of Ani- 
mal Industry, United States Department of Agri- 
culture.] 

Cheviot Sheep. Fig. 615. 

By David MeCrae. 

The Cheviot is one of the mountain breeds of 
Scotland, named after a range of grassy hills on 
the eastern borderland between England and Scot- 
land. It is noted both for wool- and for mutton- 
production. 

Description. 

The Cheviot is of medium size, hornless, face 
and legs white, the body closely covered with wool 
of a soft fiber akin to the Down wools ; but unlike 
the Downs, which are always likely to have more 
or less a gray tinge to the wool, the Cheviot gives 
a pure white wool. The head is bold and broad, 
and the fleece of snowy whiteness comes close up, 
forming almost a ruff about the face. The ribs 
are flatter than in either the Southdown or the 
Highland. It is a very active, hardy animal, with 
a bright eye and erect ears. Unfortunately it has 
a tendency to scatter rather than flock together. 

The following scale of points was adopted by 
the American Cheviot Sheep Breeders' Association : 

Scale op Points for Cheviot Sheep Perfect 

score 

1. Blood. — Pure-bred from one or more importa- 

tions from Scotland 15 

2. Constitution and Quality. — Indicated by the 

form of body ; deep and large in breast and. 



no 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



Scale of Points for Cheviot Sheep, 

continued Perfect 

score 
through the heart ; back wide and straight and 
well covered with lean meat ; wide and full in 
thigh ; deep in flank ; skin soft and pink in 
color ; prominent eyes ; healthful countenance. 
Deficiency of brisket or fish-back objectionable. 20 

3. Size. — In fair condition, when full-matured rams 

should weigh not less than 200 pounds, ewes, 
150 pounds (when bred in America. Imported 
stock, rams, 125 to 150 pounds, ewes, 100 to 
125) 10 

4. General Appearance. — Good carriage; head well 

up ; elastic movement ; showing symmetry of 
form and uniformity of character throughout . 10 

5. Body. — Well proportioned ; small bone ; great 

scale and length ; well-finished hind-quarters ; 
thick back and loins ; standing with legs well 
placed outside ; breast wide and prominent in 
front ; tail wide and well covered with wool . 10 

6. Head. — Long and broad, wide between the eyes ; 

ears of medium length and erect ; face white, 
but small black spots on head and ears not 
objectionable ; straight or Roman nose ; a 
white nose objectionable ; end of nose dark 
(but never smut nose on top with black or 
brownl; no tuft of wool on head 10 

7. Neck. — Medium in length ; thick and well placed 

on the shoulders 5 

8. Legs and feet. — Short legs, set well apart ; color 

white ; no wool on legs ; fore-legs round; hind- 
legs flat and straight ; hoofs black and well 
shaped 5 

9. Covering. — Body and belly well covered with 

fleece of medium length and good quality . . 10 
10. Quality of wool. — Medium ; such as is known 

in market as half combing wool 5 

Perfection 100 

History. 

The cheviot has been bred for a very long period 
on the Scottish borders. The monks of the middle 
ages had the breed about the pasture lands of the 
old monasteries ; and to the sheep-farming church- 
men of Teviotdale are we indebted for the first 
improvements in the breed. The monks of Melrose 
had large flocks, which were dispersed in the bor- 
der fields. It was not till about 1750 that the bor- 
der farmer gave much attention to the breed or 
accomplished anything in its improvement. 

In America. — Cheviots were taken to Canada 
early in the nineteenth century. In 1838, Robert 
Young, of Delhi, New York, made an importation, 
followed four years later by other importations to 
the same county. In 1845, they were imported 
into Wisconsin by T. J. Carmichael. Subsequent 
importations have been made, but the breed did 
not make much progress in America prior to 
1880. 

Distribution. 

In the Cheviot hills, the Cheviots are still the lead- 
ing breed. About the year 1800, Sir John Sinclair 
tried them in Caithness shire, in the extreme north 
of Scotland, and they have spread into Sutherland- 
shire, where they are bred in large numbers. They 



have done well in many parts of the United States, 
but not so well in Canada, where the close confine- 
ment of the winters is against their active habits. 
Wherever they can have outdoor exercise all the 
year round, they are at home. They are specially 
adapted for high, grassy tablelands. They are 
most numerous in central and eastern United 
States, but have become very widely scattered 
throughout the country. 



The Cheviot is remarkably hardy, and can live 
on very poor grazing; but, nevertheless, it must 
have grass of some kind, and with it needs little 
else. It yields a good class of well-marbled mut- 
ton, that is not too fat. It dresses a carcass of 
good weight. It bears traveling on foot for long 
distances better than other modern breeds, and is 



fjk i ■ \ 




Fig. 615. Cheviot ram. 

exceedingly hardy. The ewes are good, careful 
mothers, and highly prolific. The Cheviot cannot 
be said to be superior as a wool-producer, owing 
to the light fleece, which, however, is of good 
quality, medium length, and in demand. Accord- 
ing to Wallace, an average clip for ewes is four 
and one-half to five pounds of washed wool. The 
tendency of American breeding is to improved 
wool-production and more compact form. Cheviot 
ewes produce a good class of early maturing grade 
mutton sheep when crossed with Lincoln, Leicester 
or Oxford Down rams. These crosses have been 
popular in the native home of the breed for some 
years. 

Organizations -and records. 

The Cheviot Sheep Society of Great Britain was 
organized in 1891, and has published a volume of 
its flockbook for each year, Volume I having been 
issued in 1893. The American Cheviot Sheep 
Breeders' Association was organized in 1891, at 
Hartwick, New York, and two years later issued 
its first flockbook. In 1894, the National Cheviot 
Sheep Society was organized at Indianapolis, Indi- 
ana. Six years later, these two societies united to 
form the American Cheviot Sheep Society. The 
latter organization continues the publication of 
the flockbook. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 596. 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



611 



Cotswold Sheep. Fig. 616. 

By David McCrae. 

The Cotswold is a breed of sheep raised both for 
wool and for mutton. It is of large size, and capa- 
ble of enduring much hardship and exposure, and 
well adapted to many soils. The name is derived 
from a range of bleak uplands in Gloucestershire, 
England, known as Cotswold hills. 

Description. 

The Cotswold is a large, high-standing breed, 
with heavy fleece of long, white, lustrous wool. A 
mature ram should weigh 250 pounds or more, and 
a mature ewe 200 pounds at least. An ample top- 
knot, often covering the eyes, is one of the distin- 
guishing characteristics of the breed. It is uniform 
in type, with bold, upright carriage, broad back, 
and shows a fair leg of mutton. It is a superior 
feeder, specially well adapted to good pasture land, 
and fairly prolific. 

The following is the standard of excellence and 
scale of points adopted by the American Cotswold 
Sheep Association : 

Scale of Points for Cotswold Sheep 

For rams Perfect 

score 

1. Head. — Not too fine, moderately small, and broad 

between the eyes and nostrils, but without a 
short, thick appearance ; and in young animals 
well covered on crown with long lustrous wool. 8 

2. Face. — Either white or slightly mixed with gray 

or white dappled with brown 4 

3. Nostrils. — Wide and expanded ; nose dark . . 1 

4. Eyes. — Prominent, but mild looking 2 

5. Ears. — Broad, long, moderately thin, and cov- 

ered with short hair 4 

6. Collar. — Full from breast and shoulders, taper- 

ing gradually all the way to where the neck 
and head join. The neck should be short, thick 
and strong, indicating constitutional vigor, and 

free from coarse and loose skin 6 

• 7. Shoulders. — Broad and full, and at the same time 
join so gradually to the collar forward and 
chine backward as not to leave the least hol- 
low in either place 8 

8. Fore-legs. — The mutton on the arm and fore- 

thigh should come quite to the knee. Leg up- 
right, with heavy bone, being clear from 
superfluous skin, with wool to fetlock, and 
may be mixed with gray 4 

9. Breast. -Broad and well forward, keeping the 

legs wide apart. Girth or chest, full and deep. 10 

10. Fore-flank.— Quite full, not showing hollow be- 

hind the shoulder . . . . ■ 5 

11. Back and loin. — Broad, flat and straight, from 

which the ribs must spring with a fine circular 
arch 12 

12. Belly. — Straight on under-line 3 

13. Quarters. — Long and full, with mutton quite 

down to the hock 8 

14. Hock. — Should stand neither in nor out .... 2 

15. Twist, or junction inside the thighs, deep, wide 

and full, which, with a broad breast, will keep 

the legs open and upright 5 

18. Fleece. — The whole body should be covered with 

long lustrous wool 18 

Perfection 100 



Scale of Points for Cotswold sheep, continued. 

For ewes Perfect 

score 

1. Head. — Moderately fine, broad between the eyes 

and nostrils, but without a short, thick appear- 
ance, and well covered on crown with long lus- 
trous wool 8 

2. Face. — Either white or slightly mixed with gray, 

or white dappled with brown 4 

3. Nostrils. — Wide and expanded, nose dark ... 1 

4. Eyes. — Prominent, but mild looking 2 

5. Ears. — Broad, long, moderately thin and covered 

with short hair 4 

6. Collar. — Full from breast and shoulders, taper- 

ing gradually all the way to where the neck 
and head join. The neck should be fine and 
graceful, and free from coarse and loose skin. 5 

7. Shoulders. — Broad and full, and at the same 

time join so gradually to the collar forward 
and chine backward, as not to leave the least 
hollow in either place 8 

8. Fore-legs. — The mutton on the arm or fore-thigh 

should come quite to the knee. Leg upright 
with heavy bone, being clear from super- 
fluous skin, with wool to fetlock, and may be 
mixed with gray 4 

9. Breast. — Broad and well forward, keeping the 

legs wide apart, girth or chest full and deep . 10 

10. Fore-flank. — Quite full, not showing hollow be- 

hind the shoulder 4 

11. Back and loin. — Broad, flat and straight, from 

which the ribs must spring with a fine circular 
arch 12 

12. Belly. — Straight on under-line 5 

13. Quarters. — Long and full, with mutton quite 

down to the hock 8 

14. Hock. — Should stand neither in nor out ... . 2 

15. Twist, or junction inside the thighs, deep, wide 

and full, which, with a broad breast, will keep 
the legs open and upright 5 

16. Fleece. — The whole body should be covered wrfcn 

long lustrous wool 18 

Perfection 100 

History. 

The Cotswold is an old English breed, whose 
antiquity is undoubted. It is one of the earliest 
sheep mentioned by name in Anglo-Saxon records. 
In the time of the Roman conquests, the region 
from which these sheep came is said to have been 
famous for the production of wool. Low suggests 
that the Cotswold was developed from the sheep 
found in the counties of Warwick and Oxford at 
an early period. The modern Cotswold is not so 
large nor so high-standing as was the older breed, 
but has more style, being remarkable for symmetry, 
early maturity and weight, with a lofty carriage, 
a fine, well-covered head, and an abundant fleece of 
white, wavy wool. Much of this improvement is 
ascribed to the use of Leicester rams on Cotswold 
ewes, a practice very common about the beginning 
of the nineteenth century. 

The type of the breed has been well maintained 
by the English breeders, and the flocks of the vari- 
ous breeders now show a uniformity that is very 
desirable. Game of North Leach, Hugh Aylmer of 
Norfolk, Gillett of Chalsbury and Swanwick of 
Cirencester were notable breeders who had flocks 
of good type. 



612 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



In America. — We have a record of an importa- 
tion of Cotswold sheep by Christopher Dunn, of 
Albany, N. Y., in 1832. Doubtless there had been 
previous importations, for even at that date sheep 
of this type were rather common in New York. 
In 1834, Isaac Maynard took a small flock into 
Ohio. In 1837 they reached Kentucky, where they 
later became very popular. In 1840, Erastus Corn- 
ing, also of Albany, brought over a select lot; and 
W. H. Sotham made an importation of nineteen 
about the same time. In 1854, George Miller, of 
Markham, Canada, brought over thirty head, and 
these were shown at the Provincial Fair. In Que- 




Fig. 616. Cotswold ewe. 

bee Province, A. H. Torrance, of Montreal, and J. 
L. Gibb Compton had good flocks, from which they 
sold into Maine, Massachusetts and Vermont. Begin- 
ning about 1870, with the decreasing popularity of 
Merinos, the Cotswold experienced an increasing 
demand, and many flocks were established, espec- 
ially in central United States. 

Distribution. 

The Cotswold has become wide-spread in Amer- 
ica. The largest number of breeders are in Ontario, 
although there are many flocks in the other prov- 
inces of Canada. In New York, there are good 
flocks. Going westward, Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, 
Michigan, Iowa and Wisconsin stand in the order 
named for number of breeders, but all are ex- 
ceeded by Oregon, which has the largest number 
of any state in the Union. There are large flocks 
in Utah, and many half-breeds in Montana and 
other sections of the West. Kentucky at one time 
had large flocks, and the blood there is still in 
evidence, but they have not been kept on record. In 
England, the Cotswold is most popular in its native 
county of Gloucester and neighboring counties. It 
has been exported to Russia, Germany and France, 
on the continent, and to Australia and New Zealand, 
as well as to many parts of North America. 



The Cotswold is a fair mutton sheep, giving a 
big carcass of strong mutton, very popular in the 



mining districts of England. It has not been sc 
popular in America for mutton, except the lambs. 
The abundance of external fat is against it. In 
America it has been used for crossing on Merino 
and native sheep, the produce being a lamb of the 
mutton type, quick-feeding and hardy, weighing 
120 to 140 pounds at a year old and carrying fair 
fleece. For wool, the breed has always been cele- 
brated, giving a heavy fleece of strong combing 
wool, weighing sixteen to eighteen pounds per 
fleece in the best specimens. The staple should 
average ten inches in length, and frequently 
exceeds this. The half-bred lambs yield a large 
fleece, giving much profit to the wool-grower. 

Organizations and records. 

In 1878, the American Cotswold Sheep Associa- 
tion was formed to keep the record of the breed. 
Fourteen volumes of the record have been issued, 
with over forty thousand animals recorded. The 
list of breeders is steadily increasing. The pres- 
ent headquarters of the association are at Wau- 
kesha, Wis. The English representative of this 
breed is the Cotswold Sheep Society of Eng- 
land, organized in 1892. It also publishes a flock- 
book. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 596. 

Dorset-Horn Sheep. Fig. 617, 618. 

By H. P. Miller. 

The Dorset is an English breed that takes its 
name from the county in which it originated. It is 
a mutton breed, specially valuable for crossing to 
produce early lambs. It is characterized by grace- 
fully curving horns in both male and female. 

Description. 

In form and fleece the Dorset-Horn closely re- 
sembles the Down breeds, but in some features pre- 
sents strong contrasts. Its face and legs are pure 
white, and the modern American type has a flesh- 
colored nose. Both sexes have horns, the rams 
very heavy ones that have a forward spiral curve. 
In size these sheep are between the Southdown and 
the Shropshire, the standard weight for rams being 
about 200 pounds and for ewes, 160 pounds. They 
generally are taller than either of the above, but 
are not so uniform. In length, quality and quantity 
of fleece they are also between the above two breeds. 
Some of the breed early brought to America were 
excessively tall and inclined to be coarse. They 
were also quite bare of wool on legs and belly. The 
prevailing type at present approaches the Shropshire 
in form, although it is not so heavy in the breast 
and chest. It is now well covered over the body and 
legs to knees and hocks, and has a good foretop. 
There is still lack of uniformity, style and quantity 
of fleece. A somewhat common defect is a con- 
stricted heart-girth. The breed stands confinement 
well and is a good feeder. It is also prolific. [A 
general discussion of the mutton type is given on 
pages 51, 52.] 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



613 



The Continental Dorset Club adopted the follow- 
ing scale of points for scoring Dorset-Horn Sheep : 

Scale of Points for Dorset-Horn 

SHEEP Perfect 

score 

1. Head. — Neat, face white, nostrils large, well 

covered with wool on top and under jaws . . 5 

2. Horns. — Small and gracefully curving forward, 

rather close to jaw 5 

3. Eyes. — Prominent and bright 2 

4. Ears. — Medium size and covered with short white 

hair 2 

5. Neck. — Short, symmetrical, strongly set on shoul- 

ders, gradually tapering to junction with 
head ■ 5 

6. Shoulders. — Broad and full, joining neck and 

chine, with no depression at either point . . 15 

7. Brisket.— Wide and full, chest full and deep . . 8 

8. Fore-flank. — Full, showing little depression be- 

hind shoulder 8 

9. Back and loin. — Wide and straight ; ribs should 

spring with a fine circular arch 10 

10. Quarters. — Wide and full, with mutton extend- 

ing down to hock 10 

11. Belly. — Straight on under-line 3 

12. Fleece. — Medium grade, of even quality, extend- 

ing over belly and well down on legs, and pre- 
senting a smooth surface 12 

13. General conformation. — Of the mutton type, 

body moderately long; short, stout legs, placed 
squarely under body ; skin pink ; appearance 
attractive 15 

Perfection 100 

History. 

The Dorset is one of the oldest distinct breeds 
in England, no other race having been mingled 
with it originally, within the time of any records 
referring to it. It was first mentioned in 1707, 
when it was reported to have yeaned in December 
and again in June. The two counties of Dorset and 




and legs and a black nose. Both males and females 
bore horns. The stock of Somerset was larger, 
coarser, longer-wooled, with flesh-colored nose and 
better form. The Dorset seems never to have had 
a devotee with the genius of Bakewell or Ellman, 
and at one time came near losing its identity 




Somerset seem to have been the home of two races, 
differing somewhat, which became mingled in the 
present Dorset. The original stock of Dorsetshire 
was small, light in the shoulders, with white face 



Fig. 618. Dorset-Horn ewe. 

through admixture of the improved breeds of the 
day. Its ability to produce lambs earlier than any 
other breed seems to have saved it. 

The Dorset was first recognized at the leading 
English shows in 1862. It has been greatly im- 
proved since that date ; in fact, American breeders 
have greatly modified and unified the breed in the 
past quarter century. 

In America. — The introduction of Dorsets to 
America has been very recent. The first specimens 
were shown at the Chicago Fat Stock Show, in 
1885. That same year an importation was made 
into Canada. In 1887, A. Thayer, of Hoosic Falls, 
New York, and E. F. Bowditch, of Framingham, 
Mass., made importations. In 1889, T. S. Cooper, of 
Pennsylvania, imported 153 head. They have not as 
yet gained the popularity in America that other 
English breeds have, and have had only a limited 
trial on the ranges. 

Distribution. 

The principal flocks in America are to be found 
in New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Indiana, Pennsyl- 
vania, Virginia and Canada, although the sheep 
are found in other states. A few have been taken 
to Australia and elsewhere, but they have not the 
wide dissemination of the other English breeds. 
They are numerous in their native counties of 
Dorset and Somerset, in England, while very excel- 
lent flocks may be found on islands of Wight and 
Portland. 

Uses. 

The strong recommendation of the breed in 
America, as in England, is for the production of 
hothouse or winter lambs. It will breed earlier 
than any other of the English breeds, and the ewes, 
being heavy milkers, prepare their lambs for mar- 
ket in about ten weeks, so that they command a 
good price for mutton. Under high feeding they 



C14 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



will produce lambs twice a year in some climates, 
but it has never proved expedient to have them 
do so. It is doubtful whether they have superior 
merit as a general farm sheep, but for the produc- 
tion of early market lambs they are especially 
suited. Rams of the breed are very satisfactory 
for use on grade Merino ewes in the production of 
feeders. The ewes are also bred to Shropshire or 
Southdown rams to produce market lambs. The 
mutton, except that of fat lambs, is not superior. 

For wool-production the Dorset-Horn has rather 
a light fleece. The fleece is short, and still some- 
what scant under the body. Ewes average about 
six pounds and rams about seven pounds of wool of 
fair quality. The fleece probably has the least oil 
of any of the middle-wool breeds, and is less dense. 

Organizations and records. 

The American Dorset-Horn Sheep Breeders' Asso- 
ciation was organized in 1891, and the Continental 
Dorset Club in 1897. The former issued two vol- 
umes of its flockbook bound together, in 1894, and 
the latter issued its seventh volume in 1907. The 
Continental Dorset Club publishes a book on the 
breed entitled "The Winter Lamb." The Dorset- 
Horn Sheep Breeders' Society of England, organ- 
ized in 1891, has issued six volumes of its record. 

Literature. 

For references, see page 596. 

Hampshire Down Sheep. Figs. 133, 619, 620. 

By H. P. Miller. 

The Hampshire breed derives its name from the 
county of that name in the south of England, one 
of the counties in which it was developed. It is a 
mutton breed. 

Description. 

The Hampshire is a black-faced breed, larger than 
the Shropshire, and is ranked by some persons as 
the largest of the Down breeds, although that dis- 
tinction is generally accorded the Oxford. An 
average weight should be 250 pounds for mature 
rams, and 185 to 195 for mature ewes. 

It is the coarsest in bone and head of any of this 
group. Its fleece somewhat resembles that of the 
Southdown, although it is coarser and less dense. 
The breed ranks rather low in wool-production, the 
Suffolk only ranking lower. The wool is of about 
the same grade as that of the Shropshire, but shorter, 
and covering the body less completely. The face is 
inclined to be long, and the nose somewhat Roman 
in the rams. The ears are large and drooping, the 
face and legs are almost black, or a very dark 
brown. As compared with the Shropshire, it is 
somewhat longer in body and leg, and perhaps 10 
per cent heavier. The ewes are prolific and heavy 
milkers. They strongly compete with the Shrop- 
shire in the production of twins. [A general discus- 
sion of the mutton type is given on pages 51, 52.] 

The American Hampshire Down Sheep Breeders' 
Association adopted the following standard in 
1890 : Head moderately large but not coarse, and 



well covered with wool on forehead and cheeks ; 
nostrils wide ; color of head and legs, dark brown 
or black ; eyes prominent and lustrous ; ears mod- 
erately long and thin ; legs well under outside 
of body, straight, with good size of bone ; neck a 
regular taper from shoulders to head, without any 
hollow in front of shoulder, set high up on body ; 
shoulders sloping, full, and not higher than the line 
of the back and neck ; chest deep and full in the 
heart place, with breast prominent and full ; back 
straight with full spring of rib ; loin wide and 
straight without depression in front of hips ; quar- 
ters long from rumps to hips without sloping, and 
deep in thigh ; also broad in hips and rumps with 
full hams ; inside of thighs full. 

Scale op Points for Hampshire Sheep P« r f««t 

score 

1. Head. — Size and shape 5 

2. Eyes and ears 3 

3. Color 5 

4. Legs and feet 2 

5. Neck, shoulders and breast. — Neck ..... 5 

Shoulders 10 

Chest and breast 15 

6. Body. — Back and loins 15 

Ribs 5 

7. Hind-quarters. — Length 10 

Width 10 

Twist 5 

8. Wool. — Forehead and cheeks 2 

Belly well covered 3 

Quality 5 

Perfection 100 

History. 

The Hampshire Down sheep was produced by the 
use of the Southdown on the Wiltshire-horned and 
the Berkshire-knot sheep. The former was a white- 



*'/*> K , 



f' 




Fig. 619. Hampshire ram. 

faced race, and the latter black-faced. The Wilt- 
shire was considered the largest of the native 
breeds. Mr. William Humphrey, of Newbury, Hamp- 
shire, who is accredited as being the first and 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



615 



greatest improver of the breed, assembled, about 
1834, a flock of carefully selected ewes of what 
were then referred to in a general way as West- 
Country Downs, including the two above-mentioned 
local strains. He began his work of improvement 
by selection, but later became imbued with the idea 



w 
km 





§§yfe< 



Fig. 620. Hampshire ewe. 

that crossing would be advantageous, and in suc- 
cessive years purchased three Southdown rams from 
Jonas Webb. A little later, James Rawlence began 
improvement of what was known as the Sussex 
sheep. He used some Hampshire and West-Country 
Down blood. Later, the two flocks were coalesced 
to form the Hampshire Down breed. Hampshires 
were first accorded a class at the Royal Agricul- 
tural Society Show in 1857. 

In America. — Hampshire Down Sheep were impor- 
ted into America in 1855 by Thomas Messenger of 
Long Island. No further importations are recorded 
until 1881. In that year, Henry Metcalf, of Canan- 
daigua, New York, imported the ram, Shepherds' 
Pride 2. In 1883, the breed was introduced into 
Michigan, and in 1885 into Ohio. 

Distribution. 

This breed is now widely disseminated through- 
out the United States and Canada, especially in the 
eastern sections. It seems hardy and well adapted 
to American conditions, and is a good grazer. It 
has made its way throughout the southern counties 
of England, and into all the English colonies. Now 
it is found in many countries, among which, aside 
from North America, including Mexico, may be 
named Russia, Germany, Portugal, Hungary, South 
Africa, Australia, New Zealand and several parts 
of South America, notably Argentina and Uruguay. 

Uses. 

The claim of the breed to superiority is based on 
the rapidity with which the lambs grow. In Eng- 
land, the flocks are generally folded, and the lambs 
fed for rapid development. It is not unusual for a 
Hampshire lamb to gain a pound a day. The breed 
ranks very well for mutton-production, especially 
where early market lambs are wanted. In this 



country, Hampshire rams are especially prized for 
siring lambs to be marketed at three to five months 
of age. They are winning some favor oh the range, 
as sires for mating with Merino grade ewes. The 
lambs are said to be good rustlers. Pure-breds will 
doubtless prove profitable for the production of 
lambs to be marketed in the early spring or 
summer. But pure-bred flocks will be chiefly valu- 
able in America for the supply of rams for cross- 
breeding. 

As has been said, for wool-production the Hamp- 
shire Down is very mediocre. The fleece is light, 
short, and of rather inferior quality. 

Organizations and records. 

The Hampshire Down Sheep Breeders' Association 
was organized in England in 1889, and had published 
seventeen volumes of its flockbook up to 1907. The 
Hampshire Down Sheep Breeders' Association of 
America was also organized in 1889, and had issued 
nine volumes of its flockbook up to 1907. The 
number of registrations in each is large. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 596. 

Leicester Sheep. Fig. 621. 

By David McCrae. 

The Leicester (pronounced Les'ter) sheep are a 
long-wool mutton breed, developed largely in the 
county of Leicester in England. The land in this 
county is fertile and rolling, and well adapted for 
sheep-raising. 

Description. 

The Leicesters are a hornless breed of sheep, of 
large size, rectangular form of body on clean legs, 
and with bare faces or carrying a very scant 
topknot. 

The Leicester breeders have no authorized stand- 
ard of excellence or scale of points. The fact that 
there are two types in the breed, the English or 
Bakewell, and the Border Leicesters, and that these 
vary somewhat in form and details, has so far pre- 
vented the adoption of a uniform scale. Both types 
are recognized by all Leicester associations. The 
following scale of points, prepared by the writer, 
favors the Border type, and, while not authorized, 
has been carefully considered and approved by good 
judges of the breed. It is introduced here merely 
as a suggestion. 

Scale op Points for Leicester 

Sheep Perfect 

BCore 

1. Head. — Long, moderataly small, tapering towards 

the muzzle ; white and well covered with hair; 
lips and nostrils black 6 

2. Nose. — Somewhat narrow, almost straight in 

ewes and slightly Roman in rams 2 

3. Face. — Having a wedge-shaped appearance, well 

covered with fine white hairs 2 

4. Ears. — Thin, rather long, mobile and directed 

backward; a black speck on face and ears net 
uncommon 2 

5. Eyes. — Large and prominent ......... 4 



616 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



Scale op Points for Leicester Sheep, 

continued Perfect 

score 

6. Neck. — Strong and moderately short, level with 

the back and broad at its base where it leaves 
the chest, gradually tapei'ing toward the 
head, being fine where head and neck join ; 
neck straight from chest, showing a straight 
line from rump to poll 6 

7. Breast. — Deep, broad and full 8 

8. Shoulders. — Upright, wide across the top, giv- 

ing good thickness through the heart .... 6 

9. Chest.— Well filled behind the shoulder, with 

large girth 6 

10. Back. — Broad and well-fleshed ; ribs well sprung; 

loinswide; hips level; quarters straight and long 12 

11. Barrel round, well ribbed home ; straight lines 

above and below 10 

12. Legs of moderate length, fairly large and wide 

apart, with strong, flat bone, covered with 
white hair; brown hair or spots objectionable 6 

13. Flesh firm, springy pelt ; pink skin 8 

14. Fleece fine, uniform and sound in staple, curly, 

with good bright luster and no dark hairs or 
kemp ; belly well covered 10 

15. Carcass. — Rectangular, legs well set on, hocks 

straight, pasterns good, with neat feet ; good 
general appearance 12 

Perfection 100 

History. 

The Leicester sheep are named from the county of 
Leicester (Les'ter) in England, where the breed had 
its origin. Robert Bakewell of Dishley, near Lough- 
borough in Leicestershire, began his sheep-breed- 
ing efforts about 1755. His object was to produce 
a breed that would fatten quickly at an early age. 
Before this, bulk of body and weight of fleece had 





Fig. 621. Leicester ram. 

been the aim of breeders of long-wools. The com- 
mon sheep of the county at that time were large, 
heavy and coarse-wooled, white-faced, fiat-sided, 
with large bones and long, thick, rough legs. Mr. 
Bakewell would never tell how he got his flock up 
to the excellence which later distinguished it, nor 
yet the breeds he used, but it is thought that the 
basis was the old Teeswater breed, modified by 
selections from the local breeds of long-wools in the 
district. This Teeswater breed, from the valley of 
the river Tees in Yorkshire, was a tall, clumsy ani- 



mal, small in the bone, round in the rib, and with 
a thin fleece of long wool. It made good mutton, 
but was slow in maturing. Bakewell bred for mut- 
ton, with the least bone and the least waste, and 
for quick-feeding lambs. The breed was called the 
New Leicester or Dishley breed. Formed by care- 
ful selection and inbreeding, the new flocks had 
great prepotency, were sometimes delicate in con- 
stitution and shy breeders. Even now, after 150 
years, these features sometimes appear. 

The Dishley flock became famous. Mr. Bakewell 
decided to let his rams instead of selling them out- 
right. In 1760, he let three rams for $4 each, and 
two for $4.50 each. The next year his price was 
$5 each, and this continued with varying success, 
until in 1780 he reached $50 for his best. Then 
the demand increased rapidly. In 1785, the top price 
was $500. In 1789, he let three rams for $6,000, 
seven for $10,000, and the remainder of his flock 
for $15,000. His reputation was established, and the 
New Leicester became the most popular breed in 
England. It was much used for crossing with other 
breeds to produce quick-feeding lambs ; and this 
reputation still holds. 

In America. — Bakewell or Dishley sheep reached 
America in colonial days. It is said that George 
Washington had Bakewell ewes at Mount Vernon. 
Others were known in Pennsylvania and New 
Jersey. About the beginning of the nineteenth 
century, Mr. Toofy, of Quebec, made an importation. 
Later, about 1806, they were imported into Massa- 
chusetts. In the same year, Captain Beanes brought 
some rams and ewes from England, and placed 
them on a farm in New Jersey. The Beanes flock 
subsequently, in the hands of others, attained much 
notoriety. A number of importations were 
made later, and gradually the breed worked 
westward. 

In America, a type has been developed that 
differs somewhat from both the English Leices- 
ter and the Border Leicester, both of which 
types have been used in many of the flocks in 
Canada and the United States. Some owners 
assert that the modern American Leicester is 
a better sheep than either of the English 
types, and that this is the only English breed 
of sheep that has been improved in America. 
Certainly the modern American Leicester is a 
fine sheep, evenly developed, and when in good 
form is a beautiful animal. 

Distribution. 

The Leicesters are at home in the border 
counties of England and Scotland, and in other 
parts of Great Britain. While tried to some extent 
abroad, notably in part of Europe, New Zealand, 
Australia and America, they have not attained the 
reputation of the heavier-wooled breeds. In Amer- 
ica they are found mainly in Ontario and other 
Canadian provinces, and in Pennsylvania, Michigan 
Illinois, Iowa and Nebraska. 



The Dishley or Bakewell type became widely used 
in England, and has become known as the English 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



617 



Leicester. Because of its great prepotency and its 
quality of putting on fat quickly, it became popular 
as the greatest of all the mutton breeds for crossing 
purposes and for early market lambs. 

The Border Leicester is so named because it is 
bred in the border counties of England and Scot- 
land, Roxboroughshire in Scotland being now the 
headquarters of the breed. George Culley, of Den- 
ton, near Darlington in Durham, and his brother 
are looked on as the original breeders of the Border 
Leicester. The Culleys hired rams from Dishley 
and crossed them on a stock of Teeswater ewes till 
they had a flock of Leicesters. When they retired 
in 1806, their flock, through that of Compton of 
Learmouth, supplied a part of the Mertoun flock 
of Lord Polworth. This flock has been bred with 
the greatest care since 1802, and by judicious selec- 
tion and without outside blood has been made the 
premier flock of the breed. 

The Border breed has a white face, free from 
wool. The English Leicester may have a small tuft, 
and may be bluish white in color. At one time, 
blue faces were in fashion. The head and eye are 
important points in a quick-feeding animal. "Never 
pick a rascally head and a bad eye," no matter 
what the carcass may be, is the advice of a famous 
breeder. 



The Leicesters are used very much for crossing 
purposes, to get early lambs for the market. Hav- 
ing been bred more for mutton than for wool, the 
breed has so far not been so widely distributed in 
America as its good qualities deserve. Of late 
years, however, the market for fat lambs has 
become a feature, and there i3 now more demand 
for the Leicester for cross-breeding. For mutton 
alone, the breed is inferior. It is too large and too 
fat, unless killed young. The cross-bred mutton on 
Hampshires or Merinos is superior to the pure-bred. 
The Border Leicester-Cheviot cross has found much 
favor for the production of choice mutton for the 
British market. 

The wool of the Leicester is fine and long, and the 
fleeces will weigh nine to eleven pounds. Fine-wool 
rams on grade Leicester ewes produce a fine, com- 
pact fleece that is heavier than that of the Leicester 
pure-bred. 

For grazing, the Leicester is in no way supe- 
rior. It is not specially hardy, and cannot rustle 
sufficiently well to adapt it to much of the range 
lands. 

Organizations and records. 

The first organization devoted to the Leicester 
was the Dishley Society, which was formed to sus- 
tain the efforts of Bakewell. This society has been 
succeeded by the Leicester Sheep Breeders' Society. 
In England there is also the Society of Border 
Leicester Sheep Breeders. The American Leicester 
Breeders' Association has issued four volumes of 
its flockbook, since its organization in 1888. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 596. 



Lincoln Sheep. Fig. 622. 

By David McCrae. 

This breed is of large size, with a heavy fleece 
of long, wavy or curly wool and a moderate tuft 
of wool on the face. 

Description. 

For many years, the fleece has been made a 
leading feature of the Lincoln breed. The wool is 
long, somewhat lustrous and of a strong and sound 
combing quality. For length of fiber and strength 
of staple, no other breed but the Cotswold can 
rival the Lincoln. The color is white. The head is 
large, and without horns. The sheep gives the 
impression of massiveness. It is gentle, and a good 
feeder, maturing early. Its grazing qualities are 
fair. It cannot be said to be very prolific. 

Scale of Points fob Lincoln 

SHEEP Perfect 

score 

1. Constitution. — Body deep, back wide and straight, 

wide and full in the thigh ; bright large eyes ; 
skin soft and pink 25 

2. Size. — Matured rams not less than 250 pounds 

when in good condition ; ewes 200 pounds or 
over 10 

3. Appearance. — Good carriage and symmetry of 

form 10 

4. Body. — Well proportioned, good bone, good length; 

broad hind-quarters ; legs standing wide apart; 
breast wide and deep 15 

5. Head. — Covered with wool to the ears ; tuft on 

forehead ; eyes expressive, ears fair length, 
dotted or mottled in color 10 

6. Neck. — Medium length ; good muscle ; well set 

on body 5 

7. Legs. — Broad and set well apart, good shape ; 

color white, but some black spots do not dis- 
qualify ; wooled to the knees 10 

8. Fleece. — Of even length and quality over the body; 

not less than eight inches for one year's 
growth 10 

9. Quality of wool. — Rather fine, long wool, strong 

lustrous fiber ; no tendency to cot 5 

Perfection 100 

History. 

On the eastern coast of England lies the county 
of Lincoln, which contains a large tract of fen or 
marsh land, lying exposed to the North sea and 
very little above it. On this flat fen land has 
been bred a race of sheep which takes its name 
from the county, and which has made for itself a 
world-wide reputation. In olden times, the sheep 
raised on the fens of Lincolnshire were remarka- 
ble for large size and for length of wool. They 
had also large limbs, big hoofs, hollow flanks and 
flat sides. We know little about the origin of the 
old Lincoln breed. Ellis, who published his "Shep- 
herd's Guide " in 1749, is the first to mention them 
as an established breed in the fens of Lincoln. He 
says that they were " the longest legged and larg- 
est carcased sheep of all others ; and although 
their legs and bellies were for the most part void 
of wool, yet they carried more wool on them than 



618 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



any sheep whatsoever." The modern Lincoln is 
said to be the product of a Leicester cross on the 
old Lincoln. It is a fine representative of the long- 
wool sheep, and yields a very heavy fleece of comb- 
ing wool. 

In America. — Lincolns were first brought to 
New England about the close of the eighteenth 
century. In 1825, an importation was made to 
Massachusetts by A. A. Lawrence. In 1834, they 



>■»;¥ 







Fig. 622. Lincoln ram. 



reached Ohio. An importation was made to New 
York in 1836 by L. D. Clift. Since that time im- 
portations have been made to both Canada and the 
United States. The breed has not been popular in 
this country. 

Distribution. 

Lincoln sheep are still largely bred in their old 
home in Lincolnshire and neighboring counties in 
England. In Australia and New Zealand they are 
favorites for crossing purposes. They have also 
reached Russia and South Africa. In South America 
they are popular, and very high prices have been 
paid for export rams to go to Argentina. In North 
America they have not gained the same favor. 
There are a few good flocks in Canada, mainly in 
Ontario, and a few have been tried on western 
ranches with more or less success. 

Families. 

Mention should be made of two notable flocks. 
One of the leading flocks in England is that of 
Henry Budding, Riby Grove, Great Grimsby, Lin- 
colnshire. It is a very large flock and has been 
bred carefully for about one hundred and fifty 
years. Rams from this flock have sold for $5,000 
each. In 1907, forty-eight rams averaged $450. 
Another flock which has a notable record is that 
of I. E. Casswell, Laughton, Folkingham. 

Uses. 

The Lincoln is bred for wool, and its reputation 
has been made from the fleece. Lincolnshire has 
an area of about twenty-seven hundred square 
miles, and its annual wool clip exceeds nine million 
pounds of washed wool. For many centuries this 
wool has had a reputation for strong tough fiber, 
the fen wool especially having this marked tough- 



ness. It is said by many persons that the breed 
removed from its native fen land loses the tough, 
strong quality of fiber, no matter how good the 
pasture may be to which it is removed. Eighteen 
pounds of wool for mature rams, and fourteen to 
sixteen for mature ewes may be considered average 
yields. 

The Lincoln has been widely used, especially in 
New Zealand, for crossing on Merino stock to give 
a long combing wool. It impresses its long-wool 
qualities on its offspring. This cross is also much 
employed in Argentina and Australia, to produce 
large wool sheep, and incidentally mutton, for the 
English market. The pure-bred Lincoln is not pop- 
ular for mutton purposes, as it is too fat, and the 
mutton is of inferior quality. 

Organizations and records. 

The National Lincoln Sheep Breeders' Associa- 
tion of America, organized in 1891, looks after the 
interests of the breed in this country. It has 
published two flockbooks. In England there is the 
Lincoln Long-Wool Sheep Breeders' Association, 
organized in 1892. It issues a volume of its flock- 
book each year. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 596. 

Merino Sheep. Figs. 52, 53, 623-627. 

By Joseph E. Wing. 

Of the Merinos there are several families, all of 
which are characterized by the production of fine 
fleece. The name "Merino" comes from Spain and 
has been variously explained. 

Description. 

The distinguishing characteristic of the Merino 
is its covering, which is of very fine wool, usually 
delicately crimped. This wool is generally short, 
ranging from an inch or less to four inches, and 
sometimes to a greater length. It is dense, that is, 
there are a great number of wool fibers to the 
square inch of skin. A Merino will carry 40,000 to 
48,000 fibers to the square inch. Wool normally 
grows over the Merino to the tips of the ears and 
to the hoofs of the feet. In the Merino is seen the 
greatest development of wool in proportion to car- 
cass of any breed. In Spain, the best rams of the 
early days are reported to have yielded about 6 to 8 
per cent of their weight in wool, while in America, 
in about 1844, the yield had increased to 15 per 
cent. This, of course, is unwashed wool. The ap- 
pearance of the Merino is not very pleasing. The 
form, seen when shorn, is usually angular, the 
shoulders often narrow, the back not usually so 
straight or strong as in some English breeds, the 
legs l?ss straight and often of greater length, the 
neck more slender. The Merino ram usually has 
horns, giving the appearance of masculine vigor. 
The appearance of weakness in the Merino is hardly 
borne out by its behavior. It is very enduring and 
resistant, withstands storm and cold and starvation 





I 



It m 




SHEEP 



SHEEP 



619 



better than most sheep, and its vital force is very 
strong. [A description of the wool type of sheep, 
together with a score-card for judging, will be 
found on pages 52 and 53. Because of the mul- 
tiplicity of score-cards for Merinos, no one of 
which can be considered entirely representative, no 
other score -card for fine-wool sheep than that 
given on pages 52 and 53 will be introduced in 
this volume.] 

History. 

Merino sheep are native of Spain. The land is of 
variable topography, there being wide, dry plains, 
high, cool mountains and table-lands and well- 
watered valleys. 

As to the origin of the Merino, little is known. 
Professor Low says that the sheep of Spain came 
originally from Phoenicia and Carthage, introduced 
by the Carthaginians and the Moors, and from 
Italy. At the beginning of the Christian era, his- 
torians related that the sheep of Spain had a supe- 
rior fleece. When in the eighth century the Moors 
took possession of Spain, they introduced the manu- 
facture of fine fabrics, and the sheep of Spain fur- 
nished the wool. It seems probable that the devel- 
opment of the Merino as a bearer of fine wool was 
begun at a date prior to the beginning of the 
Christian era. 

Sheep in Spain have long been nomadic, spending 
the summers in the high lands and the winters on 
the low plains. The annual movement of these 
millions of sheep were notable events. In this con- 
nection it is interesting to note that the sheep 
were divided into two great groups as related to 
these drives. One group, known as Estantes, was 
stationary on the farms, and was composed of 
sheep of fairly large size, with wool somewhat 
coarser than that of the other type, less exposed, 
perhaps, to the rigors of climate. The second great 
group, known as Transhumantes, was made up of 
the migratory sheep that constituted the drives. 
These were subdivided into flocks or "squads" of 
manageable size for the movements. 

In America. — Successful importation of Merinos 
to America began in 1801, when Seth Adams 
brought a pair to Massachusetts. In the same 
year, M. Dupont de Nemours is said to have 
imported one Merino ram, which had considerable 
influence on certain flocks in New York and other 
eastern states. ' In 1807, Seth Adams removed to 
Ohio, taking with him his Merinos, now consider- 
ably increased. In 1802, Colonel David Humphrey 
imported from Spain to Connecticut ninety-three 
Merinos, chiefly ewes. The good quality of these 
early importations attracted considerable atten- 
tion among sheep-men, which resulted in increased 
importations. One of the most influential of these 
early importers was Robert Livingston, who made 
his first importation in 1802. By his writings and 
by his political influence he advanced the interest 
in Merinos very greatly. Another prominent 
importer was William Jarvis, of Vermont, then 
the United States consul at Lisbon. Mr. Jarvis 
sent to this country a total of about four thousand 
head, which were widely distributed through the 



East. All of these sheep were of superior breed- 
ing, and included representatives from the fami- 
lies of Paular, Escurial, Aguirre, Negrette, and 
Montarcos. From this time for many years Meri- 
nos were on the crest of popularity, and prices 
ruled very high. Plumb states that "it is esti- 
mated that from April 1, 1810, to August 31, 
1811, there were brought to the United States 
19,651 Merino sheep." Most of the sheep imported 
from Spain were of the great migratory group. 

Merinos in America are now grouped in three 
great families, designated as the American Merino, 
the Delaine and the Rambouillet. 

Distribution. 

The Merino has become very wide-spread, and is 
now found in all civilized countries where flocks 
are kept, although it cannot be said to be univer- 
sally popular or successful. It originated in a 
warm climate. It has shown ability to withstand 
hot weather and tropical climates, so long as they 
are dry. By far the greater part of the sheep of 
Australia are Merinos. It has also been important 
in New Zealand and Argentina. The Merino thrives 
in Vermont, New York, Ohio, and other north- 
central states, in Texas and all the states of the 
West, where it constitutes by far the majority of 
the range flocks. It has never been popular in 
Canada, and is not raised in England. 

Families. 

The principal families represented in the Ameri- 
can importations, and hence the progenitors of our 
modern American Merinos, were as follows : 

Paular Merinos. — The Paulars were owned by the 
Carthusian friars of Paular. These friars had one 
of the handsomest flocks in Spain, with soft, silky, 
close and compact wool, carrying less surface yolk 
than some other types. The Paular lambs were 
hairy at birth. The Paular subtype of the Ameri- 
can Merino is a well-established strain. 

Aguirre Merinos. — These were very well-covered 
sheep, with much wool about the face, and a 
dense, much crimped fleece. The sheep had round, 
broad bodies, short legs, and much loose skin in 
folds and wrinkles. 

Atwood Merinos. — The famed Atwood family of 
Merinos, so popular the latter half of the past cen- 
tury, was formed by mating Infantados with Pau- 
lars, which much improved the type of sheep and 
the fleece. They were characterized by many folds. 

The Escurial Merinos were nearly as tall as the 
Paulars but were slighter in build. Their wool was 
crimped and not so thick as the Paular wool. 

Guadalupe Merinos. — These were heavier in 
bone than the Negrettes and were celebrated for 
both the quality and the quantity of their wool. 
Their fleeces were thick and crimped, and more oil} 
than the Negrettes. 

Negrette Merinos. — The Negrette Merinos were 
the largest and strongest of the traveling sheep 
of Spain. The fleeces were shorter than those of 
the Paulars. They were wooled on the face and to 
the hoofs. They were all loose skinned, with heavy 
dewlaps, and the rams carried large horns. 



620 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



Infantado Merinos were bred by the Duke of 
Infantado and were very superior sheep. Their 
horns came close to the sides of their heads, while 
those of the Paulars and Negrettes stood out. 
Many Inf antados were brought to America, notably 
by Colonel Humphrey. 

In this connection, mention should be made of 
some of the families of Merinos that have been 
built up in European countries on foundation stock 
imported from Spain. Notable among these fami- 
lies are the Saxon, Silesian or German, Australian, 
French (Rambouillet) and Swedish. 

Saxon Merino. — From the Escurial flocks of 
Spain, about three hundred Merinos were sent, in 
1765, to Saxony. These were naturally among the 
finest wooled of Merinos, and in their new home 




Fig. 623. Americas Merino ram. 

more attention was paid to this quality ; so much 
attention, in fact, that the sheep themselves lost 
stamina and hardiness and became very delicate 
and hard to raise. The wool of these sheep, how- 
ever, is of extraordinary fineness and beauty. 
They yield about two to three pounds of washed 
wool per head. There are not many breeders of 
pure Saxon sheep in America, although they have 
been bred to some extent in western Pennsylvania 
and Virginia. This family is now almost extinct. 
Silesian, or German Merino. — This breed was 
established in Silesia by an importation of Infan- 
tado and Negrette Merinos in 1811, although 
importations had been made earlier with some suc- 
cess, notably those of Von Vinke in 1768 and 1778. 
Since that day they have been bred pure, princi- 
pally on the estate of Ferdinand Fishcher of Wir- 
chenblatt. For many years a careful record of 
each sheep has been kept on this estate. Silesian 
ewes shear eight to eleven pounds of unwashed 
wool, the rams twelve to sixteen pounds. The 
wool is two to three inches long, dark on the out- 
side, not gummy, but with a white, clear oil. The 
ewes weigh 110 to 130 pounds and the rams 145 
to 155 pounds. There have been many Silesians 
imported into America. Mr. Wm. Chamberlin, of 
New York, imported 246 head between 1851 and 



1856. It is probable that at this day most Sile- 
sians in America have become merged with one or 
the other of the larger Merino families. 

Australian Merino. — As has been said, the Me- 
rino is the leading sheep in Australia, which places 
Australia at the head of the list of Merino sheep- 
producing countries. Taken to New South AVales 
in 1797, the sheep found the hot, dry ranges well 
suited to their needs, and to the production of a 
high grade of wool. 

The wool. 

Merino wool is most esteemed when it is fine. 
The diameter of a fiber of Merino wool varies from 
two - to two" of an inch, while the fibers of the 
English breeds vary from ^ij of an inch for an 
Oxford Down, to ^ij of an inch for a 
Southdown. It should also have a short 
crimp throughout its entire length, and 
should be strong, silky and well supplied 
with white oil. This oil protects the wool 
fibers, but at the outer ends it collects 
dust and gives the coat a dark and unin- 
viting appearance, which is dispelled when 
the wool is opened and the beautiful white 
and glistening interior is viewed. 

The density of the wool is an essential 
factor, since on that depends the weight of 
the scoured fleece. Sufficient oil to protect 
the fleece is essential, but a surplus of 
grease is unnecessary, and in recent years 
has been recognized as undesirable. Dur- 
ing the so-called Merino craze that existed 
in America soon after the Civil war, the 
aim was to get as heavy a fleece as possi- 
ble, and many breeders unwisely sought to 
attain this result by breeding sheep with 
very greasy wool. It was learned, how- 
ever, that this only enfeebled the sheep without 
bringing any sufficient compensation, and in recent 
years breeders have sought to produce animals 
bearing only sufficient oil to well protect the 
fleece. 

The amount of oil carried by Merino fleeces 
varies with the different families, the American or 
Spanish types having most and the Rambouillet 
perhaps the least oil. Merino fleeces have been 
grown so heavy with oil that they scoured out no 
more than 12 per cent of clean wool ; others have 
made 40 per cent. Perhaps an average yield of 
clean wool would be about 30 per cent of the 
weight of the fleece as shorn. A good ewe should 
shear fifteen pounds and a ram twenty to twenty- 
four pounds of wool. Individual records may far 
exceed this. 

Uses. 

Merino sheep are kept primarily for their wool. 
It is true that, after they have served their time 
for this purpose, they are commonly fattened and 
made into mutton, yet the fleece is usually the first 
consideration with the Merino flockmaster. Much 
attention is paid to the quantity and quality of 
wool borne by these sheep. In some families of 
Merinos, the body surface is increased by folds 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



621 



or wrinkles on the skin, which increase the wool- 
bearing surface. These folds are especially pro- 
nounced about the neck, and sometimes make huge 
"collars." 

American Merino Sheep. Figs. 623, 624. 

The American Merino was developed from the 
Spanish Merino, the blood of several different 
families having been interbred. In recent years, the 
Delaine and Rambouillet types of Merinos have 
become more popular in America than the American 
Merino, owing to their better form and ability to 
fatten, and the high prices prevailing for mutton. 

Description. 

The head of a typical American Merino is small, 
broad and short, the rams carrying heavy, spirally- 
twisted horns, and the ewes being hornless. The 
form of the American Merino is somewhat delicate. 
The skin is of the most attractive pink. The pre- 
vailing fashion is to have three to five heavy folds 
on the neck, large on the under side, but not on 
the upper side ; two or three short folds on and 
immediately back of each elbow or arm ; fine, thick 
wrinkles running down the sides, but not extending 
over the back. Wrinkles may also be found across 
the hips, sometimes from the tail in the direction 
of the stifle and sometimes at right angles with 
them. Folds may occur around the tail to give it 
a wide appearance, and also across the thigh, with 
a deep flank. The fleece covers the entire sheep, 
except the tip of the nose and the hoofs. Usually 
the eyes are hidden by wool. The outside of the 
fleece is a dirty brown, but inside it is white and 
glistening. The one-year-old fleece will show a 
length of about two and one-half inches. The size 
of the American Merino varies much. Ewes may 
weigh 80 or 100 pounds, rams 100 or 175 pounds. 

The American Merino does not reach maturity 
until between three and four years of age, and in 
this respect ranks below other breeds. It is charac- 
terized, however, by longevity. 

Distribution. 

In America, the American Merino is widely scat- 
tered, and does well under very diverse conditions. 
It is hardy and active, and can glean a living under 
unfavorable conditions. It has been largely exported 
to Australia and Africa. In Australia, Merinos are 
bred pure. In New Zealand, they are largely inter- 
mixed with sheep of mutton type. 



For wool. — American Merinos surpass all others 
in the production of fine, strong and heavy fleece. 
Mature ewes frequently shear twelve to fifteen 
pounds, and rams should attain to twenty pounds. 
Plumb, quoting from a Vermont report, says that 
in 1812, the best rams in Vermont produced but 6 
per cent of wool to weight of body. In 1844, the 
wool had increased to 15 per cent, in 1865 to 21 
per cent and in 1880 to 36 per cent, showing a 
very notable increase in the production of wool. 
Unfortunately we do not know what the increase in 
per cent of scoured wool has been. 



For mutton. — The American Merino does not 
usually fatten so readily as other types of the 
Merino ; and when compared with the mutton 
breeds it is inferior. 

For crossing. — In the West, the American Merino 
was largely instrumental in transforming the 
coarse and thin-wooled Mexican ewe into one of far 
better and heavier fleece, with also better form and 
increased hardiness. The American Merino has 
been much used for crossing in this country and 
others, and the result is invariably an improvement 



^iS^risfei 




Fig. 624. American Merino ewe. 



in wool-production in the grade over its other 
parent. Merino ewes are crossed with various of 
the middle -wool breeds to produce a good market 
mutton sheep, yielding a somewhat smaller clip of 
wool. 

Organizations and records. 

The Merino has suffered from an over-abundance 
of distinct organizations devoted to its interests, 
and the absence of one centralized and direct- 
ing body. It was not until 1906 that any suc- 
cess was attained toward the formation of such a 
national society. In that year, the American and 
Delaine Merino Record Association was formed, by 
the union of the International Delaine, Standard 
Delaine, and Improved Spanish Delaine Merino 
Sheep Breeders' Associations. Among nearly a score 
of associations giving attention to Merino sheep 
may be mentioned the following, which are con- 
cerned especially with the American Merino : The 
Vermont Merino Sheep Breeders' Association, United 
States Merino Sheep Breeders' Association, Ameri- 
can Merino Sheep Register Association, Ohio Span- 
ish Merino Sheep Breeders' Association, New York 
State American Merino Sheep Breeders' Association, 
Michigan Merino Sheep Breeders' Association, Mis- 
souri Merino Sheep Breeders' Association, National 
Merino Sheep Register Association, Standard Ameri- 
can Merino Sheep Breeders' Association. Many of 
these associations issue flockbooks, and employ a 
score-card for judging purposes. 



622 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



Delaine Merino Sheep. Figs. 52, 625. 

The word Delaine means " of wool," and is from 
the French. Delaine wool can be combed and spun 
with the fibers of full length, making a fabric of 
great strength and durability. The Delaine type, 
of several families, has been developed from impor- 
tations of Spanish Merinos, by selections from 
several different flocks as noted in the following 
paragraphs. 

Description. 

Delaine sheep have smoother bodies than the 
American Merinos, with fewer folds and wrinkles, 
sometimes with none. They vary considerably in 
type, according to the individual ideals of their 








Fig. 625. Delaine Merino ram. 

many breeders. They are larger and heavier 
than American Merinos and fatten more readily. 
The weight of matured rams may be given as 140 
to 200 pounds, and of ewes as 100 to 150 pounds. 
Their breeders have striven to combine mutton 
qualities, to some extent, with the production 
of a fine fleece. The breeders avail themselves 
rather freely of whatever Merino blood they 
fancy will improve their type. Thus, when the 
flock is losing in weight of fleece, they sometimes 
resort to the use of American Merino rams to 
thicken the fleece and make it heavier, or to Ram- 
bouillet rams to increase the size. The important 
item sought is to keep good size and mutton quality, 
while furnishing fleece of good length and staple, 
grading XX or better. 

Distribution. 

Among breeds of Merinos, the Delaine is growing 
in popularity. It is found in New York, Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio, Michigan, Iowa, and in adjoining 
states. For use on the ranges, the Delaines are 
finding increasing favor, especially where the pas- 
turage is good. The Black -top Spanish Merino 
is especially numerous in parts of Pennsylvania 
where it was developed. They are less hardy than 
the American Merino. 

Fam Hies. 

The Dickinson Delaines were developed from 
sheep of the Humphrey importation of 1802, men- 



tioned above, by William R. Dickinson of Ohio, who 
began his improvement of Merino sheep in 1809. 
James McDowell became possessed of some of the 
Dickinson flock and created the McDowell strain of 
Dickinsons. The standard of excellence for Dick- 
inson Delaines says that the sheep shall have a 
deep, round, wide and long body, showing mutton 
capacity, carrying heavy, thick flesh, the top- and 
under-lines straight, the skin smooth and pink and 
well filled out, being free from folds. The head may 
have small horns, but a polled head is preferred. 
The fleece should be three to five inches long, of a 
quality to grade XX or XXX fine Delaine combing. 
Rams should shear fifteen to twenty-five pounds 
and ewes ten to fifteen pounds of unwashed wool. 
Mature rams should weigh 200 pounds, and mature 
ewes 150 pounds. 

The National Delaines are descended from an 
importation of Merinos, made by R. W. Meade, in 
1820. Mr. Alex. Reed, of Washington county, Pa., 
came into possession of a number of this importa- 
tion the year following, and his flock may be con- 
sidered the foundation of the Delaine type. Many 
of the Reed flock were sold to other breeders in 
Pennsylvania and West Virginia, who developed 
the type, perhaps more than Mr. Reed had done. 
This type is not very different from the Dickinson. 
It has the smooth body, characteristic of the 
Delaine, almost free from folds. It does not seem 
to be desirable to dispense with the folds altogether, 
as they appear to be associated with density and 
weight of wool. This family does not attain so 
large size as the Dickinson, running perhaps fifty 
pounds less for both male and female. The staple 
should reach three inches in a year, and the fleece 
should weigh up to nine pounds and be compara- 
tively free from oil. 

The Yictor-Beall strain of this family is the 
result of a cross of Spanish and Black-top Merino 
blood. About 1877, a Spanish ram, named Victor, 
was used in the flock of Black-top Merinos owned 
by R. H. Russell. Fifteen years before, a ram of 
Spanish and Black-top blood, purchased from the 
flock of C. H. Beall, of West Virginia, had been 
used on some of the Reed flock, then in the hands 
of McClelland Bros. The offspring of the descend- 
ants of these two rams were very superior, and the 
strain came to be known as Victor-Beall Delaine 
Merino. 

The Black-top Spanish Merino. — In 1821, Wil- 
liam Berry, of Washington county, Pa., purchased 
some ewes and a ram of Mr. Dickinson, which he 
bred very carefully. He was impressed that the 
sheep having the darkest appearance or "top" were 
the hardiest and best feeders. By selecting along 
these lines, he developed a family that he called 
Black-top. It differs in no material way from the 
other families, the size being perhaps a little 
greater and the fleece a little heavier. The wool is 
not so much laid on over the head and has a darker 
appearance on the outside. The staple should reach 
a length of three to four inches, and the rams 
should yield thirteen to fourteen pounds, the ewes 
seven to twelve pounds of brook-washed wool. 
Black-top rams are horned, while the ewes have 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



623 



smooth heads. The form in general is of the 
mutton type. 

The Improved Black-top Merino also had its origin 
in Washington county, Pennsylvania, in the hands 
of George Black. Beginning about 1853, and con- 
tinuing for many years, Robert Johnston, also of 
Washington county, used only Black-top rams on 
his ewes, many of his rams coming from the Berry 
flock. His ewes traced to the Dickinson flock. In 
1850, Mr. Black came into possession of twenty- 
five Black-top ewes, that traced to the Dickinson 
flock. On these he used rams of Berry and Johns- 
ton breeding, and from this foundation developed 
the Improved Black-top Delaine, the word "im- 
proved " being used because the advocates consid- 
ered this family superior to the Black-top Spanish. 

Uses. 

For wool. — The Delaine Merinos bear wool a 
little longer and coarser in fiber than the American 
Merinos, with a little less crimp and less oil, and 
with stronger fibers well adapted to carding. The 
fleece in a well-kept matured ram should average 
twelve to eighteen pounds and in the matured ewe 
about nine to fifteen pounds. 

For mutton. — Much may be said in praise of the 
quality of Delaine mutton. It easily leads in the 
Merino families. The wethers mature rather 
quickly, and sell at a good price. 

For crossing. — The Delaine Merino has been used 
to good advantage in crossing to produce better 
shearing qualities without detriment to the mutton 
qualities. This result has frequently been secured 
on the western ranges. 

Organizations and records. 

At present, the most representative organization 
caring 



Sheep Breeders' Association, established in 1882, in 
Pennsylvania, a large number of societies have 
been formed, of restricted membership and more or 
less restricted influence. Several of these have 
published flockbooks, and have established score- 
cards for judging purposes. 




interests 



is the 




Fig. 626. RambouiUet ram. 



American Delaine Merino Record Association, men- 
tioned under the American Merino. Starting with 
the organization of the Victor-Beall Delaine Merino 



is 

Fig. 627. RambouiUet ewe. 

Rambouillet or French Merino Sheep. Figs. 

626, 627. 

The Rambouillet is a very large type of Merino, 
developed in France from Spanish Merino stock, 
and taking its name from the Royal farm at the 
village of Rambouillet, near Paris. 

Description. 

The most striking difference between the Ram- 
bouillet and the American Merino is in size. Rams 
at maturity will average in weight 175 to 185 
pounds, and ewes should average 140 to 160 
pounds. Individuals, both male and female, 
may go as much as a hundred pounds heav- 
ier. This large body, usually smooth and free 
from wrinkles, except perhaps, one or two 
folds on the neck, is completely covered 
with a fine white fleece, not bearing too 
much oil. The fleece should be dense, and 
the staple about three inches in length. The 
head is larger in proportion than in the 
American Merino, the nose strongly aquiline 
and covered with fine, white hair or short, 
fine wool. The rams usually have large, 
spirally curved horns, although horns may 
be entirely lacking. The ewes are hornless. 
Sometimes the observer is impressed by the 
length of leg. The Rambouillet is also char- 
acterized by hardiness, early maturity, 
longevity and prolificacy. 

History. 

The first importation of sheep from Spain 
to the Royal farm at the village of Ram- 
bouillet was in 1786. Other importations were 
made at later dates. The improvement was secured 
principally by selection, the object being to pro- 
duce a large carcass, of good mutton form, covered 



624 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 






with a good fleece. Much success was attained in 
point of size, although the fleece did not increase 
in the same ratio. The French government officials 
kept careful records of their breeding operations at 
Rambouillet for upwards of a hundred years. Be- 
sides the flock at Rambouillet, other flocks were 
established in France, and from these important 
breeding farms in Germany were stocked. 

In America. — Rambouillets were first brought to 
America in 1840, under the name of French Meri- 
nos. Many were imported during the fifteen years 
following, and the breed had rather wide-spread 
popularity. Between the years 1856 and 1860, a 
number of Rambouillets, bred by Mr. John D. 
Patterson, of New York, and descended from an 
importation of his own, were taken to California 
and became the progenitors of several very noted 
flocks now existing in that state. In 1851, a com- 
pany of Ohio breeders, headed by A. P. Howard, 
made an importation. 

At first, Rambouillets were welcomed, but later 
they went into disfavor, owing principally to an 
alleged lack of hardiness. The truth is, perhaps, 
that the Rambouillets, being larger than American 
Merinos, require more food, which was not always 
given them. About 1890, a revival of interest in 
the breed occurred, and since then it has greatly 
increased in distribution and in esteem. The later 
breeders have not found Rambouillet, to lack in 
hardiness. Much blood from the German flock of 
Baron F. Von Homeyer has been mingled with the 
bloods of France, and numerous importations from 
each country have been made. The Franco-Meri- 
nos represent the blood of the Rambouillet and the 
American Merino. 

Distribution. 

The demand for these sheep has been wide, especi- 
ally for the purpose of improving wool-production 
by crossing on other breeds. Aside from those 
brought to North America, importations have been 
made into many parts of Europe, notably Germany, 
and to Australia, New Zealand, and Argentina in 
South America. In America, the Rambouillet is 
widely distributed, especially in the middle states 
and in Utah, Washington and down through 
California. 

Uses 

For wool. — As a wool-producer, the Rambouillet 
ranks below the other Merinos in percentage of 
fleece to body weight, and in fineness and the 
amount of oil and crimp, although it ranks well 
when compared with other breeds of sheep. The 
average yield of fleece is about fifteen pounds for 
rams and ten pounds for ewes. 

For mutton. — The Rambouillet fattens well, 
although not equaling the English breeds in this 
respect, and produces a fair quality of mutton. 
Rambouillets on the ranges have great popularity, 
owing to their large size, hardiness and the ability 
of the ewes to hold their wool well with advanced 
age. Rambouillet ewes are prolific and good mothers, 
and their lambs are usually hardy and strong at 
birth, and come on fast. 



For cross-breeding, the Rambouillet is in great 
favor. Crossed with sheep of any of the mutton 
breeds it nicks well, making a very fine lamb, large, 
quick to fatten, and having a good, heavy fleece of 
excellent wool. It is also used very successfully on 
American Merinos to produce a smoother lamb of 
greater size and hardiness. 

Organizations and records. 

In 1889, the American Rambouillet Sheep Breed- 
ers' Association was organized at Pontiac, Michigan. 
It issues a flockbook. In 1901, the advocates of the 
sheep imported from the Von Homeyer flock organ- 
ized the Von Homeyer Association of Rambouillet 
Sheep. The Franco- American Merino Association 
was organized in 1900. Neither of the latter two 
associations at any time has been very strong or 
has had much influence on the development of the 
breed. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 596. 

Oxford Down Sheep. Figs. 628, 629. 

By H. P. Miller. 

The name Oxford as applied to sheep is derived 
from the county of Oxford, England, where the 
breed was developed. The Oxford Down is a typical 
mutton breed of sheep. 

Description. 

The Oxford is the largest of the Down breeds. 
It stands very much higher than the Shropshire 
and is more rangy. It is more nearly straight on 
the under-line. It has longer and coarser fleece 
than any other of the group. Being a cross-bred 
sheep of rather recent origin, the type is not so 



£i^M&- '': 




, ,„-•• . • \ 




.■iteiwj'te" 




Fig. 628. Oxford Down ram. 

well established as with the other Down breeds. 
Some specimens are coarse and rather open in 
fleece, and others finer and more compact. From 
the Hampshire line of ancestry, it inherits a tend- 
ency to dark or bluish skin, and black spots and 
hairs in the fleece, which are very objectionable. 
However, it is being rapidly improved in these 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



625 



particulars. The Oxford Down has a very stately 
appearance and is a very attractive sheep. The 
color of face and legs is a darker brown than that 
of the Shropshire, but it is often flecked with gray, 
which may even predominate on the nose. 

The ewes are very prolific, probably more so 
than any other breed, even triplets being not 
uncommon. They are heavy milkers. The lambs 
grow very rapidly and are of good form, and the 
ewes yield large fleeces. The one shortcoming of 
the breed is that it does not seem hardy under 
American climatic conditions. It succumbs easily 
to invasions of internal parasites and to pulmonary 
disorders. [A general discussion of the mutton 
type is given on pages 51, 52.] 

The American Oxford Down Record Association 
adopted the following scale of points : 

Scale of Points for Oxford Down 

Sheep Perfect 

score 

1. Form. — Of a good general appearance, made by 

a well-balanced conformation, free from 
coarseness in any part and showing good style 
at rest and in motion 15 

2. Head. — Of moderate length and width between 

the ears and between the eyes, and well cov- 
ered with wool over the poll and down to the 
eyes. Color of face an even dark gray or 
brown, with or without gray spot on nose . . 6 

3. Weight. — When fully matured and in good con- 

dition, rams should weigh 250 to 350 pounds, 
ewes 180 to 275 5 

4. Ears. — Medium size, not too thick and of an even 

brown or dark gray color 2 

5. Legs. — Short, strong in bone, flat and even brown 

or dark gray color, placed squarely under body 
and well apart 2 

6. Girth. — Large around the heart and wide and 

full in chest 10 

7. The movement must be bold and vigorous ... 5 

8. Eyes. — Bold, prominent and bright 4 

9. Skin. — Bright pink in color 3 

10. Neck. — Strong and muscular in rams and well 

set on in both sexes 3 

11. Back. — Wide and straight on top of shoulders 

and back, loin and rump, from base of neck 
to tail 15 

12. Full shoulders and thighs, well meated inside 

and out 5 

13. Flanks. — Well filled and strong, so as to make 

the lower line of the body as straight as possi- 
ble, and side lines straight or rather full . . 4 

14. The whole carcass evenly covered with good, 

well-marbled meat 6 

15. Fleece. — Of moderate length, close and of even 

quality, covering the whole carcass well, and 
free from black patches on the body, neck or 
head 15 

Perfection 100 

History. 

About 1829, John T. Twynham conceived the 
idea of developing a new breed of sheep combining 
the good qualities of the long-wools and the Down 
breeds, by mating the most compact Cotswold 
rams obtainable with his Hampshire ewes. A few 
years later, Samuel Druce and Wm. Gillett began 
a similar system of crossing, although introducing 

C40 



Southdown blood to some extent. The Hampshire, 
however, was the chief source of Down blood used 
in the new breed. The cross soon became popular, 
and several other persons undertook the same line 
of breeding or used the cross-bred rams so that 
there was no necessity for in-and-inbreeding ; and 
it do?s not appear to have been employed to the 
extent that it was in the case of the Southdown. 
There is no definite record as to how long the 










Fig. 629. Oxford Down ewe. 

cross-breeding was continued, but, in 1853, Mr. 
Druce wrote that he had no difficulty in keeping 
the form and size of the animal as it should be, 
and the wool of a desirable quality and not defi- 
cient in quantity. Up to 1857, however, it was 
known as Down-Cotswold, but in that year the 
name " Oxfordshire Down" was adopted. A little 
later it was changed to Oxford Down, and these 
sheep are now generally referred to as Oxfords. 
They were first exhibited at the Royal Agricul- 
tural Society Show in 1851, but a separate class 
was not granted them until 1862. That may be 
taken as the date when they became a recognized 
breed with a fixed type. 

In America. — This breed had gained enough 
recognition by 1846, so that it was in that year 
imported to America by Clayton Reybold, of Dela- 
ware. In 1853, small flocks were brought to Vir- 
ginia and Massachusetts. The following year, J. 
T. Andrew, of West Cornwall, Conn., imported a 
flock that spread the fame of the breed. In 1857, 
Andrew sold a small flock to Messrs. Smith, of Mid- 
dlefield, Mass., and to C. L. Whiting, of Granville, 
Ohio. In 1859, Andrew sold a flock to C. G. For- 
shay, of Texas. Interest in the breed then sub- 
sided, and did not revive until about 1880. W. A. 
Shafor, of Ohio, R. J. Stone, of Illinois, Geo. 
McKerrow, of Wisconsin, and Robert Miller, of 
Ontario, in the next few years imported large 
numbers and disseminated them widely through 
the United States and Canada. 

Distribution. 

This breed is found most largely in the states 
east of the Mississippi river and north of the Ohio 



626 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



river, and in Canada, appearing not to be suited to 
range conditions. It has spread from its original 
territory in England to almost every country 
where other English breeds have gone, which 
includes most of the leading live-stock countries. 
It is adapted to small farms where intensive 
methods are practiced. 



Oxfords are especially useful to produce mutton 
lambs to be marketed in the early summer, at four 
to five months of age. Under high feeding the 
ewes of many families will produce 150 per cent 
of lambs that grow rapidly. The rams are well 
adapted for mating with smaller breeds for the 
production of lambs to be fattened at eight to ten 
months of age. There is a considerable demand 
for pure-bred rams for this purpose. Oxford ewes 
will yield about 10 per cent more wool than Shrop- 
shire ewes, that is rather coarse in- quality and of 
long staple. 

Organizations and records. 

In 1881, the American Oxford Down Record 
Association was organized, with headquarters at 
Hamilton, Ohio. Ten volumes of the record had 
been issued up to 1907, and 35,500 animals re- 
corded. In England, the interests of the breed are 
in the hands of the Oxford Down Sheep Breeders' 
Association. It has issued a flockbook each year 
since its inception in 1888. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 596. 

Shropshire Down Sheep. Figs. 51, 630, 631. 

By H. P. Miller. 

The name Shropshire, as applied to sheep, was 
derived from the county of that name in England 
where the breed was developed. The breed is offici- 
ally known as Shropshire Down, but the name is 
often abbreviated to Shrop. It is a mutton breed, 
or perhaps we may properly consider it a general- 
purpose breed. 

Description. 

The Shropshire now has uniformly dark brown 
face and legs, is 10 to 15 per cent heavier than 
the Southdown, the standard weight for rams be- 
ing 225 pounds and for ewes 175 pounds. Many, 
however, exceed these weights by fifty pounds when 
in show condition. It has a broad head, short face, 
thick, muscular neck, closely knit shoulders, sym- 
metrical body somewhat barrel-shaped, except that 
it is straight on the back. In form it is not so 
good in the thigh and twist as the Southdown. In 
general outline, it is taller and more rangy, but 
the present tendency is toward the Southdown in 
form. The Shropshire is possessed of great fecund- 
ity, early maturity and quick-fattening qualities. 
[Mutton and fine-wool sheep types are discussed on 
pages 51-53.] 

The American Shropshire Sheep Association 
adopted the following scale of points : 



Scale of Points for Shropshire Sheep Perfect 

ecore 

1. Constitution and quality, indicated by the form 

of body ; deep and large in breast and through 
the heart ; back wide, straight and well cov- 
ered with lean meat or muscle ; wide and full 
in the thigh, deep in flank ; skin thick but 
soft and of a pink color ; prominent, brilliant 

eyes and healthy countenance 25 

Objections: Deficiency of brisket, light around 
the heart, fish back, pointed shoulders, tucked-in 
flank, pale or too dark skin. 

2. Size. — In fair condition, when fully matured, rams 

should weigh not less than 225 pounds and 

ewes not less than 175 10 

Objections : Rams in full flesh, 175 pounds or 
under; ewes in full flesh, 150 pounds or under. 

3. General appearance and character. — Good car- 

riage, head well up, elastic movement, show- 
ing great symmetry of form and uniformity of 

character throughout 10 

Objections: Head drooping, low in neck, slug- 
gish movement. 

4. Body. — Well proportioned ; medium bones ; great 

scale in length ; well finished hind-quarters ; 
thick back and loins ; twist deep and full, 
standing with legs well placed outside ; breast 

wide, extending well forward 15 

Objections: Too fine bones, short body, defi- 
cient in twist, legs close together, light in brisket. 

5. Head. — Short and broad ; wide between the ears 

and between the eyes ; short from top of head 
to tip of nose ; ears short, of medium size ; 
eyes expressive ; head should be well covered 
with wool to a point even with the eyes, with- 
out any appearance of horns ; color of face 

dark brown 10 

Objections: Horns disqualify ; white face dis- 
qualifies ; head with prominent bones ; bare on 
top of head. 

6. Neck. — Medium length, good bone and muscular 

development ; and especially with the rams, 
heavier toward the shoulders, set high up and 
rising from that point to back of head .... 5 

7. Legs and feet. — Broad, short, straight ; well set 

apart ; well shaped ; color dark brown, and well 
wooled to the knee 10 

8. Fleece. — Body, head and legs to the knees well 

covered with fleece of even length and quality ; 
scrotum of rams well covered with wool ... 10 

9. Quality of wool. — Medium, such as is known in 

our markets as "medium delaine" and "half 
combing," strong, fine, lustrous fiber, without 
tendency to mat or felt ; and at one-year's 
growth not less than 3J inches in length ... 5 

Perfection 100 

Additional points: The nose of the ram should be 
broad and wrinkled ; the ears of both sexes of an even 
dark color, and neither erect nor drooping ; a soft black 
color of face and legs is preferred ; black and gray wool 
anywhere and coarse wool on the hips are objectionable. 

History. 

Its friends claim for the Shropshire an equally 
remote origin with the Southdown. The name, as 
applied to sheep, is mentioned in English literature 
as far back as 1341, there being at that time a 
grade of wool designated as Shropshire. The breed 
had not taken on many of its present characteris- 
tics, however, a century ago, as Plymley, in his 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



627 



"Agriculture of Shropshire," published in 1803, 
described the sheep of that county thus : " There 
is a breed of sheep in Longmynd, with horns and 
black faces, that seem an indigenous sort. They 
are nimble, hardy and weigh about ten pounds to 




Fig. '630. Shropshire ram. 

the quarter when fatted. Their fleeces weigh about 
two and one-half pounds." Professor Wilson, in his 
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, Vol. 
XVI, states that when the Bristol wool society, in 
1792, procured all the information available re- 
garding sheep in England, it reported that on 
Morfe Common there were about 10,000 sheep kept 
during the summer that had black, brown or spotted 
faces, a superior quality of wool, and were con- 
sidered a native breed. These are accepted as the 
progenitors of the present Shropshires, although it 
is a common belief that the Southdown was used to 
hasten the improvement. It is thought, also, that 
the Leicester and Cotswold were used to increase 
the size and amount of wool, and that the sheep 
from Cannock Chase, in the county of Stafford, 
were used in the early breeding efforts. Samuel 
Meise, of Barrington, and George Adney, of Harley, 
were among the most successful of the early im- 
provers. The Shropshire first attracted attention 
at the Royal Agricultural Society Show, in 1855 ; 
and in 1859 it was recognized as a distinct breed 
and given a class. 

In Ameriea. — The first American importation on 
record was made into Virginia, in 1855. In 1860, 
Samuel Sutton introduced a number of ewes and a 
ram into Maryland. In 1862 and again a few years 
later, flocks were established in New York. They 
had also made their way into Canada, as they 
are reported to have been taken from Canada to 
Michigan in the early seventies. There was a 
great influx in the early eighties. The American 
Record Association was organized in 1884, at 
Lafayette, Ind. 

Distribution. 

The sheep are now recorded from almost every 
state in the Union and from Canada, and far exceed 



in numbers any other English breed in America. 
They are more popular in the North and East, not 
being extensively found on the ranges. They do 
best on good pastures, as their rustling qualities 
are only medium. They are found very generally 
throughout England and her colonies and, in fact, 
throughout the civilized world, especially in Europe, 
Africa, Australia and South America. 



Their good mutton form and quality and profit- 
able wool production make the Shropshires the 
great American sheep after the Merinos, in their 
Delaine and Rambouillet forms. They have a much 
longer, more open and coarser fleece than the 
Southdown, are covered more extensively over the 
head and legs, and yield perhaps 50 per cent more 
wool. Ewes average eight pounds or more and rams 
twelve pounds of fleece. The fleece is of good fiber 
and carries considerable oil. They are also hardier 
than the larger breeds, although yielding to the 
Southdowns in this particular. The lambs may be 
profitably marketed at any time from five to twelve 
months of age, though usually the earlier they are 
marketed the greater the profit. The rams are 
very generally used on Merino and native ewes for 
the production of high-class mutton lambs. 

Organizations and records. 

In 1882, the English Shropshire Sheep Society 
was organized. The first volume of its flockbook 
was issued in 1884. The American Shropshire Sheep 
Association was organized in 1884, and had issued 
twenty volumes of its flockbook up to 1908. There 
is also a National Shropshire Association that has 
issued one volume of its flockbook. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 596. 




Fig. 631. Shropshire ewe. 

Southdown Sheep. Figs. 54, 632, 633. 

By H. P. Miller. 

The name Southdown as applied to sheep arose 
from the use of the term in referring to the low 
range of chalk hills in southeastern England, in 
Sussex county, where the breed was developed. 
The date at which it was first used is not known, 



628 



SHEEP 



but in 1794, Arthur Young, in an essay, brought 
the breed into prominence. The breed ranks in the 
first place for mutton-production. 

Description. 

It is the smallest of the Down breeds that are 
prominent in America at this time, but it is the 
model in form toward which all other breeds are 
tending. Its compact form and short fleece, how- 
ever, give it a weight greater than its appearance 
suggests. Mature ewes weigh up to 150 pounds, 
and rams up to 200, although average weights are 
somewhat below these weights. 

In 1788, Arthur Young wrote : " The true South- 
down, when very well bred, has no horns, a long 
speckled face, clean and thin jaw, a long, but not 
a thin neck, no tuft of wool on the forehead, which 
they call owl-headed, nor any fringe of wool on the 
cheeks, thick in the shoulder, open breasted, and 
deep ; both fore- and hind-legs stand wide ; round 
and straight in barrel ; wide on the loin and hips ; 
shut well in the twist, which is a projection of flesh 
on the inner part of the thigh that gives a fullness 
when viewed behind, and makes a Southdown leg of 
mutton remarkably round and short, more so than 
other breeds ; thin speckled legs free from wool ; 
the belly full of wool ; the wool close and free from 
projecting or strong fibers. Those flocks not bred 
with particular care are apt to be coarse-wooled on 
the back." 

The Southdown of today presents some contrasts 
to this : It is characterized by very short, straight 
legs, set wide apart ; broad, level back, very thickly 
fleshed ; long and broad hips, with tail setting very 
little below level of back ; short neck, very thick 
at shoulder and sharply tapering toward head ; the 
head small, but comparatively broad and flat 
between the ears ; forehead full ; face short and 
in ewes somewhat dished ; eyes very prominent ; 
ears small, carried above the level and covered, 
the English association says, with wool, while the 
American says with fine hair. The face and legs 
are now a uniform reddish brown, except some 
lingering white hairs about the nose. The face has 
a lively apperance, in keeping with the quick move- 
ments of the Southdown. The hind-quarters carry 
down very heavy ; the twist is extremely deep and 
full ; the breast very broad and prominent ; both 
fore and hind flanks very full, thus giving an almost 
straight under-line. The hoofs are often black. 
They are of thin yet firm horn, making a good foot. 
There is now a large cap of wool on the forehead, 
and on many specimens the wool is working farther 
down on the legs. A bright pink color of skin 
is desired, and is uniformly found with healthy 
individuals. It may safely be said to be the 
hardiest of all the English breeds under American 
conditions and methods. It is freer from catar- 
rhal troubles and does not so quickly succumb to 
the ravages of internal parasites. In these par- 
ticulars it approaches the Merino. [A general 
discussion of the mutton type is given on pages 
51, 52.] 

The American Record Association adopted the 
following standard of excellence : 



SHEEP 
Scale of Points for Southdown Sheep perfect 

score 

1. Head. — Medium in size and hornless, fine, carried 

well up, the forehead or face well covered with 
wool, especially between the ears and on the 
cheek, and in the ewe slightly dished .... 5 

2. Lips and under jaw. — Light and thin .... 1 

3. Ears. — Rather small, tolerably wide apart, cov- 

ered with fine hair and carried with a lively 
back-and-forth movement 2 

4. Eyes.— Full and bright 3 

5. Face. — A uniform tint of brown, gray or mouse- 

color 3 

6. Neck. — Short, fine at head but nicely tapering, 

and broad and straight on top at shoulder . . 4 

7. Shoulders. — Broad and full, smoothly joining the 

neck with the back 5 

8. Breast. — Wide, deep and projecting well for- 

ward, the fore-legs standing wide apart ... 5 

9. Back and loin. — Broad and straight from shoul- 

ders to rump 7 

10. Ribs. — Well arched, extending far backward, 

the last projecting more than the others ... 6 

11. Rump. — Broad, square and full, with tail well 

set up 6 

12. Hips. — Wide, with little space between them and 

last rib 6 

13. Thighs.— Full and well let down in twist, the 

legs standing well apart 6 

14. Limbs. — Short and fine in bone and in color to 

agree with face 3 

15. Fore-legs. — Well wooled and carrying mutton to 

the knee, but free from meat below 2 

16. Hind-legs. — Well filled with mutton and wooled 

to the hocks, neat and clean below 2 

17. Belly. — Straight and well covered with wool, the 

flanks extending so as to form a line parallel 
with the back or top-line 5 

18. Fleece. — Compact, the whole body well covered 

with moderately long and close wool, white in 
color and carrying some yolk ... . . 12 

19. Form. — Throughout smooth and symmetrical, 

with no coarseness in any part 9 

20. General appearance. — Spirited and attractive 

with a determined look, a proud and firm step, 
indicating constitutional vigor and thorough 
breeding 8 

Perfection 100 

History. 

The Southdown breed was developed through 
selection from the native Sussex sheep on the 
chalky downs of southeastern England. The native 
sheep were small, ill-shaped and coarse-wooled. 
About 1780 or earlier, John Ellman, doubtless tak- 
ing inspiration from the success of Bakewell with 
the Leicester, began the development of the breed, 
striving for better mutton form and constitution, 
and at the same time to improve the fleece. He 
made rapid progress in fixing the present features 
of the Southdown. About 1820, Jonas Webb began 
breeding Southdowns with a selection from the 
Ellman and other flocks, and he proved to be the 
genius among the breeders. He built on Ellman's 
foundation, and produced this superior mutton 
sheep, of larger size and better feeding quality. 
The Southdown was thus the first of the Down or 
middle-wool breeds to be improved, and has been 
employed in the development of the other Down 
breeds, more particularly the Shropshire, Oxford 






SHEEP 



SHEEP 



629 



and Hampshire. It early became the breed of the 
English royalty and aristocracy, and remains so to 
the present time. 

In America. — The first authentic importation 
into America was by Dr. Rose, of Seneca county, 
N. Y., in 1803. The sheep of this importation, 
however, were crossed with Merinos in 1813. In 
1823, Sidney Hawes, of New York, made another 
importation and sold thirty-six ewes and two rams 
to C. N. Bement of Albany. In 1834, Francis Rotch, 
of Otsego county, N. Y., imported six ewes and a 
ram from the Ellman flock. In the same year, Isaac 
Maynard, of Coshocton county, Ohio, made an im- 
portation. During the forties and fifties of the 
same century, while wool was very low and 
Merinos falling into disfavor, Southdowns became 
disseminated very widely. With the revival in 
interest in Merinos from the high prices for wool 
following the Civil war, Southdowns fell into dis- 
favor, and because of their low wool-yield and the 
relative importance of wool in this country, they 
have not regained wide popularity in the North or 
on the ranges. South of the Ohio river, however, 
especially in Kentucky and Tennessee, they were 
for many years the prevailing breed, and are still 
popular. 

Distribution. 

The general adaptability and good grazing quali- 
ties of the Southdown, together with its superior 
mutton, have led to its wide dissemination. In 
America it has been especially popular in the Cen- 
tral-East and South, although it is found in practi- 
cally every state and territory in the Union and in 
Canada. In South America it is found in Argentina, 



. . • MM 



-,--v 

'.V.,.' 

'AM 




Fig. 632. Southdown ram. 

Chili and other countries. It has been introduced 
throughout Europe, Asia, Japan, Africa and Aus- 
tralia. 



Southdown rams prove highly satisfactory for 
mating with the long-legged mountain ewes for the 
production of mutton lambs. Pure-breds are also 
in favor for production of lambs to be sold at 
weaning time. The rams bred to Merino ewes 



produce highly satisfactory lambs for feeding off 
at eight to ten months of age. They produce 
a high quality of mature mutton, as they do not 
develop fat in bunches. The ewes are not suited 




Fig. 633. 



Southdown ewe. 



for growing winter lambs, as they will not breed 
at the right season, but the rams are very satisfac- 
tory for siring such lambs. The lambs are good 
feeders and mature rapidly. Single lambs are the 
rule, but a flock of ewes usually produces 125 per 
cent of lambs. Southdowns have rarely been known 
to produce triplets. 

The Southdown has the shortest and finest wool 
of any of the Down or middle-wool breeds. The 
attempt has been to develop a fleece with a com- 
pact, smooth surface, that is without spiral tips 
on the locks of wool. The average weight of the 
fleece for ewes is about six pounds, and for rams 
about eight pounds. The wool grades as one-half 
and three-eighths. 

Organizations and records. 

English and American record associations were 
organized in 1882. The Southdown Sheep Society, 
with headquarters in London, had issued sixteen 
volumes of its flockbook up to 1908, and the 
American Southdown Breeders' Association, with 
headquarters at Springfield, 111., had issued sixteen 
volumes of its flockbook. The latter has registered 
sheep from nearly every state in the Union 

Literature. 

For references, see page 596. 

Suffolk Down Sheep. Fig. 634. 

By David McCrae. 

Suffolk sheep get their name from the county 
of Suffolk, England, where the breed was origi- 
nally developed. They are a short-wooled mutton 
breed. 

Description. 

The Suffolk is a large, rangy sheep, black-faced, 
hornless, with long, clean, black legs. It resembles 
the Southdown in character and wool, but is about 
one-third larger in body and much longer in the 
leg. The wool is of good quality, of the clothing 



630 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



type, and the mutton is excellent. It is a good 
feeder, and is reputed to be very prolific, yielding 
twins and triplets frequently. 

Scale of Points foe Suffolk Sheep perfect 

score 

1. General appearance. — Pleasing outline, good car- 

riage, and symmetry of development 7 

2. General form. — Large in size, inclined to be long 

in body, medium strength of bone, somewhat 
cylindrical in shape, and straight above, below 
and in the rear 15 

3. Head. — Medium in size, inclining to be long, and 

covered with fine, short, glossy, black hair to 
the junction with the neck ; a small quantity 
of clean white wool on the forehead is not ob- 
jected to ; muzzle moderately fine, especially in 
the ewes ; eyes bright and full ; ears, of medium 
length and fineness 10 

4. Neck. — Moderately long and well set, and blend- 

ing well with the body, with some crest in the 
rams 5 

5. Fore-quarters. — Well developed, breast wide, deep 

and full, brisket broad ; chest capacious, with 
good heart girth ; shoulders broad, oblique, and 
well filled in the neck and in the crops ; withers 
broad ; arm well developed 15 

6. Barrel. — Roomy. Back straight, broad and well 

fleshed throughout its entire length ; ribs well 
sprung and moderately deep ; fore and hind 
flanks full and deep 15 

7. Hind-quarters. — Long, deep and full ; tail broad 

and well set up ; buttock broad ; twist full ; 
thighs broad and full 15 

8. Feet and legs. — Straight, of medium length, with 

flat bone ; bare of wool below the knee and 
hock ; glossy black in color and set well apart . 8 

9. Fleece.— Moderately short, with close, fine, lustrous 

fiber, and without tendency to mat or felt to- 
gether or to shade off into dark or gray wool or 
hair, especially about the neck and tail. The 
fleece should cover the whole body, except the 
head and the legs below the knee and hock, and 
the skin underneath it should be fair, soft and 
of a pink color 10 

Perfection 100 

History. 

The Suffolk is the modern representative of the 
old Norfolk breed, crossed with the Southdown. 
In some respects, the old Norfolk breed resembled 
the Black-faced Highland, having the same colored 
face and legs, with full bone, long spiral horns, 
long body, fiat ribs, rather narrow loins. It differed 
from the latter in having very fine short wool. 
The mutton was of that fine, rich flavor that is 
found in many semi-wild animals. The great value 
of the old breed was its mutton, which, when long 
kept, more closely resembled venison than that of 
any other breed. 

The Suffolk is the result of a cross between this 
old Norfolk breed and the Southdown, and shows 
what very important results may be achieved by 
able and enterprising breeders. The modern Suf- 
folk is a conspicuous example of remarkable suc- 
cess in cross-breeding. By careful selection and 
management, the horns have disappeared. The 
Suffolk possesses excellent grazing qualities, and 
yields a carcass of lean, well-flavored mutton. 



Separate classes were first made for this breeu *c 
the Suffolk show in 1859, but it was not rec- 
ognized by the Royal Agricultural Society until 
1886. 

In America. — The Suffolk may be considered a 
recent introduction to America. In 1888, sheep of 




Fig. 634. Suffolk Down ram. 

this breed were brought both to Canada and to the 
United States, the importation to Canada having 
been made by B. D. Sewell, of New Brunswick, and 
that to the United States by M. B. Streeter of 
Brooklyn, New York. They were taken to Iowa in 
1892, and have since been established elsewhere. 

The following is the scale of points adopted by 
the Board of Directors of the American Suffolk 
Sheep Record. 

Distribution. 

In England, the breed abounds in the counties of 
Suffolk, Norfolk and Cambridge. It has been ex- 
ported to the continent of Europe, to Holland, 
Germany, France, Spain, Saxony, and elsewhere, 
where the rams are in demand to give a superior 
quality of mutton in their produce. It has been 
taken to South Africa, and Australia and New Zea- 
land. It has been tried with success both in the 
United States and in Canada, but it is as yet rela- 
tively unimportant here. 

Uses. 

The Suffolk has a place as a mutton sheep, giv- 
ing a large percentage of lean meat with a rich 
flavor. It is valuable for crossing purposes, to 
produce a quick - growing lamb of good quality, 
popular both with the butcher and with the con- 
sumer. The wool is well adapted for hosiery pur- 
poses, but is rather small in quantity. 

Organizations and records. 

The first English flockbook was published in 
1886, by the Suffolk Down Sheep Society organized 
in that year. Some twenty volumes have been 
issued since. In America, the American Suffolk 
Flock Registry Association, organized in 1892, has 
issued the third volume of its flockbook. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 596. 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



631 



Miscellaneous Breeds of Sheep. 

There are a great many little-known (in 
America) breeds of sheep that are worthy of men- 
tion, as some of them have met special needs in 
special regions, and have qualities to recommend 
them. There are still others, such as the Welsh 
Mountain, the Lonk and the Shetland, that are of 
so little interest to farmers in America, that they 
may safely be ignored. 

Barbados or "Woolless " Sheep. Fig. 635. 

By E. L. Shaw. 

This breed of sheep was imported by the United 
States Department of Agriculture from the island 
of Barbados, West Indies, in 1904. It is thought 
to be of African origin. It is hardy and very pro- 
lific. The ewes breed at any season of the year, 
and produce one to five lambs at a time. The 
young lambs are very attractive. The breed is of 




Fig. 635. " Woolless " sheep. 

medium size and has somewhat of a deer-like 
appearance. The color varies from a light fawn to 
a dark brown. The under part of the body and the 
legs are very dark in color, almost black. The 
ewes are hornless and the bucks are usually so, 
but in some cases the bucks have small horns 
curving backward and downward. The rump is 
steep, the tail set low, reaching the hocks. The 
breed is practically without wool, the body being 
covered with coarse hair. The small quantity of 
wool is of very fine fiber. The hair has a decided 
crimp. The bucks have a very decided beard, which 
extends from the angle of the jaw almost to the 
brisket. This breed is considered to be valuable in 
warm climates for its mutton. 

Black-Face Highland Sheep. Pig. 3. 

By John A. Craig. 

This mountain breed of sheep is most commonly 
called " Black-Face," although in the effort to be 
more specific it is frequently referred to as the 
"Scotch Black-Face" or the Black-Face High- 
land. It is of medium size, with a bold, commanding 



appearance, added to somewhat by the fact that 
both the ewes and the rams have horns. The face 
is mottled or speckled, the fleece long in fiber and 
somewhat coarse. The chief point of merit is its 
thriftiness under conditions that would result in 
the extinction of almost any other breed of sheep. 
The mature sheep of this breed are very hardy and 
easily sustained. They subsist largely on heather 
and on the roughest kind of land, and withstand 
extreme exposure during severe storms. The 
newly born lambs share in this strength of consti- 
tution, and they are singularly equipped to un- 
dergo exposure by having a short, tight fleece cover 
them from heel to ear as soon as born. 

The Black-Face may justly claim to be one of 
the oldest breeds of Great Britain ; and being so, 
their early history is little known. It is commonly 
thought that they are the original stock of the 
country. The very earliest mention of these sheep 
is by a writer, Hector Boethius, born in 1470, who 
says that until the introduction of the Cheviot sheep, 
the rough-woolled Black-Face was the only kind 
known in the vale of Esk. The breed at the pres- 
ent time has been estimated to comprise about two- 
thirds of the sheep stock of Scotland, and one-third 
of the total sheep stock of the north of England. 

They are mainly confined to this territory, for 
their importation to other countries or localities 
has not been very successful. Some have come to 
America, being first imported into New York state 
in 1861 ; but they have not been popular here. 

Black-Face sheep are much used for cross-breed- 
ing, but no infusion of outside blood has been suc- 
cessful in improving them for their native condi- 
tions. In addition to their hardiness, they have 
other characteristics which adapt them peculiarly 
for the Highlands. They are not only capable of 
traveling long distances on rough ground in search 
of food, but they also have a peculiar " homing " 
instinct, based presumably on their strong attach- 
ments to certain parts of their grazing. 

Herdwick Sheep. Fig. 636. : 

By John A. Craig. 

This is one of the smaller mountain breeds, with 
the instincts and type of mountain sheep strongly 
developed. It has a heavy fleece of strong wool ; 
head broad, nose arched or Roman, eye prominent 
and lively. Horns in the rams are desirable. 

The tradition of the origin of these sheep is that 
they came from forty small sheep that escaped from 
the galleons of the Spanish Armada that were 
wrecked on the coast of Cumberland, making the 
ancestry Spanish. Macdonald says that in the 
beginning of the last century a ship was stranded 
on the coast of Cumberland that had on board some 
Scotch sheep, which seem to have been unknown 
in that country. The sheep were landed and turned 
on the neighboring hills. Their excellent qualities 
and adaptation to their new situation became 
speedily evident. Their fleece was considerably 
finer than that of the common black sheep, and the 
matted quality of the wool enabled them to endure 
any severity of weather, and even to pass the whole 



632 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



of the winter without the smallest quantity of hay 
being expended upon them. By their ceaseless 
activity they scraped away the snow, however 
deeply the herbage might be buried under it. 




m* 



Fig. 636. Herdwick ram. 

These sheep are credited with living to a very 
old age, Macdonald stating that the ewes will 
breed for fifteen or twenty years. 

In the English Lake country, the mountains of 
Cumberland and Westmoreland, in the north of 
England, these small sheep hold their own against 
the encroachments of all other breeds. 

Persiacot and Persiarino Sheep 

By E. L. Shaw. 

The Persiacot is a cross between the Persian and 
the Cotswold breeds. This cross is said to be very 
hardy, and produces an excellent quality of mut- 
ton. The lambs make very rapid gains, and are in 
demand at good prices. The Persiarino is a cross 
between the Persian and the Merino breeds. This 
cross is said to produce a very hardy sheep and an 
excellent quality of mutton. All grades of these 
crosses are said to be fertile. The Persian (Fig. 3) 
resembles the Tunis, has a fat tail, and dark, hair- 
like wool. It has been used in a small way in the 
West for crossing. 

Romney Marsh Sheep. 
By John A. Craig. 

This breed takes its name from the district known 
as Romney Marsh in the counties of Kent and Sus- 
sex, in the south of England, which has led also to 
its being spoken of as the Kent breed. 

The Romney Marsh may be said to be one of the 
largest of the lowland breeds, likely being surpassed 
in weight only by the Lincoln. It has a white, 
broad face, and most frequently a tuft of wool on 
the forehead. It does not have horns. The native 
or original stock of the breed was large and 
coarse, but it is likely that the infusions of Leicester 
and Lincoln blood added both to its weight and 
improvement of appearance. The type is long and 
low, with comparatively thick legs and feet, and a 
strong-boned frame. The wool is long, compara- 
tively fine, and the weight of the fleece from six 
and one-half pounds upward. 



The special utility of the breed is its adaptability 
to low-lying lands which produce luxuriant feed, 
and will stand heavy stocking. The Romney Marsh 
may be run more thickly on such ground than any 
other breed, and continue thrifty. Under such con- 
ditions, it attains a large size and heavy weight, 
and the records of Smithfield and other British 
shows bear out the statement that it is rarely sur- 
passed in the latter by any breed excepting the 
Lincoln. 

Ryeland Sheep. Fig. 637. 
By IF. L. Carlyle. 

The Ryeland breed of sheep originated many 
years ago in the midland counties of England. Its 
name comes from the Ryelands of Hereford, a poor 
upland district. The breed originated by crossing 
Southdown and Leicester rams on the old Morfe 
Common type of sheep, from which the Shropshire 
breed originated. In its blood lines it is similar to 
the Shropshire and the Morfe Common type of 
sheep, being leggy, with light fleece of wool and 
with a speckled black and white face. The Rye- 
land breeder selects the lambs with the white faces 
and legs, and the Shropshire breeder takes those 
with the dark faces and legs. The Ryeland is a 
very compact and hardy breed, and fattens very 
readily. In form, it is thick and heavy in the 
hind-quarters, with broad, level back, full round 
body, a little inclined to be coarse in the shoul- 
ders ; short, well-set neck, and broad head, with 
some little wool covering on the head. It is set on 
short, straight legs. It is an active, vigorous 
type, filling the place in the sheep world midway 
between the Southdown and the Shropshire. Both 
the lambs and the ewes of the Ryeland breed are 
hornless, and the wool is finer in character, per- 
haps, than that of any of the other medium-wool 
breeds. 

The first importation of the Ryeland sheep into 
America was made by Mr. George McKerrow, of 
Pewaukee, Wisconsin, early in the summer of 1907, 







Ryeland ram. 



for the Colorado Agricultural College. The breed 
has been but a short time in this country, but it 
is excellently adapted for the mutton-producing 
sections of America. The lambs are dropped very 



SHEEP 



SHEEP 



633 



fat, and the ewes are wonderfully good mothers. 
They seem to cross well with both the Southdown 
and Shropshire types. The fleece of the Ryeland is 
not so heavy nor so dense as that of the Shrop- 
shire, but it is longer and finer in the staple. 

Tunis Sheep. 

By David McCrae. 

Tunis is a province of North Africa, bordering 
on the Mediterranean sea. Much of the land is 
hilly. The fat-tailed sheep living in the upland 
region of the province are called Tunis sheep. 

They are generally hornless ; face and legs of a 
yellow-brown or tawny color ; a few are brown or 
mottled brown and white. The tail is broad, being 
five to ten inches wide, and is usually docked to 
about six inches. The ears are large, broad, pen- 
dulous, and covered with fine hair. The fleece is 
soft, fine and fairly compact, about three inches 
long, and varies in color. One may have a fleece 
almost white, another reddish, and another mot- 
tled. Mature specimens weigh 120 to 150 pounds. 

The origin of the Tunis breed is unknown. The 
type has no doubt existed in Tunis for centu- 
ries, and also in the adjoining sections of North 
Africa. Similar fat-tailed sheep are found in Syria 
and are supposed to be derived from a variety 
of the primitive race bred by the patriarchs 
and the early shepherds of Palestine and ' adjacent 
lands. 

In America. — The introduction of Tunis sheep to 
America is said to date back to 1779, when the 
Bey of Tunis allowed General Wm. Eaton, then 
United States Consul at Tunis, to ship to America 
several " broad-tailed Barbary or Mountain Tunis 
sheep." Only one pair reached the United States. 
These were placed in the care of Judge Richard 
Peters, on his farm near Philadelphia, where they 
did well and increased in numbers. The original 
ram was afterwards used on the farm of General 
Hand, in Lancaster county, Pa. In 1807 or 1808, 
another importation was made by Commodore Bar- 
ron of the United States navy. These were bred 
in Virginia and the District of Columbia. In 1825, 
another importation was made, some of which 
went to near Albany, N. Y. From the early 'Peters 
flock, these sheep spread into Georgia and South 
Carolina, and were common in the South before 
the Civil war, which nearly exterminated them. 
More recently Mr. Roundtree, of Indiana, has 
been a leading promoter of the breed. There are 
several flocks in Indiana and Ohio. In 1876, an 
American Tunis Sheep Breeders' Association was 
organized. 

The Tunis as a mutton sheep has met with much 
favor. The lambs fatten early, and as the ewes 
will breed at various seasons they have been used 
to raise lambs for the Christmas market. Cross- 
bred lambs are popular, as they are easily and 
quickly fattened and yield mutton of an excel- 
lent quality. As a wool-producer, the Tunis does 
not rank high. The color is objectionable, and 
the weight of the fleece is only six to eight 
pounds. 



Wensleydale Sheep. Pig. 638. 

By John A. Craig. 

Being included among the lowland breeds, these 
sheep have the characteristics most common to 
sheep of that class, namely, large size, with long 
wool, thereby attaining heavy weights of both car- 
cass and fleece. n 'he Wensleydale is an upstanding- 
sheep, similar to the Leicester in some respects, 
but with more style. The face and skin is of a 
bluish tinge, and this characteristic is encouraged, 
while in nearly all the other breeds a pink skin is 
sought, and the bluish tinge considered undesirable. 
The wool of these sheep is peculiar in that it is 
unusually lustrous, and is very wavy or full of 
"pirls," as they are called. It is long, strong, and 
comparatively fine, considering its length. 



i <A A 



WW ' 






'y ■ '■< ' 

kmmmmmdMM 



Fig. 638. Wensleydale ram. 

The original stock of this breed seems to have 
been most prevalent in Yorkshire, and at an early 
day it was known as the Teeswater. The new name 
of Wensleydale Longwool was attached to it about 
the time the Yorkshire Agricultural Society began 
giving prizes for it, it being more common in 
Wensleydale than in any other district. Its origin 
seems to be akin to that of the old Leicester breed, 
and later infusions of Leicester blood undoubtedly 
have been made. The present type and character- 
istics have long been fixed, however. 

The rams are used to cross on Black-Paced ewes, 
as it has been found that the cross-bred product 
makes a good feeding - lamb, and they have the 
additional desirable qualification of throwing dark- 
faced lambs. 

The breed is confined closely to its native dis- 
trict, few having been exported to other countries. 
The most notable introduction of Wensleydale 
sheep to America was the importation made by the 
Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station, which is 
said to be giving promise of valuable results. Aside 
from this, little attention has been given the breed 
in this country. 

The Wensleydale has two societies and flockbooks 
devoted to it — the Pure Select Wensleydale Sheep 
Breeders' Association, with headquarters at Car- 
perby, Bedale, England, and the Wensleydale Long- 
wool Sheep Breeders' Association and Flock Book 
Society, with headquarters at Howgrave, Ripon, 
England. 



634 



SHELL-FISH 



SHELL-FISH 



SHELL-FISH. Figs. 639-644. 

A shell-fish is defined as an aquatic animal, not 
a fish, having a shell, and especially one which 
comes under popular notice as used for food or for 
ornament. Specifically, the term is applied to the 
mollusks, represented by the oysters, clams, snails, 
slugs, squid and cuttlefish, and to the crustaceans, 
represented by the lobster, crayfish, shrimp, crab, 
and barnacle. The more common food shell-fish of 
the Mollusca are the oyster and the clam, and of 
the Crustacea, the crab, the crayfish, the lobster 
and the shrimp. These are given notice in this 
place. The general subject of fish-culture or aqui- 
culture is treated on pages 390-394. Turtles, 
frogs and sponges, other aquatic animals, are dis- 
cussed separately in their proper places. 

The literature of shell-fish is largely in bulletin 
form. The publications of the national Bureau of 
Fisheries and of the state departments of fisheries 
should be consulted. A few publications are men- 
tioned here. Frank R. Wood, The Shell-fisheries of 
New York State, Forest, Fish and Game Commis- 
sion, Albany, New York (1904); Same, Shell-fish 
Culture in New York (1906); Report of the Bureau 
of Shell-fisheries, State of New Jersey, Trenton, 
N. J. (1905); Annual Reports of the Biological 
Department of the New Jersey Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, New Brunswick, New Jersey. In this 
connection, the reader should consult, especially, 
the Reports of the United States Bureau of Fish- 
eries for 1893, 1897, 1899, 1903 and 1904, and 
bulletins of the same for 1884, 1889, 1897, 1898 
and 1904. On the Giant Scallop fishery, see the 
bulletin of 1889. 

Clam. Mollusca. 

By Julius Nelson. 

Of the various edible bivalves of our coast, 
including the scallops, the mussel (MytHus), the 
hard-shelled clam ( Venus mereenaria), and the soft- 
shelled clam (Mya arenaria), the last two, and par- 
ticularly the last one, have been the subject of 
experimentation, with the object of learning the 
principles of their cultivation. As yet, the only 
progress has been to imitate primitive oyster-cul- 
ture, viz., to secure the young as "seed," and to 
plant them in favorable localities not already 
stocked. 

The spawning period, the reproductive products, 
and the development of the egg are much as in 
the oyster (which see). The young clams resemble 
the young oysters in becoming fastened to objects, 
but instead of cementing themselves fast by one 
of the shell-valves, they develop a sticky, tough 
thread, called a byssus, like that which anchors 
the mussels. They also develop a plow-shaped, 
muscular projection back of the mouth, known as 
a " foot," by means of which they burrow into the 
soil at the bottom of shallow areas, generally 
between tide marks on the beach. They require a 
tenacious bottom or else they will be smothered. 
At the posterior end, the mantle grows out as two 
tubes (known as "siphons"), called the "neck" of 



the clam. The ventral tube is for the inhalation of 
water containing the air needed for respiration, 
and the microscopic food needed for growth ; the 
dorsal tube exhales the water, after it has tra- 
versed the pores of the gills. These siphons project 
upward through the soil toward the water. If the 
young clam finds a suitable place, it remains there 
permanently. Often the young are very much 
crowded and many starve to death ; then others 
die from the decay of their neighbors. Thus there 
is an advantage in transplanting. In a year or 
two a marketable size will be reached on good 
ground. 

The New England coast is the principal home of 
the soft clam, while the middle Atlantic states 
produce the hard clam. The total catch marketed 
in 1904 exceeded one and a half million dollars in 
value. 

Crab. Crustacea. 

By Julius Nelson. 

In 1904, over 40,000,000 crabs were marketed 
in the United States. The chief center of the crab 
fishery is in the Chesapeake bay, near Crisfield, 
Maryland. The fishery began in 1875, and at first 
was confined to the capture of soft-shell crabs, i. e., 
those that have just shed their shell ; but later the 
taking of hard-shell crabs developed. The latter 
are either sold alive, or boiled, the meat extracted 
and put up in sealed cans or in buckets surrounded 
by ice. In the latter case, the shells are cleaned 
and shipped in the same crate with the meat, to be 
used in serving "deviled" crabs. The soft-shell 
crabs are shipped alive, closely packed. The fisher- 
men get two cents each, and the shippers about 
four cents. Hard crabs are worth less than a fifth 
as much. 

Soft crabs are taken either by hand nets from 
small boats, or by dredging from larger boats, 
usually carrying a dredge on each side. Hard crabs 
are taken on baited lines. Crabs that have not yet 
shed, but "show signs," are put into floats, where 
the shedding is completed; and this is really all 
that can properly be termed "culture" in connec- 
tion with these shell-fish. Practically, only the blue 
crab (Callinectes hastatus) is involved. 

The females are mature at three or four years of 
age, and are said to spawn but once and then die, 
while the males survive several years. The major- 
ity spawn in the early spring, and their young are 
hatched the same summer ; those spawning in the 
late autumn carry the eggs over winter, going into 
deep water. The female molts before spawning, and 
as the molting time approaches, she is seized by the 
male and carried about. After shedding, and while 
the shell is still soft, copulation is effected, lasting 
a day or two. Then the female seeks deeper water 
and produces about three million eggs, each a 
hundredth of an inch in diameter. The young hatch 
in the form of zoeas that molt several times, becom- 
ing transformed to a stage called megalops, which 
in turn become transformed into the adult form 
after six molts. Then the young migrate toward 
the shallow shore waters. 



SHELLFISH 



SHELL-FISH 



635 



Crayfish. Crustacea. Crawfish. Figs. 639, 640. 

By E. A. Andrews. 

It is not generally known that the sales of cray- 
fish in the United States amount to more than 
$25,000 annually, so extensively are they used as 
food and garnish, as bait and as subjects for study. 




Fig. 639. Crayfish bearing eggs. 

While the supply of wild crayfish seems at present 
adequate to meet the demand, there is no doubt 
that from the increase in our population and the 
over-fishing of crayfish haunts, the demand will 
come to exceed the supply, as has been the case in 
so many departments of natural food supply. 

In France and in some other European countries, 
crayfish-farms for hatching, feeding and rearing 
crayfish for market have long been conducted in 
successful competition with the natural supply. 
The crayfish in America are so much like those of 
France that the same general methods of culture 
will apply, as has been demonstrated by experiment 
at the Johns Hopkins University. 

Of importance for experimental culture of cray- 
fish in this country is the fact that America pos- 
sesses a very large number of kinds of crayfish of 
different market values, and that some are very 
large so that they might fill the place left by the 
fast-disappearing lobster. A fundamental fact of 
importance in crayfish-culture is that these ani- 
mals are easily fed, at all periods of their lives, 
on cheap vegetable and animal matter. Where 
there is easy access to large cities having a good 
market for crayfish as food, experiments on the 
introduction and culture of large and attractive 
kinds, such as the crayfish of Oregon, would seem 
to be well worth trying, with the expectation of 
adding to the revenue from 
cheap pond and marsh land. 

Points to be observed in cray- 
fish-culture. 

To rear crayfish it is neces- 
sary to have shallow ponds that 
may be easily drained and pro- 
tected from large fish and other 
enemies of crayfish. The com- 
mon crayfish breeds in the 
spring, and when found carry- 
ing eggs, or "in berry," as 
shown in Fig. 639, it may be 
removed to a special pond 
where the young will hatch, and as minute crawl- 
ing larvae receive special care and food during their 
first summer. In the first autumn the young should 
be two inches long. In the winter the crayfish 
require little attention, as they are inactive and do 
not grow. But in the summer the growth is 



accompanied by shedding of the shell, and good 
feeding will induce rapid growth. In large enclo- 
sures the natural vegetable and insect food will 
support many crayfish, but in smaller ponds and 
rivers, soft vegetable and animal food must be 
given. 

Too great crowding is to be avoided, as parasites 
and disease may destroy large numbers. In fact, 
in Europe, epidemics caused by certain bacteria 
have destroyed the crayfish in large river areas, 
and attempts are in progress to restock with 
American crayfish. 

Since each female crayfish lays several hun- 
dred eggs each year for several years, and 
may begin to breed when less than one year 
old, a rapid increase in stock may be secured 
simply by protecting the mothers with eggs, and 
lessening the naturally large death rate among the 
young by keeping away enemies and giving plenty 
of food. 

Lobster. Crustacea. 
By Julius Nelson. 

Experiments in the artificial propagation of lob- 
sters have been conducted by the United States 
Bureau of Fisheries since 1888, and more particu- 
larly since 1894. In 1900, along the coast of the New 
England states, there were employed in the lobster 
fishery 4,348 persons, 191 vessels, 3,960 boats, 
208,563 lobster pots or traps, involving a total in- 
vestment of $1,668,000. There were taken 15,767, 
741 pounds of lobsters, which sold for $1,390,579. 
[United States Fish Commission Report for 1903.] 
This shows a decline in the production, the yield 
eleven years earlier having been twice as great, 
of which 25,000,000 pounds were produced by 
Maine alone. Outside of New England waters, the 
lobster production of our coast is unimportant. 
With decrease in production, the price hi_s trebled. 

The lobster spawns not oftener than once in two 
years, and carries its eggs attached under its abdo- 
men, popularly called the tail. Such females are 
then said to be " in berry." The eggs are carried 




Fig. 640. Crayfish reared from eggs in captivity. Twenty-five months old. 

through- the winter, the lobsters going into deep 
water, and are hatched the next spring. As with 
the crab, the adult probably casts its skin, a pro- 
cess called "molting," before it lays the next crop 
of eggs. The young, when hatched, are a third of 
an inch in length, and they seek the surface. They 



636 



SHELL-FISH 



SHELL-FISH 



grow, with frequent molts, until nearly an inch in 
length ; then they seek the bottom. In approxi- 
mately four years they are eight inches long and 
produce their first batch of eggs, about five thou- 
sand in number. 

For artificial rearing, the eggs are removed in 
the early summer from "berried" females and 
hatched in floating crates, covered with cotton 
scrim. Hatching begins in June, and the larval 
moltings, six in number, consume nine to twenty- 
five days, according to the temperature (70° to 
60° Fahr.). There is great mortality among the 
young, principally from a fungus, the growth of 
which can be restrained by the use of copper net- 
ting. The larvae eat lobster and crab liver and 
crushed menhaden, but not the flesh of herring or 
beef. The best results come from feeding natural 
plankton (see page 393), but the mortality is very 
great. It is still a question whether the mortality 
under nature is greater or smaller than under 
artificial conditions. But if the eggs of lobsters 
that are caught can be saved, evidently natural 
methods will be supplemented. Laws prohibiting 
the taking of "berried" lobsters should prove the 
most efficient means of preventing depletion. At 
the end of the larval period the young lobsters are 
turned into the sea to shift for themselves. They 
do not wander far, and so particular regions can be 
stocked. 

Oyster. Ostrea spp. Mollusca. Figs. 641-644. 

By Julius Nelson. 

The oyster industry has been considered a fish- 
ery, but it attains its best development through 
the application of aquicultural methods. Its inter- 
ests are in charge of the United States Bureau of 
Fisheries, state fish commissions, or of special 
oyster and shell-fish commissions. In 1902, the 
United States produced 
nearly twenty-six million 
bushels of market oys- 
ters, about five - sixths 
of the world's product, 
worth at first cost $15,- 
566,805. More than a 
third of the product came 
from the Chesapeake bay. 

Species. 

The following species 
are commonly cultivated: 
Ostrea lurida, native of 
the Pacific coast from 
British Columbia to Cali- 
fornia ; 0. eueulata of 
Japan ; 0. edulis of Eu- 
rope, from the North sea 
to Italy, 0. Adriatica of the eastern Mediterranean; 
0. angulata of Portugal and southern France ; 0. 
Virginiana, the common oyster from the gulf of 
St. Lawrence to Texas, but now exterminated 
between Nova Scotia and Cape Cod ; the native 
oyster north of the Cheaspeake is variety borealis. 
Other species are found on the coasts of Mexico 




p 

Fig. 641. Left: Oyster-shell 
viewed from dorsal edge 
S, hinge end (anterior) 
P, "nile" end (posterior) 
L, left valve; R, right 
valve. Right: Oyster 
shell viewed from upper 
(right valve) side; X>. dor- 
sal edge; I, I, lines of 
growth. 




and the Antilles. 0* edulis is hermaphroditic and 
viviparous. 0. Virginiana and 0. angulata are 
dioecious, each individual being either a female, 
producing "roe" (ova), or a male, producing "milt" 
(sperms). They 
are oviparous, the 
reproductive cells 
being emitted to 
conjugate while 
floating in the sur- 
rounding water, An 
where the entire 
development pro- 
ceeds. 

Reproduction. 

The eggs of 0. 
Virginiana, the 
common eastern 
oyster, are one 
five-hundredth of 
an inch in diame- 
ter, which is thou- 
sands of times 
larger than the 
sperms. The roe 
and milt, about 
equal in amount 
in the two sexes, 
are indistinguish- 
able to the naked 
eye, appearing, 
when mature, as a 
creamy layer be- 
neath the skin in 
front of the heart. 
The ejection of the milky fluid is called spawning, 
and the reproductive fluid is called spawn. The 
height of the spawning season is reached by the last 
week in June. The length of the season depends 
on the temperature of the water. The optimum tem- 
perature for spawning is about 80° Fahr. In Long 
Island Sound, spawn is not visible in oysters before 
May or June, nor after August or September, but 
in Florida waters oysters may also spawn at 
Christmas time, and have been known to reproduce 
in February. Oysters probably repeat the spawn- 
ing act several times during the season, especially 
in the South. 

The reproductive cells grow at the expense of 
nutriment stored in the connective tissue, and 
hence oysters are very lean just after spawning. 
If food is abundant, they soon recuperate. When 
the cooler weather of August and September comes, 
they store up fat to be used for reproductive 
purposes the following summer. Hence it is that 
oysters are most relished in the months with an 
"r," which constitute preeminently the oyster sea- 
son. Oysters also spoil readily in warm weather. 
An oyster filled with spawn contains as much nutri- 
ment as ever ; it has a poor flavor when eaten raw, 
but is greatly improved by cooking. There is a 
limited summer trade in such oysters at coast 
resorts, and in nearby cities. 

Development. — The eggs of the oyster are fertil- 



Fig. 642. Diagrams showing the gross 
sttucture of the oyster: Upper, 
longitudinal section of shell and 
contents; lower, view from the left 
side, the soft parts lying on the right 
"half-shell." h. Hinge ligament; 
m, points of attachment of the mus- 
cle in previous seasons; I, edges of 
the shell of previous seasons (lines 
of growth); iV, "nile," or posterior 
end; Mt, edges of mantle; if, gills; 
C, cloacal chamber ; M, adductor 
muscle; A, auricle of heart; V, 
ventricle; G, reproductive tissue: J, 
intestine; S, stomach; L, left 
(lower) valve; R, right or upper 
valve: An, anterior end; Li, liver; 
Dr, dorsal edge; Po, posterior end; 
O, opening for the exit of "spawn"; 
T>, ventral edge; P, lii>«; mo, 
mouth; D, first part of intestine; 
a, veut of intestine; TV, water 
tubes, opening from gills into cloa- 
cal chamber. 



SHELL-FISH 



SHELL-FISH 



637 



ized within a few minutes after reaching the sperm- 
atized water, and development follows rapidly and 
normally at temperatures between 60° and 85,° 
the optimum lying between 68° and 78°. In five to 
seven hours the egg has completed its segmentation 
and becomes a ciliated, free-swimming larva in the 
gastrula stage. It is scarcely larger than the egg, 
and has a ciliated stomach cavity less than one 
two-thousandth of an inch in diameter, so the food 
consists of only the minutest of alga; spores and 
microbes. Growth is slow at first, but the mantle- 
folds are formed, and the primitive shell secreted 
by the end of the first day. The valves are alike, 
resembling those of a clam. The embryos may now 
be called oyster " fry." They swim awkwardly by 
means of a ciliated velar disk protruding between 
the valves. They are distributed by means of tidal 
currents, their limited swimming powers being 
used at first to change their vertical distribution 
while floating, and finally to secure a location on 
an object suitable for their attachment. Such 
objects are called clutch or collectors, and consist 
of the shells of oysters and other shell-fish, dead or 
living ; but grass, bushes, trees, posts, rocks, peb- 
bles, pieces of crockery, glass, bricks, boats, leather 
and rubber boots are readily utilized. The clutch 
must be clean, not coated with slime, for the fry 
at this time are each less than one one-hundredth 
of an inch in diameter. After fixation, the baby 
oyster is called spat. The length of time the fry 
swims free has been variously stated as being from 
one to seven days, depending on temperature and 
food conditions, but it is certainly not shorter than 
five days, and often more than seven. 

Attachment is made by the left mantle edge, and 
growth is so rapid that the spat becomes visible to 
the naked eye within three days. Young oysters 
reach an inch in diameter in two months, and then, 
as cold weather comes, the growth is arrested. 
When a year old they average two and one-half 
inches. A second year adds little more than an 
inch, as the increase lessens with age. 

The food of the oyster consists of microscopic 
organisms floating in the water, belonging mainly 
to the vegetable kingdom. The algae, called dia- 
toms, constitute nine-tenths of this food. 

Natural oyster beds. 

Under natural conditions, the successive genera- 
tions settle on the shells of their ancestors. Even- 
tually the oldest generations become buried and 
smothered in the accumulating mud, and finally a 
reef is formed whose surface reaches the average 
level of low water. Such reefs lie near the shore, 
with a deep channel beyond. Natural beds may 
also form in deeper water. The living oysters on 
the top of reefs are so crowded that an acre may 
yield eight thousand bushels. But they are mostly 
poor oysters of all sizes, and are lean through com- 
petition for food, and few are fit for market. Near 
the reef and in adjacent coves are isolated speci- 
mens in good condition. Reef oysters transplanted 
to certain grounds, not naturally oyster-producing, 
grow and fatten rapidly. 

There are nearly 600,000 acres of so-called 



natural oyster ground in the United States, dis- 
tributed principally as follows : Connecticut and 
New York, 35,000 ; New Jersey, 90,000 ; Dela- 
ware, 70,000; Maryland, 123,000; Virginia, 250,- 
000 ; North Carolina, 10,000 ; South Carolina and 
Georgia, 2,000 ; Florida, 12,000 ; Alabama, 2,200 ; 
Louisiana, 32,000. Only a tenth of these areas is 
actually productive in some of the states, but 
these grounds at present yield over half of our 
supply. They will require special attention to pre- 
vent their disappearance. 

Oyster-fishing. 

Oysters are taken by tongs and by dredges. (Fig. 
643.) The right to take oysters is usually permitted 
only to residents who pay a yearly license. Dredges 
operated by steam may not be used, and dredging 
in water so shallow as to allow the use of tongs is 
prohibited. Operations are forbidden at night, on 
Sundays and during the spawning season. The 
duration of the closed season is generally from 
April or May to September or October, although 
it varies. 

Tongs and dredges gather indiscriminately 
empty shells, oysters of all sizes, and clusters that 
must be knocked apart. Sorting out the marketa- 
ble oysters is called culling. The shells and small 
oysters remaining, formerly were sold at two to 
four cents a bushel for burning into lime. They 




Fig. 643. Outfit for oyster-gathering, a. Tongs for water less 
than twenty-five feet deep; 6, * tangles,' to he drawn over 
oyster-heds to entangle star-fish in the mops; c, knife for 
opening oyster shells; d, deep-water tongs; e, dredge for 
scraping oysters from beds in deep water. 

have also been used extensively for filling and 
road-making. Excessive fishing leads to denudar 
tion of the reefs and a decrease in the size of the 
oysters, until at last only the crop spawned the 
previous season is present. Then the bed is said to 
be depleted, and produces only seed for the plant- 
ing grounds. Finally, all the clutch is removed 
and the bed is destroyed. To protect the natural 
oyster beds, various regulations are in force. 

Planting ground. 

Outside the limits of natural oyster ground, 
opportunity has been given for the development of 



638 



SHELL-FISH 



SHELL-FISH 



private oyster-planting. Such grounds are some- 
times secured under a title that permits their sale 
and transfer by inheritance. The market value of 
the best ground is above a thousand dollars an 
acre, although the average is thirty dollars. The 
grounds are taxed, or a rental may be charged for 
land leased from the state. 

The area of leased land in the United States is 
about 360,000 acres. Ten times this area is avail- 
able for future expansion, aside from the natural 
ground, which, if it came under cultivation, would 
yield thirty times its present product. Only a 
third of the leased area is actually under cultiva- 




Fig. 644. Tonging oysters into a scow. 

tion. The amount one person may hold is some- 
times limited. The largest oyster farm (7,000 
acres) is owned by a firm in Connecticut. 

It is advantageous to shift oysters to new 
ground in the spring or autumn, and it is good 
policy to let a plot lie fallow for a year after the 
crop is removed, in order to disperse enemies that 
have gathered. As it requires three or four years 
for seed to grow to market size, the annual crop is 
produced from only a fourth of the ground occu- 
pied. 

About three hundred bushels of average young 
seed, costing twenty to forty cents a bushel, may 
be planted per acre. Under favorable conditions, 
this will have increased threefold when ready for 
market. Usually the planter is content to gather 
nearly the same quantity as was planted, the 
oysters having become enhanced three to four 
times in value. Young seed doubles in growth the 
first season, the losses during the next balance the 
increase, and thereafter the death losses overbal- 
ance the growth. The average annual net profit is 
about 10 per cent on the investment. 

Oyster-culture. 

Oyster-culture has developed through several 
stages of progress by the pressure of circum- 
stances. So long as the natural beds yielded a suffi- 
cient supply 'of choice oysters, there was no cul- 
ture. The first step was to transplant adult oysters 
for the purpose of improving their flavor and fat- 
ness. As demand increased, the supply of natural 
adult oysters gave out, and it became necessary to 
take the second step, L e., to cultivate small 
oysters. The areas furnishing this seed in the 
vicinity of planting grounds in turn became over- 
taxed. The northern planter was forced to seek 
seed in Chesapeake bay, where, at first, it could be 
secured in unlimited quantities at ten to twenty 
cents a bushel. In the spring of 1880, a fleet of 



fifty vessels was carrying nearly two million 
bushels of seed from Maryland to be planted in 
northern waters. Finally, the affected southern 
states, to protect their own supplies, prohibited 
the export of seed oysters. This would have been 
a serious blow to the planting industry had not 
another step in the progress of oyster-culture been 
taken, viz., the raising of seed on private grounds. 

Artificially produced seed. — In 1868, Capt. Chas. 
H. Townsend of New Haven, Conn., following a 
suggestion from European methods, spread oyster 
shells on his own grounds and secured a good "set" 
of spat. This practice gradually developed into a 
great and successful industry. A single firm annu- 
ally planted a quarter million bushels of shells. 
This seed is either raised to adult size by the pro- 
ducer or is sold to other planters. Of the 6,879,405 
bushels of seed oysters sold in the United States in 
1902, one-fourth was raised on private beds in 
Long Island Sound. 

The amount of clutch used per acre is about five 
hundred bushels, but if the bottom is soft, as much 
as two thousand bushels may be necessary. The 
clutch rapidly becomes slimy in the water, and so 
is generally not planted until the last week in June 
or the first week in July, when there are the great- 
est number of fry ready to "set." If the "shelled" 
ground is not reached by currents flowing over 
oyster-beds containing suitable spawners, about 
thirty bushels of adult oysters should be planted 
per acre, at least several months before the shells 
are spread, as handling oysters during the spawn- 
ing season interferes with the proper formation of 
their spawn. 

Artificial propagation. — It was supposed that the 
reproduction of the American oyster, O. Virgini- 
ana, resembled that of the European oyster, O. edu- 
lis, until 1879, when Dr. W. K. Brooks, of Johns 
Hopkins University, succeeded in raising oyster 
fry by artificial fecundation. This discovery gave 
hope that we would be able to devise a method of 
multiplying oyster seed at will in unlimited 
quantities. The next dozen years witnessed ex- 
tended experimental studies of the problem by 
many eminent fish-culturists. The general method 
used by these investigators is as follows : Dur- 
ing the spawning season, oysters are opened and 
those filled with spawn are chosen. Their spawn 
is examined microscopically, until two or three 
" ripe " specimens of each sex are secured. A 
vsry small amount of spermatic fluid is added to 
clean sea-water, and to this the carefully washed 
eggs of the female are added. Development readily 
follows, and after a few hours the surface of the 
experimental dish is crowded with swimming em- 
bryos. These are now poured into new sea-water 
and can be kept several days, but are best planted 
when their shell is perfectly formed on the second 
day. Development is frequently abortive, due to 
errors of manipulation, faulty conditions or evil 
influence affecting the mother oyster. Oysters 
should be opened immediately after they are taken 
from their beds. The fry is planted in an enclosure 
suited to prevent its floating away; and by means 
of introduced clutch, observations are made on spat 



SHELL-FISH 



SHELL-FISH 



639 



fixation. Certain essential principles governing 
spat fixation are still to be discovered. 

European methods. — In Europe, the natural beds 
are specially protected by the government. Their 
main use is to furnish spat for artificial collectors 
placed on adjacent grounds. These collectors are 
curved tiles. They are coated with plaster and ce- 
ment and are put into position as soon as inspection 
shows that spawning has begun. This industry (of 
securing spat in this way) is in the hands of private 
parties, who pay rental to the government. Many 
of these tiles are on ground exposed at low water. 
They are frequently inspected and rinsed from sedi- 
ment. In autumn, when the attached spat has 
reached the size of a finger-nail, the tiles are 
removed from the producing ground to the rearing 
ground. In Holland, they are submerged in diked 
ponds to keep them from freezing ; toward spring, 
the young oysters are carefully detached by thrust- 
ing a thin knife beneath the cement. The young 
plants are then placed on special growing grounds. 

In France, a more complex method is employed. 
The spat are collected by specialists who sell the 
tiles in October to others, whose special work is to 
continue the cultivation. The spat are detached at 
once and put into " elevage" boxes, provided with 
wire screens to keep out enemies. The boxes are 
placed in ponds or pares, in which they are daily 
submerged by the tides. The largest oysters are 
sorted out from time to time and transplanted to 
other ponds. Special fattening ponds, called claires, 
are so constructed that only the highest or spring 
tides can enter when permitted by the opening of 
a gate. 

In early summer these ponds are allowed to 
become dry ; the bottom is carefully tilled, and a 
small amount of water, both from the sea and from 
fresh-water streams, is allowed to enter. Under 
the hot sun, the algoid organisms present multiply 
greatly. Then the pond is allowed to fill, and the 
water to stand stagnant. In this the oysters are 
placed in September for two or three weeks. They 
fatten rapidly, but through want of sufficient air, 
many die. The claires of Marennes are noted as 
giving a green hue to the oysters placed therein. 
The oysters are removed from the fattening elaire 
into clear, well-aerated sea-water for a few days for 
the purpose of cleansing. Finally they are pre- 
pared for market by being placed in ponds, where 
they are exposed the greater part of each low tide. 
This accustoms them to hold their shells shut dur- 
ing transport. 

At Tarente, Italy, twigs entwined in grass ropes 
suspended from posts are used as collectors. In 
Japan, bamboo branches or shibi are set on the 
bottom in rows or in clusters ; and when the tide 
is out, an oyster-garden resembles a vineyard. 
The shibi, loaded with oyster fruit, are themselves 
transplanted into culture plots in deeper water. 
By this means the growth of three years equals 
that of four when the oysters lie on the bottom. 

In America, the cost of labor prevents our 
giving the oysters the individual attention they 
receive in foreign lands. Oysters grow rapidly in 
natural or artificial tidal ditches in our salt 



marshes, so that we may expect soon to see these 
vast areas made productive through proper ditch- 
ing. It is a general practice among American 
oyster-producers to prepare their crop for market 
by a process called plumping, freshening or fat- 
tening. The laden boats returning from the plant- 
ing grounds are unloaded at high water in a fresh- 
water creek. As the tide runs out, the oysters 
absorb water of decreased saltness, and swell 
about twenty-five per cent in volume. The oysters 
are removed at low water and prepared for ship- 
ment. After they are opened most of this extra 
water becomes squeezed out as " liquor." 

Marketing. 

Oysters are shipped in the shell, to be opened 
elsewhere, in sacks or in barrels holding two and a 
half to three bushels. They are sold by the thou- 
sand. Small oysters, not over three years old, are 
called culls. They run from 1,000 to 1,500 per 
barrel, and are worth to the producer about $2.50 
per thousand. Oysters running 650 to 1,100 per 
barrel are " box sizes," worth $5 per thousand ; 
larger sizes are " primes," and the largest are 
"extras." These prices should be doubled for 
" eastern " oysters cultivated in California. Since 
1894, about 9,000 barrels of seed from Newark 
and Raritan bays have been sent annually to be 
planted in San Francisco bay, where it competes 
with native oysters (0. lurida) imported from 
Washington state. Over a hundred thousand bar- 
rels of oysters in the shell are annually sent from 
Long Island Sound waters to Europe. 

Shucked oysters. — As the shells are dead weight, 
there arose the practice of opening oysters near 
the locality of production and shipping the meats 
packed in "preservalene" or ice in tubs. This began 
in New Haven, Conn., in 1836. At first, oysters 
were transferred from the South to be opened in 
the North, but shucking houses were started in 
1850 in Baltimore, and later at Crisfield and other 
Maryland points, Norfolk, Virginia, and Seaford, 
Delaware. In 1880 nearly four million bushels 
were opened in Baltimore. In 1897, all Maryland 
houses together opened less than five million gal- 
lons. Lately there has been more rapid decline, 
while packing-houses have started on the gulf 
coast. 

Canning. 

In 1846, the industry of oyster-canning was 
initiated. Small oysters are used. They are first 
killed by steaming so that they can be rapidly 
opened. After packing, the can is sterilized. In 
1880, three million bushels were steamed in Balti- 
more, which still held a monopoly of this trade. 
In 1897, over twenty-five million pounds were 
canned in Maryland, but, owing to scarcity of 
oysters, this trade has now passed to the states 
farther south. In 1900, Maryland produced only a 
third of the thirty-three million pounds of oysters 
canned in the United States ; Mississippi produced 
another third, and the other southern states the 
remainder. The canning-houses are engaged in 
canning fruit in the summer. According to the 



640 



SHELLFISH 



SILKWORM 



census of 1900, there were thirty-nine oyster- 
canning houses in the United States. 

Literature. 

Ernest Ingersoll's memoir on the " Oyster Indus- 
try," written for the Census of 1880, is classic. 
' United States Fish Commission Report for 1892 
gives a bibliography of oyster publications in 
English, including 546 papers by 278 authors. 

Shrimp. Crangon vulgaris. Crustacea. 

By Julius Nelson. 

Practically no effort has been made to assist 
nature in the production of shrimp. The chief 
shrimp fisheries are on the Gulf and Pacific coasts 
of America. The annual catch is about four hun- 
dred thousand dollars' worth, a fourth of which 
may be credited to San Francisco bay. These 
shrimps or prawns are canned. An unknown num- 
ber are used for bait all along the coast. 

SILKWORM. Bombyx mori, Linn. Bombycida. 
Figs. 645-649. 

By L. 0. Howard. 

The cultivation of the domestic silkworm for the 
production of raw silk, subsequently to be made 
into cloth, seems to have originated in China, and 
as an agricultural industry is of very great anti- 
quity both in China and in India. The ancestral 
form of the silkworm of commerce was probably a 
native of the northern provinces of China or of 
Bengal. It was, as a wild species, probably a full- 
winged, flying moth, whose larva was of a dark 
color, and spun a much smaller and less dense 
cocoon than does the silkworm of today. After 
countless generations of confinement, cultivation 
and breeding, however, the insect has become a 
true domesticated animal ; the moth has practically 
lost the power of flight ; the larva or caterpillar 
has become for the 
most part nearly 
white in color, except 
in certain rather 
aberrant races ; the 
silk glands have be- 
come very large, and 
the silk has become 
most excellent in 
quality and very 
abundant. 

Life history of the silk- 
worm. (Figs. 645- 
647.) 
The silkworm of 
commerce passes the 
winter in the egg 
stage, and with most of the races there is but one 
generation each year. With certain other races 
there may be two or more generations, but in 
most silk-growing countries these are not exten- 
sively cultivated because of the difficulty of secur- 
ing food of the right quality at other seasons than 



late in the spring and the beginning of summer. In 
Japan, however, the great increase in the silk indus- 
try during the past thirty years is said to be due 
to improved methods of feeding, so that three crops 
of worms may be fed annually. This, however, is 
not done by the use of the varieties having several 




1 
i. 

Fig. 645. The moth, o, 
male; b, the female. 




Fig. 646. The chrysalis: a, silkworm completing its cocoon, 
6, cocoon and chrysalis — cast of skin of larva beneath; 
c, back view of chrysalis; d, side view of chrysalis. 
(Redrawn from MaiUot.) 

generations (bivoltins, trivoltins or polyvoltins), 
but by the use of an annual race, and the cold 
storage of the eggs, part of which are removed at 
intervals and the worms reared. Under ordinary 
conditions, such as exist in America and in South 
Europe, the eggs hatch naturally in April ; the 
larvae molt four times, feed for about four weeks, 
and then spin the cocoon, taking about three days 
for the process. About eighteen days elapse in the 
chrysalis stage within the cocoon, and then the 
adult insect emerges. The moths will lay their eggs 
about the end of June, and in this condition the 
insect remains until hatching time the following 
spring. 

Care of the silkworm. 

It is not necessary here to give a full account 
of the care of the silkworm. It is a more or less 
complicated process, and involves a full consider- 
ation of temperature, ventilation, certain essential 
implements, character of the trays and tiers of 
trays, the picking of the mulberry leaves, the 
absence of moisture on the leaves, and many simi- 
lar facts, together with the preparation for spin- 
ning, and the care and harvesting of the cocoons. 
The operations, however, are not such as require 
necessarily any high degree of intelligence. Chil- 
dren may become accustomed to the culture of silk- 
worms, and may practice it with success. The 
labor of caring for a comparatively small number 
of worms (say four or five thousand), is not great, 
except in the later stages of growth. Then, to 
keep them full-fed will occupy the temporary ser- 
vices of an adult in the collection and distribution 
of the large amount of leaves required for food. 
All of these details are displayed in publications 
of the United States Department of Agriculture, 
which will be sent to all persons on application ; 
these publications also consider the care of the 
mulberry tree, together with the important matter 
of the diseases of the silkworm. 

History of the industry. 

For many hundreds of years the cultivation of 
the silkworm was confined to Asiatic countries. It 
seems to have been an industry in China as early 
as 2600 B. C, and was not introduced into Europe 



SILKWORM 



SILKWORM 



641 



until 530 A. D. After the latter date the culture 
rapidly increased, and soon became prominent in 
Turkey, Italy and Greece, and has held its own in 
those countries, becoming of great importance in 
Italy, and achieving a considerable rank as an agri- 
cultural industry in France, and less so in Spain 
and Portugal. Silk-culture has also been practiced 
to some extent, but with slight comparative success, 
in parts of Germany, and recently with rather 
favorable results in Hungary. Attempts to estab- 
lish the industry in England, although made from 
time to time, have failed. Silk-culture has held its 
own in China, is still in vogue in India, and in 
Japan has made great strides. The latter country 
today produces a very considerable proportion of 
the world's supply of raw silk. Thus, of the forty- 
one millions of dollars spent by the United States 
in 1902 for raw silk, more than twenty millions 
went to Japan. [See page 643.] 

In America. — With the colonizing of North 
America, attempts were made at an early date to 
practice silk-culture, and the colonists of Virginia, 




i 

Fig. 647. Full-grown silkworm: 1, head; 2, thorax; 3-10, 12, 
abdominal segments; 11, horn; 13, true legs; 14, pro-legs; 
15, anal pro-legs. 

South Carolina and Georgia engaged in the indus- 
try to a certain degree. Some reeling was done on 
hand-reels, and both cocoons and reeled silk were 
sent to Europe. In 1759, Georgia produced 10,000 
pounds of cocoons, and, reeled in the colony on 
hand-reels, the resulting silk commanded a higher 
price in the London market than that from the 
old silk-producing countries. The culture was in- 
troduced into New England about 1660, in parts of 
Connecticut and also on Long Island. Pennsylvania 
and New Jersey started the industry in 1771, but 
all work in the northern states was interrupted by 
the Revolutionary war. In 1828, an attempt was 
made to revive the industry and a treatise on the 
raising of silkworms was published by order of the 
national Congress, which was followed by a deter- 
mined effort to establish the culture on a firm 
basis. In 1833, it was estimated that four tons of 
cocoons were produced in the county of Windham, 
Conn. The interest in the industry soon passed be- 
yond bounds, and what was known as the " Morus 
multicaulis craze " originated. Thousands of indi- 
viduals purchased mulberry cuttings and planted 
many acres of valuable land ; investments far 
exceeded possible returns ; heavy freezes destroyed 
the plantations, and, in the course of a few years, 
the many failures caused so complete a revulsion 
of feeling that not only was silk-culture practically 

C41 




Fig. 648. 
Silk glands of a ma- 
ture worm; P, 
part of glands 
that secretes the 
silky matter; S, 
reservoir; C, 
conducting ca- 
nal; F, spin- 
neret; G-, acces- 
sory glands. 
(Redrawn from 
Verson and 
Quajat.) 



abandoned in the United States, but the very name 
became a byword. 

Since the bursting of the multicaulis bubble, 
sporadic attempts to revive the industry have been 
started in California, Utah, Lou- 
isiana, Alabama and Georgia. 
Moreover, in 1884, Congress be- 
gan making appropriations for 
the encouragement of silk-cul- 
ture in the United States, under 
the United States Department 
of Agriculture. These appropria- 
tions were continued until 1890 
and then lapsed. During the 
progress of this work, under the 
Department of Agriculture, mul- 
berry trees and eggs of the silk- 
worm moth were sent to corre- 
spondents throughout the country, 
a manual of instructions was pub- 
lished and distributed, and silk 
. reels were operated in New Or- 
leans and in Washington. The 
work ceased June 30, 1891. 

The national work, under the 
Department of Agriculture, was 
resumed in July, 1902. The Sec- 
retary of Agriculture, Hon. James 
Wilson, had come to the conclu- 
sion that every possible effort 
should be made to ameliorate the 
condition of the extremely poor 
people of the southern states, and 
particularly of the colored race. Among the many 
ideas that suggested themselves to him was that of 
silk-culture, which, as a household industry, adds 
to the wealth and prosperity of other countries 
and to the family incomes of the extremely poor. 
Congress made a special appropriation, and the 
work has been continued up to the present time. 
Silk reels have been imported from Europe ; opera- 
tors were also imported as teachers, and American 
girls have been shown the process of reeling 
cocoons. Well-tested disease-free eggs have been 
imported from Europe, and mulberry seed of desir- 
able varieties has also been brought over. Experi- 
mental nurseries have been started ; experimental 
rearings have been 
made ; eggs have 
been sent to all ap- 
plicants who could 
guarantee a supply 
of food for the 
worms, and mul- 
berry cuttings have 
been sent to those 
not similarly situ- 
ated. The cocoons 
raised by the corres- 
pondents of the De- 
partment have been 
purchased at the European market price, and have 
been reeled at the reeling establishment in Wash- 
ington. The resulting raw silk has proved to be of 
good and salable quality. 




Fig. 649. Arrangement of spin- 
ning places. (Redrawn from 
Pasteur.) 



642 



SILKWORM 



SILKWORM 






So long as Congress continues its support, there 
is, therefore, at least a temporary market for 
cocoons in America. The profit to raisers is 
extremely small, but a large number of corres- 
pondents throughout the country have considered 
it worth while to continue the culture, and even- 
tually it is hoped by the Department that a more 
natural market for cocoons will be established. 
The prerequisite for such a market, however, is a 
guaranteed crop of cocoons, and it is to establish a 
good supply of mulberry trees in different parts of 
the country and a large number of skilled silk- 
worm-raisers that the efforts of the Department 
are devoted. 

It has been very difficult to prevent false hopes 
from being aroused. In spite of the greatest care 
in the wording of circulars and other publications 
and of correspondence, very many persons have 
taken up silk-culture in the hope of being able 
to make a living exclusively from this industry. 
Pathetic letters have been received by the writer 
and others from widows who hoped to support 
dependent families in this way, and other individ- 
uals have expected to become wealthy in a short 
time by the raising of silk. Such persons have soon 
abandoned the attempt, but there remains a fairly 
good number of well -trained silk-culturists in 
America as a result of the efforts of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 

Limitations of the industry. 

In considering the raising of silkworms as an 
agricultural industry, it must be noted that the 
countries where it has been most successful are 
the countries where labor is cheapest. The profits 
from the raising of worms are nowhere large, and, 
owing to various conditions, can never be large. 
It has been shown to be practically impossible to 
raise cocoons on a large scale in a single establish- 
ment. At all events, exper ; mental work in this 
direction has almost invariably failed. The silk- 
worm thrives best in small cultures, and for 
that reason in silk-raising countries the industry 
has become a household industry. A given family 
of peasants — nearly always agriculturists — will 
raise a certain number of worms annually, and the 
money resulting from the sale of the cocoons 
furnishes only a part of the annual income of the 
household. In other words, it is a side industry, 
as is the household raising of bees and chickens in 
other countries. 

Then too, the successful operation of an estab- 
lishment for the reeling of cocoons with the reel- 
ing machines devised up to a comparatively recent 
date has also depended to a very large extent on 
cheap labor. There is a prospect that this diffi- 
culty may be overcome to a certain degree by the 
operation of a machine recently invented and intro- 
duced into Italy, whereby the earning capacities 
of the machine itself are very greatly improved. 
But, even with improved machinery, the country 
where labor is cheapest will always be able to pro- 
duce the cheapest raw silk. 

In the United States, therefore, as in other coun- 
tries, silk-culture must always be a household 



industry of little profit, and therefore one to be 
undertaken largely by those who have no other 
means of occupation, such as the non-productive 
members of a large family, simply as a help 
toward the paying of the expenses of the family. 

Possibilities of the industry. 

Conditions in China, India, Persia, and other 
Asiatic countries, including Syria, are not to be 
compared with those in South European countries, 
or scarcely even with those in Japan, and it is with 
Italy and France that the possibilities of silk-cul- 
ture in the United States must be compared. 

France has long been able to raise excellent 
cocoons, and as a manufacturer of silk goods she 
is a steady rival of the United States, even when 
we consider that the manufacture of silk in 
America is aided greatly by the protective tariff, 
and assisted further by the absence of an import 
duty on raw silk. But France has been unable of 
late years profitably to operate large reeling estab- 
lishments without government aid, and this aid 
has been furnished in the nature of a government 
subsidy of a certain number of francs annually 
per basin operated in all of the filatures of France. 
In Italy, there is no such governmental subven- 
tion, — the reeling establishments stand on their 
own bases, — and therefore Italy, with its varying 
climate, with the scientific and practical qualifica- 
tions of its people and its intelligent peasantry, 
affords the best example of what can be done with 
silk-culture as an agricultural industry among a 
civilized modern race. 

A concrete example of what silk-culture means 
to a poor family of Italian agriculturists may be 
cited, perhaps, as an average example. The writer 
studied the cocoon harvest in northern Italy in the 
summer of 1905. Owing to a rather small crop 
throughout the kingdom, the price was somewhat 
higher than normal, reaching 3.68 lire, or 71 cents 
per kilogram of 2.205 pounds of green cocoons. 
The question of compensation of families for 
cocoons reared was observed. The best result 
noted was in the case of one small, hard-working 
family consisting of a husband and wife, a half- 
grown boy and two little girls. This family 
brought in 87.40 kilograms, or 192J pounds, for 
which they were paid 321.63 lire, or about sixty- 
two dollars. The average amount earned per fam- 
ily on the large estate where observations were 
made was twenty-five to thirty dollars, a very wel- 
come addition to the income of a hard-working 
peasant family. 

Supposing the eventual establishment of com- 
mercially paying filatures in America, on a scale 
commensurate with those of Italy, the example 
cited will serve as an illustration of what may 
be expected of the raising of silkworms as an agri- 
cultural industry in this country. The question of 
the establishment of such commercial filatures, 
however, is one that has not yet been solved. 
Could America produce her own raw silk, the 
money saving to the nation could be approximately 
estimated from the following table of the importa- 
tions of raw silk during the years 1898 to 1902 . 



SILKWORM SPONGE 

Importation op Raw Silk (as Reeled from the Cocoon), 1898-1902 



643 



Countries from which imported 



France 

Germany 

Italy 

Switzerland . . . . 
Turkey in Europe 
United Kingdom . . 
Dominion of Canada 
Chinese Empire . . 
East Indies — British 
Hongkong . . . . 

Japan 

Turkey in Asia . . . 



Total 



$1,192,058 



6,227,004 
9,194 



$1,248,037 

1,101 

8,929,776 

4,133 



$1,607 
19 

10,816 
40 



569 
480 
,084 
,950 



,220,874 

2,386 

',151,438 

681 



1,752 

56,468 

7,506,409 

389 

120 

16,453,406 



956 

18,296 

6,497,983 

476 

205,516 

14,920,787 



7 

157 

12,171 

24 

17 

19,686 



301 
.161 
,309 
,659 
,027 
,132 



9,763 

60,109 

1,303,523 

33,456 



14,571,547 



$1,866,202 

29,106 

9,954,501 

17,422 

38 

1,421 

807,706 

8,308,383 

27,190 



20,702,101 
261 



$31,446,800 



$31,827,061 $44,549,672 



$29,353,777 



$41,714,331 



Literature. 

Enrico Verson, II filugello e l'arte sericola, Trat- 
tato teorico-pratico, Padova, Verona (1896); Gio- 
vanne Bolle, Der seidenbau in Japan, Budapest 
(1898) ; Henrietta Aiken Kelly, The Culture of 
the Mulberry Silkworm, Bulletin No. 39, new 
series, Division of Entomology, United States 
Department of Agriculture (1903); Henrietta 
Aiken Kelly, Silkworm Culture, Farmers' Bulletin 
No. 165, United States Department of Agriculture 
(1903); George W. Oliver, Silkworm Food Plants, 
Bulletin No. 34, Bureau of Plant Industry, United 
States Department of Agriculture (1903); L. 0. 
Howard, The United States Department of Agricul- 
ture and Silk Culture, Yearbook of United States 
Department of Agriculture for 1903 ; H. L. Al- 
phonse Blanchon, Manuel pratique du sericulteur, 
Paris (1905); Pierre Vieil, Sericiculture, Paris 
(1905); Maillot & Lambert, Traite sur le ver a 
soie, Paris (1906). 

SPONGES. Porifera. 
By Julius Nelson. 

The sponge fishery in the United States began in 
1852. It is confined to Florida, particularly in the 
region of the coral "Keys." The most valuable 
form commercially, is the sheepswool (Spongia 
gossipina), which brings two to five dollars a pound. 
The yellow sponge and grass sponge, of stiffer tex- 
ture, bring only twenty-five to fifty cents a pound. 
The Florida sponge industry employs 2,245 persons, 
on 156 vessels, which, with other apparatus, are 
worth nearly $600,000. The annual catch was 
valued at about $400,000 in 1904. Key West and 
Tarpin Springs are the main centers of the sponge 
trade. 

The sponge, as seen on the market, is only the 
horny, fibrous skeleton, which in nature is clothed 
with cells (flesh). The pores and channels seen in 
the skeleton are present also in the living animal. 
Water laden with microscopic organisms is drawn 
in through the small pores, and emitted by the 
larger channels, being propelled by cilia that 
clothe numerous small chambers, which are inter- 
posed between the inhalent and exhalent channels. 



Sponges reproduce by fertilized eggs, scattered 
through the flesh. The young develop into ciliated 
larvae, and are discharged by the exhalent chan- 
nels. They very soon settle and become attached to 
the bottom ; and, in case of the wool sponge, they 
grow to be a weight of one-tenth of a pound in six 
months, attaining a minimum marketable size within 
a year. 

Sponge-fishing. 

The sponges are observed from the small boats 
by means of a water-glass. This is a box or bucket 
with a glass bottom, placed on the surface of the 
sea. The sponges are torn loose by means of a pole 
armed with long, hook-like teeth, or by means of 
tongs, not unlike oyster tongs. Placed on the deck, 
they soon die of suffocation and undergo decay. 
After a few days, when the larger boat has become 
loaded, it proceeds to the " kraals," which are pens 
made of saplings, and having interspaces small 
enough to prevent the sponges floating out, while 
permitting free circulation of water. Thus, the 
decayed flesh is macerated away, and then the 
sponges are washed and beaten to clean them, and 
finally are dried in the sun. This is known as 
natural bleaching. The very white sponges on the 
market have been bleached by means of acids and 
alkalies, which greatly weaken the fiber. Washing 
in soapsuds also bleaches, but without weakening 
the fiber. 

Artificial propagation. 

Professor Wilson, of the University of North 
Carolina, ascertained the feasibility of raising 
sponges from the egg. It is necessary in July and 
August to transfer the sponges to tubs of sea- 
water, without exposing them to the atmosphere. 
Then the embryos will be prematurely discharged 
through the stimulus of the unnatural environment, 
and they can be transferred to live boxes of cloth 
floated in the sea, where they will fasten and start 
growth. Professor Wilson also found that when 
sponges in aquaria or tubs undergo partial decay 
and degeneration, along the canals, on the surface 
and about the central chambers are formed clusters 
of cells that revert to a plasmodial condition. Each 



644 



SWINB 



SWINE 



such cluster is capable of reproducing the sponge, 
similar to the natural "gemmules"of the fresh 
water spongilla. 

Quicker results in propagation are secured by 
means of cuttings and grafts. Successful experi- 
ments in raising sponges from cuttings were con- 
ducted in 1903, by J. Percy Moore, under the 
direction of the United States Fish Commission. 
This method is, commercially, more practicable 
than are the other methods. 

Literature. 

Bulletins of United States Fish Commission : 
1897, p. 241 ; 1899, p. 149 ; 1900, Vol. 2, p. 375 ; 
1902, p. 161 ; Science, Vol. XXV, p. 912. 

SWINE. Sus scrofa, Linn. Suidce. Figs. 55-57, 
290,650-679. 

In North America the hog has undergone a spe- 
cial development, due in part to the existence of 
abundance of maize and in part to the desire of 
the people for fat pork. The English hog is likely 
to be large-boned, long-bodied, flat-sided and rangy. 
The American hog, in its typical development, is 
small-boned, short, cylindrical and compact in 
body, with short legs and flat or broad back, and 
it is capable of maturing early and laying on an 
enormous load of fat. The American hog is less a 
question of breed than of feeding and manage- 
ment. The Poland-China is an American breed, 
however, embodying the American ideas of a well- 
shaped fat-producing or lard hog. There are sev- 
eral other American breeds, as described in the 
subsequent pages. The Canadians have given much 
attention to bacon-producing hogs, but swine-raisers 
in the United states have given comparatively lit- 
tle consideration to this type. [For a comparison of 
the two types, see the score-card discussion on 
pages 54, 55.] 

Throughout the corn-belt, the fat or lard hog 
attains the greatest perfection, and there it is 
bred in enormous numbers. The practice has devel- 
oped of producing hogs to " follow the cattle," 
which is to turn hogs in with cattle that are being 
fed for beef in order that they may secure the 
wasted and voided grain. Wherever beef animals 
are corn-fed, therefore, hogs have come to be nat- 
ural accompaniments. 

Much has been said about the relation of breed 
to economy of meat-production, and it may be well 
to examine the subject. Probably the most exten- 
sive experiments with breeds of swine have been 
conducted by the Ontario Agricultural College 
and the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station. 
At the Ontario Agricultural College, five experi- 
ments were conducted in which six breeds of swine 
were compared as to the cost of producing 100 
pounds of gain in live weight. The average amount 
of meal consumed for 100 pounds of gain, live 
weight, in the five experiments is given in the 
table, only the meal being considered. Such foods 
as dairy by-products and green feed, which were 
fed sometimes, were the same for all breeds, and 
have been omitted to simplify the comparison : 



Meal Consumed for One Hundred Pounds Gain, 

Live Weight 

(Average of five experiments) 

Berkshire 364.45 pounds 

Yorkshire 369.51 pounds 

Tamworth 380.47 pounds 

Duroc-Jersey 384.23 pounds 

Chester-White 387.89 pounds 

Poland-China 391.42 pounds 

Averages, however, are frequently misleading. 
For example, in a certain experiment one breed 
may suffer from some unfavorable circumstance 
which is in no way related to, or influenced by, the 
breeding of the animals, yet this circumstance may 
seriously affect the records of the breed in ques- 
tion. It is much more satisfactory, therefore, to 
examine each experiment individually, and see 
whether there is any constancy in the standing 
of the breeds. The table given below shows the 
breeds ranked in order of economy of gain for 
each experiment : 

Ontario Experiments 

Breeds arranged in order of economy of produc- 
tion. 



First experiment 



1. Berkshire 

2. Tamworth 

3. Poland-China 

4. Duroc-Jersey 

5. Chester- White 

6. Yorkshire 



Second experiment 



1. Berkshire 

2. Tamworth 

3. Poland-China 

4. Chester-White 

5. Yorkshire 

6. Duroc-Jersey 



Third experiment 



1. Yorkshire 

2. Berkshire 

3. Duroc-Jersey 
. ( Tamworth 

" \ Chester-White 

6. Poland-China 



Fourth experiment 



1. Berkshire 

2. Tamworth 

3. Yorkshire 

4. Chester-White 

5. Duroc-Jersey 

6. Poland-China 



Fifth experiment 



1. Berkshire 

2. Yorkshire 

3. Duroc-Jersey 

4. Chester- White 

5. Tamworth 

6. Poland-China 



Before any comment is made on these results, it 
will be better to examine the Iowa experiments, 
where three tests were made with the same six 
breeds. 

Iowa Experiments 

Breeds arranged in order of economy of produc- 
tion. 



First experiment 


Second experiment 


Third experiment 


1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 


Duroc-Jersey 

Yorkshire 

Tamworth 

Poland-China 

Chester- White 

Berkshire 


1. Duroc-Jersey 

2. Yorkshire 

3. Berkshire 

4. Poland-China 

5. Chester-White 

6. Tamworth 


1. Yorkshire 

2. Poland-China 

3. Berkshire 

4. Duroc-Jersev 

5. Chester-White 

6. Tamworth 





U 


mm 

mm 

I ■ 

B||pi^2gZL.^ ■-•■.IB' . 





SWINE 



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645 



The results of these eight experiments make an 
interesting contribution. A careful study of the 
case can result in but one conclusion, — that econ- 
omy of production is not a question of breed, but is 
a matter of individuality. The hog that has consti- 
tution and quality will make economical use of the 
food it consumes, no matter to what breed it belongs. 

To illustrate the fallacy of judging the relative 
merits of different breeds as feeders, from the 
results of experiments with breeds, attention may 
be called to the fact that, if a man based his judg- 
ment of the breeds on the results of the Ontario 
experiments, he would arrive at an entirely differ- 
ent conclusion from the man who drew his conclu- 
sions from the Iowa experiments ; and the man 
who averaged the Ontario and the Iowa results 
would make a still different arrangement of the 
breeds. Or, if another person judged the rela- 
tive feeding qualities of Yorkshires, Tamworths, 
and Poland -Chinas from the average results of 
Shaw's two experiments with these breeds in Min- 
nesota, he would reverse the standing of the Tam- 
worths and Poland - Chinas as given in the Iowa 
experiments. It may be possible that some breeds 
contain more animals of high merit as feeders than 
do others, but experimental work has not yet dem- 
onstrated which breeds these are. A breed that 
might be best in one place or under one set of 
conditions, might not be so good under other con- 
ditions. Therefore, so far as experiments go, it 
has never been demonstrated that any one breed 
excels all others in point of economical use of food. 
Breed experiments have demonstrated that hogs of 
bacon type are capable of making as cheap gains 
as hogs of the fat or lard type. This fact has been 
a surprise, since it is contrary to established beliefs 
and prejudices ; but it stands out more promi- 
nently than any other point in the comparisons 
that have been made. 



The best hog-raiser is the one who most critically 
chooses a breed as a starting-point, and then feeds 
and manages a drove most consistently. 

The Yearbook of the United States Department 
of Agriculture for 1906, gives the number and 
farm- value of swine in the United States and in the 
seven leading states (all with a farm-value above 
$20,000,000), on January 1, 1907, as follows : 

Number Farm value 

United States . . 54,794,439 $417,791,321 

Iowa 8,584,500 81,552,750 

Illinois 4,449,705 37,377,522 

Nebraska 4,080,000 35,496,000 

Missouri 3,454,950 24,530,145 

Indiana 2,924,879 23,399,032 

Kansas 2,561,200 21,001,840 

Ohio 2,436,797 20,103,575 

The same yearbook gives the number exported 
for the year ended June 30, 1867, as 3,577, with a 
value of $40,092 ; for the year ended June 30, 1906, 
59,170, with a value of $630,998. 

Again, the number of swine in Canada is given 
in the same yearbook as follows : 

Canada 2,875,692 

New Brunswick .... 1905 55,000 

Ontario 1906 1,819,778 

Manitoba 1906 200,509 

Saskatchewan 1906 123,916 

Alberta 1906 114,623 

Other 1901 561,866 

The Canada Yearbook for 1905, gives the num- 
ber of swine killed or sold in 1901, as 2,555,413. 
It gives the value of swine in Canada, for the same 
year, as $16,445,702, and the total number as 
17,922,658. 

In regard to the exports of hog products, the 
1906 Yearbook of the United States Department 
of Agriculture, gives the following figures : 



Quantity, 
pounds 



Quantity, 
pounds 



Lard 

Lard compounds . . . . 
Pork 

Fresh 

Cured 

Bacon 

Hams 

Salted or pickled . . . 

Total cured . . . 

Canned 

Total pork . . . . 
Sausage and sausage meat 



556,840,222 
36,201,744 

44,171,674 

383,150.624 
227,653,232 
115,896,275 
726,700,131 
9,603,882 

780,475,687 
7,137,297 



$52,375,864 
2,687,653 

3,652,464 

35,449,797 
25,222,744 
10,117,562 
70,790,103 
832,910 

75,275,477 
726,437 



741,516,886 
67,621,310 

13,444,438 

361,210,563 
194,267,949 
141,820,720 
697,299,232 
12,699,800 

723,443,470 
7,926,786 



$60,132,091 
4,154,183 

1,261,412 

35,845,793 
20,075,511 
11,681,634 
67,602,938 
1,215,857 

70,080,207 
881,686 



These various figures seem to confirm the general 
American experience to the effect that the empha- 
sis on feeding, to which so much attention is given, 
is not misplaced. It is not wise for the hog-raiser 
to ignore breeds, but he must not depend wholly on 
the breed for the production of desired results. 



Further statistics may be found in the Twelfth 
Census Reports, but these animals breed so rapidly 
and are likely to fluctuate so much that figures 
eight or nine years old may not express the present 
facts. The Canada Yearbook for 1905, gives the 
following figures on exports of hog products : 



646 



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SWINE 





1902 


1905 




$12,162,953 

240,840 

54,070 

22,186 


$12,194,458 
321,501 
188,194 
110,540 


Pork 



Literature. 

The following books may be consulted for addi- 
tional information on swine: F. D. Cobourn, Swine 
Husbandry, New York (1888); John Coleman, Cat- 
tle, Sheep and Pigs of Great Britain, London (1887); 
John A. Craig, Judging Live-Stock, College Station, 
Texas (1904); George W. Curtis, Horses, Cattle, 
Sheep and Swine, College Station, Texas (1888); 
George E. Day, Swine, Agricultural College, Guelph, 
Canada (1905); Joseph Harris, Harris on the Pig, 
New York (1870); James Long, The Book of the Pig, 
London ; David Low, On the Domesticated Animals 
of the British Islands, London (1842); Charles S. 
Plumb, Types an Breeds of Farm Animals, College 
of Agriculture, Columbus, Ohio (1906); J. H. San- 
ders, The Breeds of Live Stock, Chicago (1887); 
Thomas Shaw, The Study of Breeds in America, 
New York (1900); S. M. Shepard, The Hog in 
America, Indianapolis (1896); Samuel Sidney, The 
Pig, London (1871); Sanders Spencer, Pigs : Breeds 
and Management, London (1897); Robert Wallace, 
Farm Live - Stock of Great Britain, Edinburgh 
(1907); Various Writers, The Best Breeds of Brit- 
ish Stock, London (1898); William Youatt, and 
W. C. L. Martin, The Hog, New York (1863); F. D. 
Coburn, Swine in America. 

Index to Swine Articles 

Origin of Domestic Swine 646 

Lard- and Bacon-production 647 

The Feeding of Swine 649 

Determining the Age of Swine 653 

Common Ailments of Swine 653 

Berkshire Swine 658 

Cheshire Swine 660 

Chester-White Swine 661 

Duroc-Jersev Swine 663 

Essex Swine 666 

Hampshire or Thin Rind Swine 667 

Large Yorkshire or Large White Swine 669 

Poland-China Swine 671 

Small Yorkshire or Small White Swine 674 

Suffolk Swine 675 

Tamworth Swine 676 

Victoria Swine 678 

Miscellaneous Breeds of Swine 679 

Origin of Domestic Swine. Figs. 650-652. 

Swine belong to the natural family Suidoe, 
mostly of tropical countries, which is represented 
by several genera, of which the chief is Sag. The 
exact zoological origin of the domestic hog is not 
clearly made out. It is generally considered to 
have descended from the wild boar, Sus scrofa (Fig. 
650), of Europe, North Africa and Asia. It is 
likely, however, that an Indian species (probably 



Sus cristatus or S. Indicus) has entered into the 
evolution of the domestic forms. 

Hog-like animals of other genera inhabit many 
parts of the world, as the babirussa of East India 
(Fig. 651), the little peccaries (Fig. 652) of South 
America (ranging also as far North as southern 
Arizona and Texas) and the only close relatives of 
swine indigenous to the American continent, the 
warthog of South Africa. None of these swine-like 
animals appear to have been domesticated, although 
tamability and fecundity in confinement seem to be 
characteristic of most of the group. 




Fig. 650. Wild boar (Sus scrofa). 

The hog seems to have come into domestication 
in the Orient, but the animal is now widespread, 
with many variations that adapt it readily to very 
various conditions. It tends to run wild in mild 
climates, as exhibited in the razorbacks of our 
southern states. Although very widely domesti- 
cated from earliest times, the hog is not eaten by 
some important races or religions of people, as the 
Jews, Egyptians and Mohammedans. The hog yields 
hides that produce very tough and resistant leather, 
but it is grown only for its flesh, in this respect 
differing from all other domestic animals. 

The wild boar (Sus scrofa) still exists in central 
and southern Europe and in Asia ; it is extinct in 
Great Britain. From the earliest times it has been 
a much-sought game animal, the boar hunt being 
one of the leading diversions of royalty and nobility. 
It is a fierce and swift animal, larger than the do- 
mestic swine. It sometimes stands over three feet 
high, and will weigh 250 pounds, which is heavy 
weight for a swine-like animal that is not fat. The 
wild boar is grayish black or iron-gray or brownish, 
when mature, but spotted and striped when young. 
The male becomes shaggy, with a heavy crest or 
mane along the forward part. When young, the 
male follows the sow and the litter, but after three 
or four years roams alone, developing in ferocity, 
and attacking dogs and men when pursued. The 
great tusks are formidable weapons. The boar in- 
habits mostly low forests, where it roots up the 
ground in furrows. 

Domestication has greatly modified the hog. It 
has become docile, although old boars may be vic- 
ious when aroused. The most marked development 
has been in the great ability to lay on flesh. So 
far has this gone, that, in some cases, the legs will 
barely support the animal and it is practically 
incapable of locomotion to any extent. The head 
and snout have become refined and modified and 



SWINE 

changed in shape ; the color varies from white to 
brown-red and black ; the size from 150 pounds to 
as much as 900 pounds when mature and fat. Hogs 
are now slaughtered before they have reached full 
age, and the demand has changed somewhat from 
fat pork to lean bacon and hams. 

The hog is a non-perspiring animal (in the sense 
in which horses and men perspire). It wallows in 
water and mud to keep itself cool. In the hot mid- 
continental hog regions it is generally considered 
that wallows for hogs are necessary, but in other 
regions they need not be provided, particularly if 
groves or woods are accessible. The hog is usually 
considered to be a dirty or unclean animal in its 
habits, but this habit is due mostly to the way in 
which the animals are kept. Hogs would be clean 
if given an opportunity. The modern hoghouse 
plans for thoroughly cleanly and sanitary quarters 
(Vol. 1, p. 260). 

The male of the swine is known as a boar ; the 
female, as a sow. A young pig, particularly after 
weaning, is a shoat or shote ; a castrated animal 
is a barrow. A young sow is sometimes known 
as a gilt. In North America, the common gen- 
eric term for all these animals is hog ; in England 
pig seems to be preferred. In America, pig is 
generally used for a young hog. 

Swine are variously classified, according to color, 
size or utility. The classification by color has not 
been popular, but either of the other two may be 
said to be accepted. A classification based on 
utility — the production of lard or bacon — would 
seem to be the more rational ; but even this clas- 
sification is unsatisfactory, as some breeds are 
useful for both purposes. On this utility basis we 
have the American fat- or lard-hog type, embrac- 
ing the Berkshire, Chester-White, Cheshire, Duroc- 
Jersey, Essex, Poland -China, Small Yorkshire, 
Suffolk and Victoria ; and the bacon type, em- 
bracing the Large Yorkshire and Tamworth. If 
we classify the breeds according to size, we 
would have : (1) Large breeds : Chester - White, 




Fig.651. 



The Babirussa (Babirussa alfurus). Adapted 
from Brehm. 



Large Yorkshire, Tamworth. (2) Medium breeds : 
Berkshire, Cheshire, Duroc-Jersey, Hampshire, Po- 
land-China, Victoria. (3) Small breeds : Essex, 
Small Yorkshire, Suffolk. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 646. 



SWINE 647 

Lard- and Bacon-production. 

By M. W. Harper. 

Of late years, pork-production has become some- 
what diversified, and, as a result, we have two 
kinds of hogs, the lard hog and the bacon hog, the 
former noted for its natural heavy fat-production, 
the latter for its liberal admixture of lean with 
fat. In general appearance, the lard hog should be 




Fig. 652. The CoUared peccary (Decotyles torguatus). Three 
species are native in South America. 

compact, with a thick, deep body, short head, broad 
back, strong hams, short legs, and plenty of quality 
as shown in abundance and fineness of hair, strong 
bone and joints. The temperament should be mild, 
yet active, for the disposition has much to do with 
determining whether the animal is a desirable 
breeder or feeder. Size and weight have a bearing 
on the market price for pigs of this type, and at 
the present time the average weight of pigs sold 
on the market ranges about two hundred and 
twenty-five pounds. With the bacon hog, the back 
is not so broad, the sides are longer, the shoulder 
smoother, the ham lighter and the leg somewhat 
longer. The general flesh covering is much less 
fat than with the lard type. The weight of the 
bacon hog most acceptable in the market is 180 to 
190 pounds live weight, although 200 pounds is not 
excessive. The larger hog is not approved in the 
bacon - producing sections of this country, the 
smaller being preferred. Denmark, Ireland and 
Canada furnish much of the bacon of today. In 
describing the type most desired, the Ingersoll Pack- 
ing Company of Canada says that the packer calls 
for the long, lean pig, as it is the one that suits best. 
It is the most difficult to procure, but is the only 
kind that will furnish the desired "Wiltshire sides;" 
and it will also make any of the other cuts the 
market calls for. [See page 54, 55.] 

Factors in lard- and bacon-production. 

The differences in type have been brought about 
in part by climatic conditions, which control the 
kind of food with which the pork has been pro- 
duced, and in part by market requirements. 
Throughout the dairy districts of northeastern 
United States and in Canada, the bacon type can 
be produced at a handsome profit, due in part to 
the fact that bacon-producing foods can be grown 
more cheaply than lard-producing foods, and in 
part to the fact that there is a better market for 
the bacon type than for the lard type. This is 



648 



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especially true of Canadian bacon, which is ex- 
ported to England in large quantities. The ques- 
tion of a better market is very important, for hogs 
fed to produce a large percentage of lean meat, to 
be profitable, must sell for at least ten per cent 
more than the current prices. The eastern and the 
English markets, which are very discriminating, 
recognize this and pay the difference for a good 
product. On the other hand, throughout the corn- 
belt we have every condition favorable to the pro- 
duction of the lard hog. As long as corn can be 
produced as cheaply, compared with other crops, as 
at present, it must remain the great pork-producing 
food. Corn makes pork of fine quality and great 
firmness if properly fed. Since it is a highly car- 
bonaceous food, it must be supplemented with 
some food rich in protein if the best results are to 
be obtained. It is against the abuse of corn and 
not the use of corn, that we should contend, for if 
pork-production is to continue one of the leading 
industries, a large part of the product must con- 
tinue to be the result of feeding corn. Since corn 
is the great fat- or lard-producer, we have the lard- 
belt almost co-extensive with the corn-belt. It is 
well to bear in mind, also, that many packers 
in the West pay more for the fat or lard hog than 
for the bacon hog. This is not because they expect 
higher prices for lard, but because a high price for 
salt pork is paid for that which is thick, heavy 
and nearly free from lean meat. 

Among the qualities necessary for first-class 
bacon, none is of greater importance than firmness. 
A tendency to softness or tenderness is quite suffi- 
cient to rate bacon at second-class prices, and if 
this softness is at all pronounced, to make it alto- 
gether unsalable at a profit. 

Before we can discuss intelligently the production 
of "firm" and "soft" bacon or pork, it is necessary 
to ascertain the difference in composition between 
them. We find that the fats of meat are made up 
essentially of olein, — a fluid fat at ordinary tem- 
peratures, — and palmatin and stearin, — solid fats 
at ordinary temperatures. Hence, we conjecture 
that the percentage of olein would be greater in 
the fat of soft than of firm pork. The Central Ex- 
perimental Farm of Canada made some experiments 
to determine this matter, and found such to be the 
case — the soft fat containing a relatively higher 
percentage of olein and the firm fat a relatively 
higher percentage of palmatin and stearin. These 
experiments indicate that not only is there a close 
relationship between the consistency of a fat and 
its composition, but also that the food has a marked 
effect on the composition and hence on the consist- 
ency or relative firmness. The oil of certain foods 
possesses more of the fluid fats, while the oil of 
other foods possesses more of the solid fats, which 
find their way in part through the animal economy 
into the body fats. Again, the fat of very young 
pigs, of pigs that have made a rapid growth, and 
of pigs that have made an unhealthy growth, is 
softer than of finished pigs that have increased 
steadily in weight. As yet no exact standard of 
firmness has been established ; that is, it cannot be 
said exactly what percentage of olein is to be con- 



sidered as the limit for pork that may be said 
to be firm. 

Market rating of American bacon. 

Since our lard pork has a world-wide market, it 
need receive no comment here ; but since most of 
the bacon finds its way to England, it might be 
well to point out some of the peculiarities of the 
English market. England is the great bacon 
market, and procures most of this product from 
Denmark, Ireland, Canada and the United States. 
One fact worthy of consideration is that of these 
four countries, the bacon from the United States sells 
for less per pound than that from the other three 
countries. During the seventeen years for which 
we have figures regarding Danish bacon, the valu- 
ation per hundred pounds has been less than eleven 
dollars in only three years. In the years 1893 and 
1901, it was more than thirteen dollars. On the 
other hand, during the same period, in only three 
years has the bacon from the United States had a 
valuation of more than nine dollars per hundred 
pounds. In no year has it sold up to the average 
valuation per hundred pounds for the total imports 
of bacon to the United Kingdom. 

There are, perhaps, three general causes of this 
condition. First, as these figures would seem to 
indicate, the Danish bacon is no doubt a finer 
product than that produced in the United States. 
Second, there is a more constant demand for the 
Danish bacon in the English markets. Third, be- 
cause the Danes do furnish regularly the better 
bacon, they supply the finer trade. It is evident 
that the English people buy American bacon be- 
cause it is in abundance and cheap in price, and 
they pay for it only when forced to do so by the 
small amount and the high price of the Danish 
bacon. 

An example. 

The methods of producing Danish bacon may be 
of interest. Mr. J. H. Ginge, manager of the Cana- 
dian Packing Company, of London, Ontario, and 
others who have made a study of Danish methods, 
report that the Danish farmers select long, lean 
sows from the best mothers, more especially of 
white color. Pork-packing corporations bring in 
the right sort of boars, which are often of the 
Middle or Large English Yorkshire breed, as these 
produce the best English bacon. The finest Danish 
bacon is made by feeding the right sort of pigs on 
barley and rye, with boiled potatoes, raw turnips 
cut fine, skimmed milk, buttermilk and grass in 
summer and roots in winter. The young pigs are 
allowed to run about and grow without putting 
on much fat from the time they are weaned till 
within six or eight weeks of the time they are 
to go to market. A finished Danish bacon pig 
ranges from 180 to 225 pounds in weight. It is a 
long, lean hog with plump, well-developed hams, 
thick, straight belly, and fat on back not exceed- 
ing one and one-half inches in thickness. The Dan- 
ish hog is raised largely on dairy-farms, but many 
small lots are raised and fed by peasants or labor- 
ing men. As a rule, the grain fed is ground and 



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649 



soaked over night, mixed with other foods and 
given to the hogs when on the point of turning 
sour. The hogs are never fed more than is eaten 
up clean at each meal. 

Literature. 

For references, see page 646. 

The Feeding of Swine. Figs. 653-657. 

By W. J. Kennedy, Wayne Dinsmore and J. A. 
McLean. 

The question of swine-feeding engages the atten- 
tion of persons in practically all parts of the 
civilized world. In some places farmers engage in 
the industry as a specialty ; in others, only enough 
pigs are reared to utilize the wastes of the farm ; 
while in the American corn-belt, the hog is used to 
utilize that part of the grain ration which escapes 
the digestive organs of the cattle. In many coun- 
tries in which dairy-farming is followed as the 
chief occupation, pigs are reared and fed in con- 
siderable numbers as an auxiliary industry. While 
several different methods of feeding and manage- 
ment are pursued with good results, certain prin- 
ciples in common are recognized as forming the 
basis of the work. These will be treated under 
four different heads or divisions, namely : the 
breeding boar, the breeding sow and young pigs, 
finishing the lard or fat hog, and finishing the 
bacon hog. 

The breeding boar. 

The food of the boar should be varied somewhat 
in accordance with his age and the season of the 
year. Young boars should be fed more concen- 
trated food than should mature animals. During 
the breeding season, the boar should be fed more 
liberally and on a more nutritious ration than dur- 
ing that part of the year when not used for ser- 
vice. At all times the food of the boar should be 
varied, of a nutritious nature, and, in the case of 
grown animals, moderately bulky. It is especially 
important that some form of succulent food be 
supplied throughout the entire year. Where grass 



grain ration should be composed of foods rather 
rich in protein and of a cooling nature, as foods 
rich in carbonaceous matter tend to produce obes- 
ity and a heated condition of the digestive organs, 







Fig. 653. Pig-feeding scene in middle West. 

is not available, such foods as roots or finely cut 
clover or alfalfa leaves during the winter, and 
green food of some kind during the summer, should 
always be fed in addition to the grain ration. The 




Fig. 654. Colony houses and pens in the West. 

both of which are detrimental to any sires, often- 
times causing sterility 

Of the various kinds of grain, finely ground oats 
are perhaps the most desirable for the bulk of the 
ration. The addition of wheat middlings in the 
case of a young boar, or wheat bran in the case of 
a mature animal, to the extent of one-third to one- 
half of the ration by weight, added to the oats, 
makes a most useful combination. Skimmed milk 
may be fed to good advantage, especially to young 
boars. For the purpose of furnishing bulk, variety 
and succulence during the winter months, some 
second -crop clover or alfalfa hay, cut up finely, 
soaked in warm water and mixed with the grain 
ration, gives excellent results. The boar should 
not be overfed, but given just what he will eat up 
clean. By all means, the feeder should avoid hav- 
ing the boar fat, as it is just as injurious as 
to have him too thin. Regular exercise should be 
given throughout the entire year. This can usu- 
ally be furnished through the medium of a grass 
lot in the summer and a small yard adjoining the 
pen during the winter months. 

The feeding and management of breeding sows and 
young pigs. 

Breeding sows are kept for their present or pros- 
pective value as pig-producers. Their manage- 
ment and feeding is purely a business proposition. 
Irregular breeders, sows that produce but few pigs 
at birth, or sows whose pigs are not of high excel- 
lence as individuals, should be weeded out as soon 
as possible. Sows that are not in themselves good 
representatives of the type sought, and that are 
not descended from prolific ancestry, should not be 
taken into the herd as breeding sows. 

In the practical management of sows, or sows 
and pigs, health is of primary importance. Sun- 
light should have access to all parts of the hog 
sheds or shelters. With sunshine, good ventilation 
and thorough cleanliness must be provided. All 
sleeping quarters, feeding floors, troughs and shel- 
ters frequented by the pigs should be disinfected 
once a month with some good disinfectant. The 
coal tar or other good disinfectants should be used 
freely by means of a good barrel spray -pump. 
Careful study will enable any intelligent owner or 
herdsman to keep his herd in a healthy condition, 



650 



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and every hog -raiser should keep in touch with 
sources of information, such as the agricultural 
experiment stations and the national department 
of agriculture. 

In feeding breeding sows, the aim should be to 
supply the nutrients needed for maintenance or 
growth, and such additional food nutrients as may 
be required for the pigs in utero or nursing, as the 
case may be. Good pasture (blue-grass, clover or 
alfalfa) is the cheapest feed, and furnishes the 
elements most needed to build a strong, bony 
framework and a well-developed muscular system. 
In the southern states, cowpea and soybean pasture 
fill the place that is occupied by clover in the 




Fig. 655. Concrete hoghouse. 

central states and by alfalfa in the central-western 
and far western states. In most of the northern 
states, clover or alfalfa can be grown, and where 
these are not regularly grown the Canadian field- 
pea fills the same place, and, with blue-grass, — 
often known as June-grass — must form the chief 
pasture feed. The sows should have access to pas- 
ture for as much of the time as weather conditions 
will permit. In practically all localities south of 
the forty-second parallel of latitude, they can be 
permitted to range at will on winter pastures, ex- 
cept during the stormiest days of winter, which 
are few. 

If sows are to produce but one litter per year, 
this should come about the first of March ; when 
two litters are to be produced, the second litter 
should come early in September. Sows should be 
in fair flesh and gaining well about the time they 
are to be bred, for conception is then more certain. 
The period of pregnancy is 112 to 116 days. This 
makes it possible to have the sows on pasture (in 
all districts south of the forty-second parallel) dur- 
ing both periods when they are to'be bred. 

In feeding sows that are to produce but one lit- 
ter per year, one must see to it that their pigs are 
weaned by the first of August. Young sows that 
have never produced pigs should receive, from the 
time they are weaned until they are of age to 
breed, about one-half ration of grain ; and the 
mixtures recommended later for young growing 
pigs are the right ones for these young sows on 



pasture. Mature sows need nothing except good 
pasture during August and September. In Octo- 
ber, some corn — about two pounds per head — 
should be given to these sows on pasture to in- 
crease their gains. After the sows (young and 
mature) are bred, the feeder should return them 
to pasture and continue to feed some grain, pref- 
erably corn and oats in equal parts by weight. 
About three or four pounds of this grain should be 
allowed to 300- or 400-pound sows until late in 
December. Then the feeder must begin feeding 
ground corn, 2 parts, ground oats, 2 parts, and 
bran, 1 part. If corn is not available, barley or 
wheat may be substituted in its place. When the 
feeds named are not available, selection can 
be made from the following rations : corn 
7 parts, tankage 1 part ; corn 2 parts, cow- 
peas 1 part ; barley 2 parts, Canadian field- 
peas 1 part ; corn 2 parts, shorts 2 parts ; 
corn 2 parts, fine alfalfa 2 parts ; corn 3 
parts, soybeans 1 part. 

All these rations are to be mixed by 
weight. All are improved if mixed well with 
skimmed milk. Of these mixtures, about five 
or six pounds per head should be allowed 
daily. This grain should be fed dry or in a 
very stiff slop, and pasture allowed. In the 
northern states and Canada, where the se- 
verity of the winter prevents pasturing, 
the sows should have all the good bright 
clover, alfalfa or pea hay that they will eat, 
and daily exercise is essential. Even when 
sows are closely housed, as in the North, 
every pregnant sow should be obliged in 
some way to walk half a mile every day. Lack 
of exercise is certain to lead to trouble at farrow- 
ing time, either with the sows or pigs. 

Pregnant sows are liable to constipation, and 
this is likely to lead to a feverish condition at time 
of parturition. They should therefore be closely 
watched, and the bowels regulated by supplying 
more bulky feed, such as fine alfalfa or clover hay, 
or better still, more wheat bran. 

When the sow is due to farrow she should have 
a dry, comfortable stall or pen with but little bed- 
ding in it. The pigs should be removed as fast as 
they are born and placed in a basket or barrel on 
some dry straw. A blanket may be thrown par- 
tially over the top of the basket or barrel to keep in 
the heat, but care must be taken to permit access 
of air or the pigs will smother before the attend- 
ant is aware of it. At the end of three-quarters of 
an hour, the young pigs may be allowed to nurse, 
then returned to the barrel for two hours, when 
they may nurse again and then be left with the 
sow. The owner or attendant must be present to 
give close attention to sow and pigs as indicated, 
or success cannot be expected. 

For the first twenty-four hours after the pigs 
are born, the sow should receive no feed. All the 
lukewarm water she will drink may be allowed, 
but nothing more. After this she may be started 
on a light ration of J ground corn, \ ground oats, 
and | shorts, mixed with skimmed milk, using 3 
to 5 pounds of milk to one of grain. This may be 



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651 



gradually increased until by the end of ten days 
the sow is receiving all of this slop she will con- 
sume. This should be continued for at least two 
months. 

Other grain rations that can be substituted for 
the one given above are : 

In southern states. — Corn 3, cowpeas 2 parts. 
Corn 2, cowpeas 1 part, mixed with skimmed milk. 
Corn 3, soybeans 1 part. Corn 5, tankage 1 part. 

In far western states. — Barley 1, oats 1, shorts 
1 part. Barley 1, shorts 1 part. 

In far northern states and Canada. — Barley 2, 
peas 1, shorts 1 part. Barley 3, peas 1 part. Bar- 
ley 1, oats 1, shorts 1 part. 

All of the above rations are improved by mix- 
ing with skimmed milk. The grain should be ground 
for sows suckling young pigs. Numerous other 
grain rations could be suggested, but those given 
are thoroughly satisfactory, usually as cheap as 
any, and apply to practically all parts of the United 
States and Canada. No matter which of the above 
rations is chosen, the sow should be allowed all she 
will eat, and should also be put on good pasture as 
soon as possible. The pigs should be given a little 
of the feed in a small trough of their own, by the 
time they are three weeks old. They will soon learn 
to eat, and may then be allowed all they will con- 
sume. Any of the grain mixtures recommended for 
the sows nursing pigs will do for the young pigs, 
for in feeding the sow we are merely feeding the 
pigs through the dam. 

The pigs must also be kept dry for a week or 
two, and allowed plenty of exercise. This, with 
abundant feed, is all they need. As soon as sows 
and pigs are on good pasture, much less grain feed 
will be required, but the practice of allowing them 
all they will eat should be followed until they are 
at least three months old, for the gains made 
when the pigs are young are very much cheaper 
than any made thereafter. After the pigs are of 
this age, if feeds are high priced, they should be 




Fig. 656, Overlay of plank on cement floor. 

made to depend largely on good pasture, and the 
grain ration should be cut down to about half of 
what the pigs would eat. If feeds are cheap, the 
policy of full-feeding may be continued until the 



pigs are weaned, which will usually be when the 
pigs are about four or five months old. 

When two litters per year are to be raised, the 
pigs must be weaned when they are about six 
weeks old, to permit the sow to flesh up for a 
couple of weeks before re-breeding. If this is not 
done, it will seldom be possible to breed the sow 
as promptly as she should be bred. Pigs weaned at 
so early an age must be very liberally fed. 

Success in managing and feeding breeding sows 
or young pigs lies in keeping them healthy at all 
times, and in supplying them with an abundance 
of food, which will build up bones and muscles. 
Feeds lacking in protein and ash will not do, and 
the rations given are those which supply an abun- 
dance of the needed elements. Good pasture is one 
of the cheapest and one of the best feeds. 

Finishing the lard hog. 

In the corn-belt area of America, where corn is 
the chief part of the ration, hogs are used to fol- 
low the fattening steers, gleaning from their drop- 
pings the undigested food which would otherwise 
be wasted. From this source comes a large part of 
the food of the fat hogs of the market. They are 
given the same run as the cattle, and usually given 
the same amount of shelter, although in the milder 
parts of the country, where the winters are open 
and where the only shelter provided for the steers 
is a windbreak, there should be provided for the 
swine a shelter from the rain and snow by a tem- 
porary roof beneath which a dry sleeping-place is 
assured. 

The manner of feeding these pigs is determined 
largely by the form in which the corn is fed to the 
steers and by the quantity and nature of the sup- 
plementary feed-stuffs that enter into the ration. 
The corn is usually fed to the steers as ear corn, 
chopped corn, shelled corn, soaked shelled corn, 
corn meal or corn-and-cob meal. The most corn is 
available for the pigs if shelled corn forms the 
ration for the steers ; the steers consume more 
corn when it is fed in this form, eating it more 
rapidly, so that it is less perfectly masticated and 
more of it passes from the body unaltered. Soak- 
ing the corn from one feeding time to the next 
softens the corn so that less mastication is required, 
and results in a more nearly perfect digestion, so 
that much less corn is found in the droppings for 
the pigs. Grinding the corn for the steers has a 
result similar to soaking, but with the difference 
that what corn is found in the excreta, being in a 
much finer physical condition, is less perfectly 
gleaned by the swine, while they must work more 
diligently to get it. Grinding the cob with the corn 
insures a more complete digestion than of the corn 
meal alone, with the consequence that the swine 
following can secure but scant rations from the 
droppings. The addition of various supplementary 
foods containing a high percentage of digestible 
proteids has a marked effect on the utilization of 
the carbonaceous part of the ration, thus reducing 
to a minimum the available nutrients in the excreta 
when fed in conjunction with the "less wasteful 
forms of corn. 



652 



SWINE 



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When shelled corn alone forms the ration, the 
preferable practice is to place after the steers an 
equal number of pigs of about six months of age. 
They should be fed one-fourth to one-third of a 
pound of tankage per day, or its available proteid 
equivalent, in the form of a thin slop, to produce 
the maximum utilization of the excreted corn. 
During the first few months of feeding, no other 
concentrate need be added, but under such manage- 
ment, as the pigs approach ripeness they will prac- 
tically cease to make gains, and they will not 
thoroughly glean the corn from the droppings. For 
the last four or five weeks, therefore, they should 
be taken from the steer lots and fed as much corn 
as they will take per day, while in their place 
younger pigs should be placed after the steers. 




Fig. 657. Movable cot for use in fields. 

When the amount of food available for the swine 
is lessened by narrowing the ration, by grinding 
the corn or by the use of corn-and-cob meal, addi- 
tional corn should be supplied from the very be- 
ginning, varying from one and one-half to three 
pounds per head per day, according to the maturity 
of the pigs. As before, during the last weeks they 
should be removed entirely from the steer lot. It 
has been abundantly proved that for economic 
results from pigs following steers in dry lots, some 
nitrogenous concentrate should be fed, and that for 
the finishing period corn must be given in addition 
to that in the excreta. When hogs follow steers 
on pasture they will make slightly more economic 
gains when the only source of protein is the pas- 
turage. As in dry-lot feeding, the pigs should be 
closely yarded during the final weeks, receiving a 
ration of corn and tankage, meat meal or shorts, 
forming a nutritive ratio of 1:7. 

By far the greatest number of hogs are fitted 
for market during the summer and early fall 
months. During the summer the requirements for 
shelter, maintenance and labor are least, while gains 
are greatest and cheapest at this period of the 
year. Of these summer-fed pigs, much the greater 



per cent are fattened on pasture. It is found that 
pigs fed corn alone on blue-grass pasture make 
equally as great gains as pigs fed in dry lot on a 
ration balanced with the most suitable proteid-rich 
foods. However, clover or alfalfa pasture gives 
much greater gains than a timothy or blue-grass 
pasture, when corn alone is fed in conjunction. In 
fact, corn alone on an abundant clover pasture 
forms almost an ideal ration, excelling a ration of 
corn and shorts in parts two to one, and almost 
equaling a ration balanced with tankage or meat 
meal in rapidity of gains, while it excels all other 
rations on pasturage when both rate and economy 
of gains are considered. On pastures other than 
leguminous ones, it is desirable to use with corn a 
nitrogenous concentrate. Meat meal, tankage or 
oil-meal are very desirable foods for this purpose. 
Meat meal or tankage are most profitably used in 
the proportion of 1: 10 by weight, although slightly 
greater gains arise from a proportion of 1:5. Oil- 
meal, having a deleterious effect on the quality of 
the fats, should not be be used in the last weeks 'of 
finishing. Gluten feed, being in itself a corn by- 
product, and deficient in palatability, is not well 
suited for the purpose ; shorts are not sufficiently 
rich in protein to give the most profitable results, 
while wheat bran is too coarse and bulky. 

Feeding pigs in the dry lot in the summer markedly 
increases the cost of production. In dry lots the 
pigs require more concentrates per hundred poinds 
gain, are less thrifty, and make noticeably less 
gains. Under these conditions, the influence of 
adding protein to the ration is greater than on 
pasture. The most advantageous rations in dry- 
lot feeding but slightly excel the feeding of 
corn alone on timothy pasture, from the stand- 
point of rate of production, and it is much 
more costly at all times. 

Care must be exercised in the preparation of 
food for swine. Coarse, bulky foods never give 
satisfactory results ; as a consequence, the use of 
wheat bran, corn-and-cob meal, oat feed or gluten 
feed is not recommended. When corn is finally 
ground, or soaked from one feeding time to the 
next, there is a more thorough digestion. Coarsely 
ground corn, especially if it is dry, is poorly util- 
ized. Practically all rations should be mixed and 
soaked at least twelve hours, while all utensils 
must be kept sweet. 

Winter feeding does not differ essentially from 
dry-lot feeding during the summer, except that 
more feed is required per hundred pounds gain. 
Much of the winter feeding consists in following 
after steers, which method has been described 
already. 

Finishing the bacon hog. 

Throughout North America, bacon hogs are pro- 
duced chiefly in Canada and parts of those regions 
of the United States outside the corn-belt. While 
considerable bacon is manufactured in the United 
States, much of it is from fat-hog sides and is an 
inferior quality of meat. There is, however, some 
feeding of hogs for bacon practiced in the more 
eastern, the northern and the mountain states, 



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653 



where the food-stuffs are adapted to this purpose 
rather than to the production of the fat hog. 

In the bacon hog only a moderate degree of fat- 
ness is desired, not exceeding an inch in thickness 
along the spinal column. The fat and lean must 
be nicely interspersed. But even more essential 
than the quantity of fat is the quality of it. In 
b icon production, a common source of trouble 
arises from the softness of the sides. There is a 
certain firmness to the fat, a freedom from greasi- 
ness and softness which is absolutely essential in 
No. 1 bacon. This quality is never secured in 
bacon made from the sides of fat hogs, nor can it 
be secured where, in feeding, the methods used are 
similar to those used in feeding fat hogs ; neither 
is the desired quality found in pigs that are car- 
ried to extreme weights. The pigs must be mark- 
eted between 180 and 220 pounds, after having 
been fed in a careful manner, if the bacon is to be 
of the highest grade. 

In the production of bacon the feeds entering 
into the ration must be carefully chosen. Some of 
the feed-stuffs used for pork-production can be 
used but sparingly, if at all, for bacon. The use of 
corn in the proportion larger than one-third of the 
ration is almost certain to produce softness. Feed- 
ing rye or beans exclusively produces similar 
results. Even an over-abundance of green forage 
tends to produce a softness in the bacon. The 
feeds used most largely and successfully are bar- 
ley, peas, oats, shorts and skimmed milk, and these 
feeds give best results when mixed rather than 
when used alone. Although "Canada pea-fed bacon" 
has had considerable reputation of late years, peas 
have been a small factor in feeding operations. 
When used alone they give dry, rather hard, fla- 
vorless bacon. Barley is the feed most used. It 
should be ground or soaked twenty-four hours ; it 
can be fed alone, but gives better results if a 
small quantity of peas, oil-meal, tankage or finely 
ground oats is added. Oats are objected to because 
of their hulls, which for younger pigs necessitates 
sieving them ; with larger pigs careful grinding 
makes them usable. 

Bacon is usually a production of dairy districts, 
where skimmed milk is always available. Skimmed 
milk makes an excellent feed, and if supplied in 
the proportion of 3 to 5 of milk to 1 of meal gives 
the very best results both in gain and in quality of 
meat. 

Summer feeding on pasture of clover, alfalfa or 
rape supplies the greater quantity of bacon. Less 
skimmed milk is required on such pastures, and a 
protein-rich supplement is not required. One of 
shorts to two of barley with skimmed milk makes 
one of the most satisfactory rations. In the north- 
ern states there is a greater use of shorts, corn and 
of small or spoiled wheat. One of corn to two of 
shorts, or a ration solely of damaged wheat, gives 
satisfactory results. In Colorado, some bacon is 
produced on peas alone, gleaned in the field, but so 
little has been done that conclusions can not be 
drawn. 

Winter feeding is approximately 25 per cent 
more costly. The succulence supplied by the pas- 



tures must be furnished by mangels or sugar-beets, 
while more tankage, blood meal, oil meal or skim- 
med milk must be used to balance the ration. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 646. 

Determining the Age of Swine. 

By H. H. Wing. 

While swine have two sets of teeth, temporary 
and permanent, as in the other domestic animals, 
the dentition is so irregular as to be of little service 
in determining the age of the animal. Moreover, 
the difficulty of catching, holding and examining 
the animal is so great that the teeth are seldom, if 
ever, used to determine the age of swine. In market 
stock, the age does not play an important part, as 
the value depends entirely on the weight and con- 
dition of the animal, except in the case of old sows 
and stags (castrated mature males). The former 
are easily distinguished by evidence of having 
suckled pigs, and the latter by the tusks and the 
development of the "shield" — a coarse heavy fold 
of muscle under the skin on the shoulder. In breed- 
ing animals, the age is always indicated on the cer- 
tificate of registry of pure-bred stock. 

Common Ailments of Swine. Figs. 658-662. 
By John R. Mohler and George H. Hart. 

Probably the most important diseases of swine 
are tuberculosis and hog cholera, which have been 
described by Dr. Moore on pages 135 and 137. 
These two diseases have been given the greatest 
amount of attention by investigators with a view 
to determining satisfactory methods of prevention 
and treatment. In addition to these two affections, 
there are a number of ailments of hogs that cause 
serious losses, although they have received but 
scant consideration either from the hog-raiser, vet- 
erinarian or investigator. In fact, stockmen are 
very reluctant to secure the services of a veteri- 
narian for their sick hogs unless the losses are 
great or the existence of an infectious disease is 
suspected. Medicines should never be given unless 
there is a well-defined idea as to what they are 
expected to accomplish, and "specifics" for hog 
diseases should be avoided the same as " specifics " 
for affections of man. 

The most satisfactory way of administering 
medicine to hogs internally is by putting it in their 
feed or drink, as drenching adult hogs is often dan- 
gerous. To no other class of animals is the adage, 
"an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of 
cure," so applicable as it is to hogs, and preven- 
tion of disease by rational, decent treatment, which 
includes proper housing, feeding, breeding, and the 
like, should be given first consideration. 

Paralysis or paraplegia. 

This is an ailment of hogs, the nature of which 
is not clearly understood. It is characterized by a 
progressive paralysis, affecting first the hind-legs 
and gradually extending over the entire body (Fig. 



SWINE 




Fig. 658. Muscular system of the hog. 1, Superior levator muscle of the lip; 2, superior 
levator proprius muscle of the lip: 2 ( . accessory muscle to the levator; 3. muscle cauinus 
(pyramidalis); 4, muscle depressorrostrum;5, muscle orbicularis oris; 6, inferior depressor 
muscle of the lip: 7, muscle zygomaticus major; 8. masseter muscle; 9, 9 ( , 9«, muscle cleido- 
mastoideus; 10, muscle sterno-mastoideus; 11, muscle steruo-hyoideus; 12, a small part of 
the shoulder portion of the trapezius muscle; 13, trapezius muscle; 14, ventral levator 
muscle of the scapula; 15, latissimus dorsi muscle, 16, dorso-lumbar fascia; 17, external 
oblique abdominal muscle; 17i, tendinous fescia of external oblique muscle; 18, inferior 
posterior serratus muscle; 19, portion or anterior serratus muscle: 20, portion of the 
smaller pectoral muscle; 21, supraspinatus muscle; 22, deltoid muscle; 23, the long head of 
the triceps muscle; 24, the outer or lateral head of the triceps; 25, muscle tensor fascia 
anti brachii; 26, muscle brachialis anti brachii; 27, muscle extensor carpi radialis; 28, 
muscle extensor digiti quarti; 29, muscle extensor digiti quinti; 30, muscle extensor carpi 
ulnaris; 31, mnscle palmaris longus; 32, muscle glutens medius: 33, muscle tensor fascisB 
lata?; 34, muscle glutens maximus; 35, muscle biceps femoris; 36, muscle semi tendinosus; 
37, muscle semimembranosus; 38, tail muscle; 39. subcutaneous fat. (After Ellenberger.) 

659). Excessive feeding of corn has been advanced 
as a cause in some instances. It has also been said 
that kidney worms are a causal factor, but they 
can be excluded, as the disease is frequently seen 
in hogs which, on postmortem examination, are 
found to be free from kidney worms, while, on the 
other hand, many hogs affected with kidney worms 
do not become attacked with paraplegia. Animals 
dead of the disease show no constant lesions. The 
most important symptoms consist in the progressive 
weakness of the hind-quarters, which is unaccom- 
panied by any general disturbances. The appetite 
remains good and there is no emaciation until late 
in the disease. 

Treatment. — This consists in deep point-firing of 
the affected animals with the actual cautery, mak- 
ing eight punctures on each side of the spinal col- 
umn in the region of the loins. The iron should not 
be more than one-eighth of an inch thick and 
should be at a red heat. It is made to penetrate 
about two inches, so as to pass through the subcu- 
taneous layer of fat into the muscles. The first 
holes should be made about three inches in front of 
the tail and one and one-half inches to each side of 
the median line of the back. They are then con- 
tinued forward about one and one-half inches apart 
until eight have been made on each side. A small 
quantity of vaseline should be rubbed over the 
punctures. Corn should be withdrawn from the 
diet. Improvement begins in one to two weeks 
following the firing, and in the majority of cases 
complete recovery occurs. Considerable care is 
demanded in the application of this treatment. 

Mange. 

This is a not uncommon contagious skin disease 
of pigs, caused by two varieties of animal para- 



SWINE 

sites, the Sarcoptes sea- 
biei, and the Demodex 
follirulorum. The female 
of the sarcoptes burrows 
into the skin, giving rise 
to irritation and the for- 
mation of papules, vesi- 
cles, pustules and crusts. 
The crusts are often the 
initial evidence of the 
disease noticed by the 
owner, and appear first 
about the'eyes and ears. 
From these locations the 
disease spreads to the 
neck, inner side of the 
thighs, flanks, withers 
and may cover the entire 
body. There is marked 
itching, due to the irri- 
tation set up by the para- 
sites in the skin. In se- 
vere cases there is loss 
of flesh and unthrifti- 
ness, and in young pigs 
death may occur. The 
sarcopt of the pig is the 
largest of its species and 
can be seen with an ordinary hand-lens by remov- 
ing the crusts and examining the scrapings from 
the skin. The disease is contagious, and healthy 
hogs may contract it from affected hogs, or by 
being placed in infested pens or yards. 

Treatment. — When only a few animals are at- 
tacked, the crusts and scabs should be removed by 
scrubbing with soap and water, followed by the 
application of a 3 per cent creolin solution or an 
ointment composed of sulfur 2 drams, resorcin 1 
dram, and vaseline in sufficient quantity to make an 
ounce. Balsam of Peru in ointments, a dram to the 
ounce, is valuable as a curative agent, but it is ex- 
pensive. The treatment should be continued daily 
until all the parasites are destroyed. When large 
numbers of animals are affected, dipping is the 
only practical treatment. (Pig. 660.) The animals, 
however, should not be dipped in cold weather nor 
should they have mud cakes over the body at the 
time of dipping. In bad cases, the dip should be 
rubbed into the skin of the animals by means of a 




Fig. 659. Hog with paralysis. 

broom or brush. A second dipping should be given 
at the expiration of six days to kill the young 
parasites that have hatched since the first treat- 
ment. The lime and sulfur dip may be used, con- 
sisting of unslaked lime 10 pounds, flowers of 
sulfur 24 pounds, and water 100 gallons. 






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655 



The Demodex folliadorum, causing the other vari- 
ety of hog mange, lives deep in the hair follicles 
and sebaceous glands. Its presence causes pustule 
formations, which rupture and leave small ulcers 
on the skin. The soft skin is usually attacked, as 
the snout, neck, belly and inside of the legs. The 
parasite is present in the pustules in enormous 
numbers. The outlook for recovery is doubtful, 
as the parasites are so deep that parasiticides do 
not reach them. In case the animals are market- 
able, they should be sent to the butcher at once. 
Otherwise the treatment as recommended in sar- 
coptic mange may be tried, but the course of treat- 
ment will be necessarily prolonged. [For further 
information on mange and lice in hogs, see Bureau 
of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 69.] 

Verminous bronchitis. 

This is a common disease of pigs in certain 
localities, characterized by an inflammation of the 
bronchial tubes with paroxysms of coughing and 

stunting of the 
growth. The 
cause is a small 
round worm, 
the Strongylus 
paradoxus , 
about one inch 
in length and 
of the thickness 
of a thread. It 
may be present 
in enormous 
numbers and 
completely 
plug the small 
bronchial tubes 
mechanically, 
giving rise to 
irritation of 
the lining 
membrane. 
The disease 
A large per- 
The 




Fig. 660. Dipping pigs for mange and 
lice. Ready for the plunge. (Peters.) 



is most frequent among young pigs, 
centage of the animals are usually affected, 
owner's attention is first attracted by the parox- 
ysms of coughing, which are very constant. This 
continues over many weeks ; the growth of the 
animal is stunted and emaciation becomes marked. 
The diagnosis is made positive in case of doubt by 
killing one of the worst affected animals and exam- 
ining the lungs for the presence of the parasites. 
In making this examination, it is important to open 
the bronchial tubes longitudinally with the scissors 
and not crossways, as the worm may be readily 
overlooked by the latter method. 

Care should be taken in purchasing new pigs 
that they are free from the disease. Young pigs 
in infested localities should not be allowed to run 
over low marshy ground, or drink from pools and 
ditches. 

Treatment. — The use of drugs in this disease is 
rather unsatisfactory. It is better to kill adult 
pigs for food, in the early stages. In young and 
half- grown pigs, a teaspoonful of turpentine in 



milk swill or other fluid food should be given three 
times daily. Turpentine is excreted by the lungs, 
numbs the worms, and allows them to be expelled 
during the fits of coughing. 

Black tooth. 

Many farmers are inclined to attribute various 
ailments of swine to the presence of one or more 




Fig. 661. Hog with rachitis or rickets. 

dark-colored teeth in the mouth. As soon as any 
of the animals become sick the mouth is examined, 
and in case black teeth are found they are consid- 
ered sufficient to account for the trouble. This 
discoloration of the teeth is due to the deposit of 
tartar, and in the majority of cases can be readily 
scraped off, leaving the white enamel underneath. 
Black teeth are often found in the mouths of healthy 
animals, never produce any abnormal condition, 
and their presence cannot account for any symp- 
toms the animal may be showing. At the time of 
shedding the milk teeth and penetration of the 
permanent teeth through the gums, the latter may 
become sore and interfere with mastication, but 
this has no connection with the presence of black 
teeth. 

Rachitis or rickets. 

This is a bone disease of young pigs, the cause 
of which is not positively understood. It is thought 
to be due to errors in diet and to indigestion, 
together with mal-assimilation of food and lactic 
acid fermentation, as a result of which there is 
not sufficient lime deposited in the bones, and they 
remain too soft. 

The affected animals are usually stunted in growth 
and poorly nourished. There is lameness, with the 
swelling of the bones about the joints, making the 
latter appear too large. This is especially notice- 
able in the hock and pastern joints. The legs may 
be so weak that they are unable to support the 
body weight. (Pig. 661.) In some cases the nasal 
and maxillary bones are involved, and become 
enlarged to the extent of causing difficult respi- 
ration. This form of the disease has been termed 
"bull nose" and "snuffles." The latter name, how- 
ever, should not be used in designating rickets [see 
catarrhal rhinitis, page 656]. The emaciation is 
often progressive ; the animals are unable to move 
about, and die from weakness or some terminal 
affection, as pneumonia or enteritis. 

Treatment. — Attention to the diet is important. 
It should consist of concentrated nutritious nitrog- 
enous food. Carbohydrates (starchy foods) are 



656 



SWINE 



SWINE 




Fig. 662. Hog with sore montt 
or canker. 



more likely to undergo fermentation, with lactic 
acid formation, which is to be avoided. Milk, mid- 
dlings and bran are valuable. At the same time 
lime-water should be added to the milk or given to 
drink. Ground bone-meal may be added to the feed. 
Sunlight, fresh air, clean quarters and exercise 
are important. Medicinally, the precipitated phos- 
phate of calcium in one-dram doses, two or three 
times daily in the 



feed.togetherwith 
oil of phosphorus 
in one-drop doses, 
is valuable. 

Sore mouth. 

This is an ail- 
ment of young 
pigs, also called 
necrotic stoma- 
titis and canker of 
the mouth, affect- 
ing the mouth and 
adjacent struc- 
tures. It is caused 
by a specific microorganism, and is frequently 
associated with constitutional disturbances. The 
direct cause of the condition is the Bacillus necroph- 
orus. It usually appears in winter and lasts until 
warm spring weather. (Pig. 662.) 

The first symptoms noticed are a disinclination 
to take nourishment and the dropping of saliva 
from the mouth. On examination is found a con- 
gestion of the gums, and in more advanced cases 
necrotic patches, especially about the region of 
the front teeth and tusks. The necrosis of the 
gums may be so extensive that the teeth loosen and 
fall out. The jaws are swollen, and the lips and 
snout are frequently cracked and covered with 
scabs. There is a foul odor to the mouth. The dis- 
ease often extends to the larynx, pharynx, and in 
some cases to the nasal cavities. In the latter case, 
the term snuffles has been applied, but its use should 
be discouraged when referring to this disease. [See 
Catarrhal rhinitis.] The mucous membrane of the 
stomach and intestines may become involved, caus- 
ing an offensive diarrhea. Prostration and emaci- 
ation may be excessive. The disease, if untreated, 
may result fatally in one to five weeks, but with 
proper treatment nearly all cases recover. The dis- 
ease may be transmitted to healthy hogs. The 
association, however, must be intimate, and there 
must be a break in the continuity of the mucous 
membrane of the mouth in order that the germ 
may gain entrance. 

Treatment. — The affected animals should be re- 
moved from the healthy, and the sheds and pens 
disinfected by thoroughly saturating them with 5 
per cent carbolic acid, or rrAny bichlorid of mer- 
cury solution. Medicinally, the mouth should be 
washed with 2 per cent warm creolin solution to 
soften and remove the necrotic patches, or the 
animal may be grasped and its head forced down 
into the solution contained in a bucket. After 
washing in this solution, a 10 per cent ointment of 
salicylic acid or ichthyol may be applied in aggra- 



vated cases. The treatment should be repeated 
daily until the condition is cured. 

Catarrhal rhinitis. 

Catarrhal rhinitis is an inflammation of the 
mucous membrane lining the nasal cavities, also 
called acute coryza or cold in the head. The con- 
dition results from exposure to cold, especially 
when the animal is in a run-down condition, or 
after over-heating or eating improper food, or get- 
ting the surface of the body wet during a cold 
rain. 

The animal appears less active than usual, stands 
in protected places away from the cold, and may 
show slight chills. The eyes are red, the appetite 
is reduced and constipation is present. Soon, a 
watery discharge appears from the nostrils. In a 
day or two this becomes thicker and composed of 
mucus, and later changes to a thick purulent dis- 
charge which dries on the nose, occluding the nos- 
trils and giving rise to difficulty in breathing. 
The animal makes violent snorting efforts to clear 
the nose, and these may result in rupture of a 
small blood-vessel in the engorged mucous mem- 
brane, and lead to hemorrhage. The blocking of 
the nostrils, with consequent snuffling, has caused 
the word snuffles to be used as a synonym for the 
disease. The use of this term is more or less con- 
fusing, as it is used indiscriminately at present to 
designate the nasal form of rickets, sore mouth, 
which has extended into the nasal cavity, and 
catarrhal rhinitis. In rickets, the obstruction is due 
to enlargement of the bones. While the Germans 
have used snuffles as a synonym for this disease, it 
would seem that "bull nose" is more descriptive 
of the condition. In cases of sore mouth, the term 
should not be used, as the nasal involvement is 
merely an extension of the inflammation from the 
canker in the mouth. The word snuffles in reality 
refers only to one symptom, and it is doubtful 
whether it should be used to designate any disease 
entity. If it is to be used, however, it should be 
confined to cases of rhinitis, or cold in the head, as 
in this disease above all others the symptom of 
snuffling is constant. 

Acute coryza usually terminates in recovery in 
one to two weeks. However, it may run into a 
chronic nasal catarrh, or complications, as bron- 
chitis or pneumonia, may intervene and lead to a 
fatal termination. 

Treatment. — The animal should be protected 
from the cold, and have clean, well-lighted quar- 
ters. Liquid foods, as milk or slops, should be 
warmed. Medicinally, li ounces of castor-oil 
should be given. Fumigation may be tried by plac- 
ing the animals in an enclosed room and burning 
tar. Tincture of belladonna leaves in one-half-tea- 
spoonful doses may be added to the feed twice dailv 
to lessen the nasal secretions. 

Thumps, or spasm of the diaphragm. 

This ailment is common in young pigs, and usu- 
ally affects the fattest and most thrifty animals in 
the litter. Thumps is similar to the same condition 
in horses, which has been described on page 440 



SWINE 



SWINE 



657 



It sets in suddenly and usually occurs as a result 
of digestive disorders, especially overloading of the 
stomach. Worms or any other cause of irritation 
may produce it. Excitement and insufficient exer- 
cise may likewise cause it to appear. 

The first indication of this trouble is a sudden 
jerking movement of the flank, which continues at 
irregular intervals, being more frequent at one 
time than at another. It may increase in strength, 
causing a violent thumping or throbbing of the 
side and producing a backward and forward move- 
ment of the body. The animal takes but little 
exercise, has a poor appetite, and in some cases 
becomes unthrifty and stunted. 

Treatment. — If worms are suspected as the cause 
of thumps, the pigs should be treated for worms 
by giving dried sulfate of iron in the swill, at the 
rate of one-fourth pound of the sulfate for forty 
pigs, once daily. This -treatment may be given for 
at least a week and continued if necessary. If the 
condition is caused by indigestion, the quantity of 
food should be reduced, access given to charcoal or 
wood-ashes, and as much exercise afforded as pos- 
sible every day. If practicable, the pigs should be 
turned on pasture and plenty of opportunity given 
to run around. At the beginning of the trouble, a 
physic of two ounces of raw linseed oil, followed 
with three to ten drops of the tincture of opium in 
a little oil, should be given every four hours. 

Cottonseed poisoning. 

This is a peculiar, often fatal poisoning of hogs, 
resulting from the ingestion of too large a quantity 
of cottonseed meal, or feeding it over too long a 
period of time. The acute poisonous principle is 
not definitely known, although all domestic animals 
are liable to its effects if fed in sufficient quanti- 
ties. 

The symptoms may follow a single ingestion of 
the material in those cases in which the animal has 
got into a bin or feed room and eaten its fill. It 
more commonly occurs, however, after the hogs 
have been fed on the material for a period cover- 
ing several weeks. In some cases there may be 
several mild attacks, as evidenced by loss of appe- 
tite and jerky movements of the flanks (thumps), 
which pass off in a few days if the cottonseed feed 
is stopped. In other cases, after the feed has been 
given for about four weeks the animals, without 
warning, drop over, kick and squeal for a few 
moments and die from asphyxia due to edema of 
the lungs. In these cases, on post-mortem exami- 
nation there is found an intense congestion and 
cloudy swelling of the internal organs, with severe 
inflammation of the gastro-intestinal tract and 
edema of the lungs. 

Treatment. — The positive prevention is the abso- 
lute withdrawl of cottonseed meal from the ration 
of hogs. Cottonseed meal, however, is a valuable 
food for hogs, and given in the proper quantities it 
is safe. The amount to be given, as pointed out by 
Dinwiddie, varies with the weight of the hog, and 
should be one-fourth pound per day for animals 
under 50 pounds, one-third pound per day for 
animals between 50 and 75 pounds, 0.4 pound per 

C42 



day for animals between 75 and 100 pounds, and 
one-half pound for animals between 100 and 150 
pounds. 

Inguinal hernia. 

Inguinal hernia is a condition extremely common 
in young male pigs. It consists of the descent of a 
loop of the intestine into the scrotal sac. It is 
diagnosed by the enlargement of the affected side 
of the scrotum, the doughy feeling of the mass, 
and by the fact that it is reducible in the majority 
of cases by manipulation or by raising the hind- 
quarters of the animal. These latter measures 
cause the protruded part of the intestine to pass 
back into the abdominal cavity, leaving only the 
testicle in the scrotum. If not treated, the growth 
of the animal is frequently stunted, and the intes- 
tine may become strangulated and cause death in 
a short time. 

Treatment. — This necessitates the castration of 
the animal. In young pigs, anesthesia is not neces- 
sary. The animal is either suspended by its hind- 
legs or held on its back with the hind-quarters 
elevated. An incision is made through the skin 
directly over the tumor. The hernial sac is sepa- 
rated from the surrounding tissue. When possible, 
the hernia is reduced without opening the sac. In 
case adhesions have formed, it is necessary to cut 
into the sac and separate them before reduction can 
be accomplished. After the loop of the intestine 
has been put back into the abdominal cavity, the 
sac and testicular cord are twisted up to the 
inguinal ring, which obliterates the sac. A ligature 
is then applied close to the ring and fixed to the 
lips of the ring by a suture or two to prevent 
entwisting of the sac. The testicle is then removed, 
and the skin wound sutured, a strip of iodoform 
gauze being inserted for drainage. The other test- 
icle is usually removed at the same time. 

Every precaution possible should be taken to 
prevent infection of the affected parts. 

[The following infectious diseases are discussed 
by Dr. Moore, in addition to hog cholera and tuber- 
culosis mentioned above : Swine erysipelas, page 
133 ; swine plague, page 133.] 

Literature. 

The literature relating to the diseases of swine 
will be found in part in books relating to the dis- 
eases of other farm stock (which see). Craig and 
Bitting, Diseases of Swine, Bulletin No. 100, Pur- 
due University, Agricultural Experiment Station ; 
Geo. M. Rommel, The Hog Industry : Selection, 
breeding and management, Bureau of Animal In- 
dustry, Bulletin No. 48 ; F. D. Coburn, Swine Hus- 
bandry : A practical manual for the breeding, 
rearing and management of Swine, with sugges- 
tions as to the prevention and treatment of their 
diseases ; G. T. Brown, The Pig : Its External and 
Internal Organization ; R. Jennings, Sheep, Swine 
and Poultry, embracing the history and varie- 
ties of each, best modes of breeding, their feeding 
and management, together with the diseases, etc. 
[For further references, see page 646, and pages 
124-146.] 



658 



SWINE 



SWINE 



Berkshire Swine. Fig. 663. 

By G. E. Day. 

Berkshire swine are of the "fat-hog" type, and 
are greatly valued in America, ranking among the 
first in popularity. 

Description. 

The Berkshire is a stylish, handsome hog, the best 
type being of rather more than medium size, although 
not so large as the Large Yorkshire or the Tamworth. 
The snout is of medium length, and the face dished. 
The ears are generally nearly erect, although in 
the larger strains and in aged animals they fre- 
quently incline forward. They should be well car- 
ried. The jowl is rather heavy, and the neck short, 
usually carrying considerable crest. The shoulder, 
back and rump are of good width, although the 
back is probably not quite so broad as that of the 
Poland-China. The ham is thickly meated, and is 
generally somewhat trimmer in appearance than 
that of the Poland-China. The Berkshire generally 
has good depth of body, and indications of a strong 
constitution. The bone is of excellent quality in 
the best specimens, and the animal usually stands 
well on its feet. The standard color is black, with 
a white mark on the face, white on each foot, and 
white on the tip of the tail. Sometimes, some of 
these white markings are absent, and sometimes 
white occurs on other parts of the body, such as a 
white blotch on the jowl, on the shoulder, or else- 
where. The standard of excellence prepared by 
the American Berkshire Association does not dis- 
qualify an animal for defective markings, but 
in selecting breeding-stock, some breeders shun 
animals too freely marked with white. 

Following is the standard of excellence adopted 
by the American Berkshire Association : 

Scale of Points for Berkshire 

SWINE Perfect 

score 

1. Color. — Black, with white on feet, face, tip of 

tail and an occasional splash on the arm . . 4 

2. Face and snout.— Short, the former fine and 

well dished, and broad between the eyes ... 7 

3. Eye. — Very clear, rather large, dark hazel or 

gray 2 

4. Ear. — Generally almost erect, but sometimes in- 

clined forward with advancing age ; medium 
alee, thin and soft 4 

5. Jowl. — Full and heavy, running well back on 

neck 4 

6. Neck. — Short and broad on top 4 

7. Hair. — Fine and soft, medium thickness .... 3 

8. Skin.— Smooth and pliable 4 

9. Shoulder. — Thick and even, broad on top, and 

deep through chest 7 

10. Back. — Broad, short and straight; ribs well 

sprung, coupling close to hips 8 

11. Side. — Deep and well let down ; straight on bot- 

tom lines 6 

12. Flank. — Well back and low down on leg, mak- 

ing nearly straight line with the lower part of 
side 5 

13. Loin.— Full and wide 9 

14. Ham. — Deep and thick, extending well up on 

back, and holding thickness well down to hock 10 



Scale of Points for Berkshire Swine, 

continued Perfect 

score 

15. Tail. — Well set up on back ; tapering and not 

coarse 2 

16. Legs. — Short, straight, and strong, set wide 

apart, with hoofs erect and capable of holding 
good weight ' 5 

17. Symmetry. — Well proportioned throughout, de- 

pending largely on condition 6 

18. Condition. — In a good, healthy, growing state ; 

not over-fed 5 

19. Style. — Attractive, spirited, indicative of thor- 

ough breeding and constitutional vigor ... 5 

Perfection 100 

History. 

The name Berkshire comes from County of Berks 
in England. The breed is not by any means confined 
to this county, but is now spread all over the 
British Isles. The original Berkshire was of ancient 
origin, and very little is known regarding its origin. 
The color of the old Berkshire was commonly a 
sandy, or reddish brown, spotted with black, or 
white with black spots. It was very much coarser 
than the present type and possessed lopped ears ; 
but even in its unimproved state, it had a reputa- 
tion for producing a good quality of meat. 

As to the method of improvement, it is said by 
some that black Siamese boars were used on the 
old Berkshire sows, and some persons state that 
white, and black and white Chinese boars, were also 
used. It is easy to understand how breeds of the type 
of Siamese and Chinese swine should be eminently 
well adapted to modifying the original coarse type 
of Berkshire. Mr. A. B. Allen favors the theory 
that Chinese blood was used to some extent, and 
from his investigations in England, fixes the begin- 
ning of improvement in the Berkshire by crossing 
as some time previous to 1780. 

In America. — According to Allen, the first impor- 
tation of Berkshires to America was made in 1823, 
by John Brentnall of New Jersey. The next im- 
portation was in 1832, and great numbers have 
been brought into the United States since that 
time. It is stated that the first importation to 
Canada was made about 1838. Coburn states that 
for ten years subsequent to 1831, speculation in 
importing and selling Berkshires at inflated prices 
was rife in the United States, and that the methods 
employed by speculators did much to prejudice 
persons against the breed, and seriously retarded 
its progress. The breed has outlived this prejudice, 
however, and has firmly established itself in the 
confidence of both American and Canadian farmers. 

Distribution. 

Berkshires are found in every state and territory 
of the United States, the most important centers 
being Illinois, Missouri, Indiana, Texas, Ohio, Kan- 
sas, Iowa, New York, Michigan, and Tennessee. 
They also are found in every Canadian province, 
the province of Ontario taking the lead. They are 
found in practically all parts of the British Isles, 
in South America, in Hawaii, and in some European 
countries. 



SWINE 



SWINE 



659 



Types. 

The type of the Berkshires is affected by the 
methods of individual breeders, and, to some ex- 
tent, by the market demands of the countries in 
which they are bred. In the United States there 
was a tendency for some time to breed a fine- 
boned, somewhat undersized type, emphasizing 
smoothness and quality rather than size. Fortu- 
nately, however, some of the leading American 
breeders are maintaining both size and quality, 
and the future of the breed is no doubt safe in 
their hands. In Canada, owing to the demands 
of the market for bacon hogs, and owing to 
the competition of strictly bacon breeds, the 
tendency on the part of the best Berkshire 
breeders has been to select for a lengthy, 
strong-boned type, which, compared with the 
American type, looks somewhat leggy and 
coarse, but which, in reality, is a first-class 
farmer's hog. A good deal is heard at present 
about the so-called Large English Berk- 
shire. The Large English Berkshire is no dif- 
ferent in breeding from the ordinary Berk- 
shire, but in England, as in any other country, 
the Berkshire will be found to vary more or 
less in type, and some importers select the 
larger, stronger-boned animals for importation 
to America, and call them Large English Berkshires. 
As a matter of fact, they may be litter mates of 
animals of the very finest-boned type. 

Uses. 

The Berkshire is better suited for supplying the 
market demand for fat hogs than it is for produc- 
ing bacon hogs. When backs, shoulders, and hams 
are the main requirements, the Berkshire fits in 
exceptionally well ; but for the export bacon trade 
in what are known as "Wiltshire sides," the Berk- 
shire has scarcely enough length of side, and has 
too heavy a neck and shoulder, because the neck 
and shoulder furnish cuts which are low in price 
and difficult to sell in connection with a " Wilt- 
shire side." When crossed with the Large York- 
shire or Tamworth, an excellent farmer's hog is 
the result, although it is perhaps a little nearer to 
the bacon type than to the fat type. Berkshires 
have made an exceptionally good showing in the 
market classes at leading American shows, where 
they come into competition with other breeds. 

It is difficult to secure data regarding the rela- 
tive early maturity of different breeds, but the 
Berkshires certainly stand well in this respect. 
They attain reasonably good weights at an early 
age and fatten readily. It is a matter of dispute 
whether they are equal to the Poland-China in 
point of early maturity, some good authorities 
placing the Poland-China first, while others would 
place the Chester-White or Duroc-Jersey at the 
head of the list. As a matter of fact, it is quite 
probable that among the best representatives of 
the breeds mentioned, there is not any very marked 
difference in point of early maturity. 

As an economical converter of feed into pork, 
the Berkshire is probably not excelled, although it 
would be too much to say that it leads other breeds 



in this respect. Breed experiments have been con- 
ducted at several agricultural experiment stations, 
but if we study each individual experiment care- 
fully, we will be forced to the conclusion that the 
ability to make economical use of food is appar- 
ently a question of individuality rather than one 
of breed. With our present knowledge of the prob- 
lem, we feel safe in stating that the Berkshire will 
produce pork as cheaply as any other breed. 

The flesh of the Berkshire is of excellent quality, 
and carries a large proportion of lean to fat. 




Fig. 663. Berkshire sow. 



Investigations regarding the quality of meat ±rom 
different breeds generally agree in giving the 
Berkshire a high place both in quantity of lean 
and fineness of quality. With more length of side, 
and less tendency for the fat to run unduly thick 
over the top of the shoulder and neck, the Berk- 
shire would make a capital " Wiltshire side " of 
bacon. 

Berkshire sows of the more lengthy type are 
prolific, and generally make good mothers. The 
extremely fine, short type of sow does not, as a 
rule, produce such large litters. The boars are pre- 
potent, and cross well with almost any other breed, 
as well as being useful for improving common 
stock. 

Organizations and records. 

The American Berkshire Association was organ- 
ized in 1875, and has the distinction of having 
started the first record of swine in America. The 
first herdbook was published in 1877, and up to 
the present (1908) thirty volumes have been issued, 
containing the names of 111,540 animals. 

Registration of Berkshires in Canada was begun 
in 1876, and was conducted by the Agriculture and 
Arts Association until 1891, when the records were 
taken over by the newly organized Dominion Swine 
Breeders' Association. The first volume of the 
Dominion Swine Breeders' Record was published in 
1892. This record recorded all breeds of swine 
represented in Canada. In 1905, the Dominion Swine 
Records, together with nearly all the live-stock 
records in Canada, were placed under the direct 
supervision of the Canadian Department of Agri- 
culture at Ottawa, but are under the control of a 
"Record Board," comprised of representatives 
elected by the various breed organizations. This 
National Live-Stock Record records all breeds of 



660 



SWINE 



SWINE 



swine in Canada, but the herdbook still keeps 
the name of Dominion Swine Breeders' Record. Up 
to January 1, 1908, eighteen volumes of the record 
had been published, and 25,804 Berkshire pedigrees 
recorded. 

In England, Berkshires are recorded in the 
British Berkshire Herdbook, controlled by the 
British Berkshire Society. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 646. 

Cheshire Swine. Fig. 664. 

By G. E. Day. 

Cheshire swine are a breed of American origin, 
and may be classed with the fat-hog types. They 
have not attained much popularity outside of a 
restricted area in New York state. 

Description. 

The Cheshire is about medium in size, but some 
specimens attain heavy weights. It is said that the 
Cheshire weighs well for its appearance, and is a 
heavier breed than is generally supposed. Although 
the body is not noted for depth, it generally has 
good length, and the shoulders and hams are 
usually well developed. The face is slightly dished, 
and the ear rather small and erect. The bone is 
fine, and of fair quality. The color of the breed is 
white. Black spots frequently occur on the skin, 
which, though objectionable, do not disqualify. 

Following is the standard of excellence and scale 
of points adopted by the Cheshire Swine Breeders' 
Association : 

Scale op Points for Cheshire 

SWINE Perfect 

score 

1. Head. — Short to medium in length, short in pro- 

portion to length of body 8 

2. Face. — Somewhat dished and wide between the 

eyes 8 

3. Jowl. — Medium in fulness 3 

4. Ears. — Small, fine, erect, and in old animals 

slightly pointing forward 5 

5. Neck. — Short and broad 3 

6. Shoulders.— Broad, full and deep 6 

7. Girth around heart 8 

8. Back. — Long, broad and straight nearly to root 

of tail 10 

9. Sides. — Deep and full ; nearly straight on bot- 

tom line 7 

10. Flank. — Well back and low down, making flank 

girth nearly equal to heart girth 3 

11. Hams. — Broad and nearly straight with back, 

and running well down toward hock .... 10 

12. Legs. — Small and slim, set well apart, support- 

ing body well on toes 10 

13. Tail. — Small, slim and tapering 3 

14. Hair. — Fine, medium in thickness and quantity . 3 

15. Color. — White; any colored hairs to disqualify . 2 

16. Skin. — Pine and pliable ; small blue spots objec- 

tionable but allowable 3 

17. Symmetry. — Animal well proportioned, hand- 

some, and stylish; and when grown and well 
fattened should dress 400 to 600 pounds ... 8 

Perfection 100 



History. 

The Cheshire originated in Jefferson county, 
New York, and dates from about 1855. J. H. San- 
ders, of Chicago, who bred Cheshires for some 

years, stated in 

a letter to F. D. 

Coburn, that he 

considered the t, "<M"M. ftyjTV 

Cheshire to be MSS^'.; %%'>/>£& 

"simolv a deriv- WSA*, ^£^^\ 




Fig. 664. Cheshire bairow. 



"simply a deriv- 

ative of the 

Yorkshire." The 

Yorkshire was 

brought into 

Jefferson county 

and used on the white pigs of the district. Early 

in the sixties hogs of this breed were shown at 

the agricultural fairs, where they attained some 

popularity. The Swine Breeders' convention, in 

a meeting at Indianapolis, Indiana, in 1872, 

adopted the name Cheshire for the breed. It is 

thought that Suffolk blood was also used in 

the combination, which eventually resulted in the 

Cheshire. 

Distribution. 

The Cheshire is found mainly in New York state, 
with a few scattered herds in other states, more 
particularly in certain of the New England and 
Middle states. The breed has made but little prog- 
ress, and does not seem likely ever to attain 
prominence. No doubt a few have been taken into 
Canada, but none have ever been recorded in the 
Canadian record. 

Types. 

In his letter to F. D. Coburn, previously referred 
to, J. H. Sanders stated that in his herd he had pro- 
duced " all the different types of Yorkshire, from 
the Large York down to the Lancashire Short- 
Face." The type he succeeded in producing " was 
almost identical, in size, form, and quality, with 
the most approved medium Berkshire." As bred at 
present, the type probably does not vary any more 
than that of other breeds. 

Uses. 

The Cheshire, as generally seen, belongs more 
to the fat hog than to the bacon class, although it 
should not be difficult to develop it into a fairly 
good bacon breed. It appears to be a good feeder, 
and its meat is admitted to be of excellent quality. 
The sows are fairly prolific and breed very readily, 
and the boars appear to be prepotent, although but 
little is known regarding their value for crossing 
purposes. 

Organizations and records. 

The Cheshire Swine Breeders' Association was 
organized in 1884, and has published four volumes 
of its herdbook to date (1908). The first volume 
appeared in 1889. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 646. 



SWINE 



SWINE 



661 



Chester-White Swine. Fig. 665. 

By G. E. Day. 

The Chester-White is an American breed of swine 
jf the fat- or lard-hog type, but possessing good 
bacon qualities. 

Description. 

Some years ago, the Chester- White was rated as 
the largest breed in the United States, but modern 
methods of breeding have decreased the size and 
produced an animal of more quality than the 
original type. As bred at present, the Chester-White 
may be ranked as of medium size, or about the same 
as the Poland-China. The face is straight, or 
very slightly dished, and the snout is gener- 
ally somewhat longer than that of the Poland- 
China. The ear droops, somewhat like that 
of the Poland-China, although it is generally 
heavier, and the droop, or break, is usually 
farther from the tip. It is common for the 
ear to be somewhat loosely attached to the g 
head. In general conformation, the Chester- 
White is similar to the Poland-China, although j 
the latter generally excels in depth and ful- ^ 
ness of ham. 

The color is white, no black hair being 
admissible, although it is common for black 
or bluish spots to occur on the skin. In 
many specimens, the hair has a decided tendency 
to be wavy, and even curly. 

Following is the scale of points adopted by the 
Standard Chester-White Record Association : 

Scale of Points for Chester-White 

SWINE Perfect 

score 

1. Head and face 4 

2. Eyes 2 

3. Ears 2 

4. Neck 2 

5. Jowl 2 

6. Shoulders 6 

7. Chest 9 

8. Back and loin 15 

9. Sides and rib 8 

10. Belly and flank 6 

11. Hams and rump 10 

12. Feet and legs 10 

13. Tail 1 

14. Coat 2 

15. Color 5 

16. Size 5 

17. Action and style 4 

18. Condition 4 

19. Disposition 3 

Perfection 100 

Disqualifications. 

Form. — Upright ears ; small cramped chest ; crease 
around back of shoulders and over the back, causing a 
depression easily noticed ; feet broken down, causing the 
animal to walk on pastern joints ; deformed or badly 
crooked legs. 

Size. — Chuffy, or not two-thirds large enough for age. 

Condition. — Squabby fat; deformed, seriously deformed; 
barrenness ; total blindness. 

Score. — Less than sixty points. 



Pedigree. — Not eligible to recora. 
Color. — Black or sandy spots in hair. 

Detailed description. 

1. Head and face. — Head short and wide ; cheeks neat 
but not too full ; jaws broad and strong ; forehead 
medium, high and wide. Face short and smooth ; wide 
between the eyes ; nose neat and tapering and slightly 
dished. 

Objections. — Head long, narrow and coarse ; forehead 
low and narrow ; jaws contracted and weak. Face long, 
narrow and straight ; nose coarse, clumsy or dished like 
a Berkshire. 

2. Eyes. — Large, bright, clear and free from wrinkles 
or fat surroundings. 




Fig. 665. Chester-White boar. 

Objections. — Small, deep or obscure ; vision impaired 
in any way. 

3. Ears. — Medium size, not too thick ; soft ; attached 
to the head so as not to look clumsy ; pointing forward 
and slightly outward ; fully under the control of the ani- 
mal and drooping so as to give a graceful appearance. 

Objections. — Large, upright, coarse, thick, round, too 
small ; drooping too close to the face, animal not being 
able to control them. 

4. Neck. — Wide, deep, short, and nicely arched. 
Objections. — Long, narrow, thin, flat on top ; tucked 

up ; not extending down to breast-bone. 

5. Jowl. — Full, smooth, neat and firm ; carrying full- 
ness back to shoulder and brisket when the head is car- 
ried up level. 

Objections. — Light ; too large and flabby ; rough and 
deeply wrinkled ; not carrying fullness back to shoulder 
and brisket. 

6. Shoulders. — Broad, deep and full, extending in a 
straight line with the side, and carrying size down to line 
of belly. 

Objections. — Narrow at top or bottom, not full nor 
same depth as body ; extending above line of back ; 
shields on boars too coarse and prominent. 

7. Chest. — Large, deep and roomy, so as not to cramp 
vital organs ; full in girth around the heart, the breast- 
bone extending forward so as to show slightly in front of 
legs, and let down so as to be even with line of belly, 
showing a width of not less than seven inches between 
fore-legs of a full-grown hog. 

Objections. — Narrow, pinched; heart girth less than 
flank girth ; too far let down between fore-legs ; breast- 
bone crooked or too short. 

8. Back and loin. — Back broad on top, straight or 
slightly arched ; uniform width, smooth, free from lumps 
or rolls ; shorter than lower belly line ; same height and 
width at shoulder as at ham ; loin wide and full. 

Objections. — Back narrow, creased back of shoulders ; 
sun-fish shaped, humped, swayed, too long, or lumpy rolls; 
uneven in width ; loin narrow, depressed or humped. 

9. Sides and ribs. — Sides full, smooth, deep, carrying 



662 



SWINE 



SWINE 



size down to belly ; even with line of ham and shoulder ; 
ribs long, well sprung at top and bottom, giving hog a 
square form. 

Objections. — Flat, thin, flabby, compressed at bottom ; 
shrunken at shoulders and ham ; uneven surface ; ribs 
flat and too short. 

10. Belly and flank. — Same width as back, full, making 
a straight line and dropping as low at flank as at bottom 
of chest ; line of lower edge running parallel with sides ; 
flank full and even with body. 

Objections. — Belly narrow, pinched, sagging or flabby ; 
flank thin, tucked up or drawn in. 

11. Hams and rump. — Ham broad, full, long, wide and 
deep, admitting of no swells ; buttock full, neat and 
clean, thus avoiding flabbiness ; stifle well covered with 
flesh, nicely tapering towards the hock. Rump should 
have a slightly rounding shape from loin to root of tail ; 
same width as back; making an even line with sides. 

Objections. — Hams narrow, short, not filled out to stifle; 
too much cut up in crotch or twist, not coming down to 
hocks ; buttocks flabby. Rump flat, narrow, too long, too 
steep, sharp or peaked at root of tail. 

12. Legs and feet. — Legs short, straight, set well apart 
and squarely under body ; bone of good size, firm, well 
muscled ; wide above knee and hock ; below knee and 
hock round and tapering, enabling animal to carry its 
weight with ease ; pastern short and nearly upright. Feet 
short, firm, tough and free from defects. 

Objections. — Legs too short, long, slim, crooked, too 
coarse ; too close together ; weak muscles above hock 
and knee ; bone large and coarse without taper ; pasterns 
long, crooked, slim like a deer's ; hoofs long, slim, weak ; 
toes spreading, crooked or turned up. 

13. Tail.—- Small, smooth, tapering, well set on ; root 
slightly covered with flesh ; carried in a curl. 

Objections. — Coarse, long, clumsy, set too high or too 
low ; hanging like a rope. 

14. Coat. — Fine, straight or wavy; evenly distributed 
and covering the body well ; nicely clipped coats no 
objection. 

Objections. — Bristles, hair coarse, thin, standing up, not 
evenly distributed over all of the body except the belly. 

15. Color. — White (blue spots or black specks in skin 
shall not argue impurity of blood.) 

Objections. — Color any other than white. 

16. Size. — Large for age and condition ; boars two 
years old and over, if in good flesh, should weigh not less 
than 500 pounds ; sow same age and condition, not less 
than 450 pounds. Boars eighteen months old in good flesh 
should weigh not less than 400 pounds ; sows, 350. Boars 
twelve months old, not less than 300 pounds ; sows, 300. 
Boars and sows six months old, not less than 150 pounds 
each ; and other ages in proportion. 

Objections. — Overgrown, coarse, uncouth, hard to 
fatten. 

17. Action and style. — Action easy and graceful, style 
attractive ; high carriage ; in males, testicles should be 
readily seen ; same size and carriage. 

Objections. — Sluggish ; awkward, low carriage, wab- 
bling walk ; in males, testicles not easily seen, not of 
same size or carriage, or only one showing. 

18. Condition. — Healthy ; skin clear and bright, free 
from scurf and sores ; flesh fine and mellow to the touch; 
evenly laid on and free from lumps; good feeding qual- 
ities. 

Objections. — Unhealthy ; skin scaly, scabby or harsh ; 
flesh lumpy or flabby ; hair harsh, dry and standing up 
from body ; poor feeders ; total deafness. 

19. Disposition. — Quiet, gentle and easily handled; 
with ambition enough to look out for themselves if neg- 
lected. 

Objections. — Cross ; restless, vicious or wild ; no 
ambition. 



History. 

Most authorities on this breed recognize three 
strains of Chester-White swine, the origin of which 
may be briefly summed as follows : 

(1) The original Chester- White originated in Ches- 
ter county, Pennsylvania, whence the name. Large, 
white pigs were common in Chester county many 
years ago. They were taken there by the earliest 
settlers, although just where these original pig8 
came from is not altogether clear. About the year 
1818, Captain James Jeffries imported from Eng- 
land a pair of white pigs, which are spoken of as 
Bedfordshire pigs, and as Cumberland pigs. Cap- 
tain Jeffries used the boar on the native white pigs 
of the district with good results. Later, it is stated, 
white Chinese pigs were imported to Chester county 
and crossed on the native pigs. Eventually the 
different strains of blood were combined, and from 
this combination came the original Chester-White 
breed. 

(2) Todd's Improved Chester-White has a some- 
what complicated history. About 1827, Norfolk 
Thin Rind pigs were imported from England to Con- 
necticut. Two brothers, named Todd, bought a boar 
of this breed, and a sow of what was called the 
Grass breed, and took them to Ohio, where they 
were bred together with considerable success. 
Later, a Joseph Haskins brought to Ohio a boar of 
the Byfield breed, and a sow similar to the original 
Todd sow. The Todd and Haskin pigs were freely 
bred together. Isaac Todd also used other boars in 
his herd, one of which was said to have been of the 
large Grass breed, and another was called a Nor- 
mandy boar ; little is known of the breeding of 
either. Both of these boars were white in color. 
In 1865, Isaac Todd introduced Chester-White blood. 
His son, S. H. Todd, made further use of the Ches- 
ter-White, and by careful breeding and selection 
evolved what is known as Todd's Improved Chester- 
White. 

(3) The Ohio Improved Chester-White is the prod- 
uct of the efforts of L. B. Silver, of Ohio, who, in 
1865, began breeding Chester-Whites, and who 
aimed to produce a superior type through selection. 

Distribution. 

The Chester- White is largely distributed over the 
United States. It is very popular in the eastern 
states, and is strongly represented in Ohio, Indiana, 
Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania 
and other states. It has also spread to the South, to 
some extent at least, and seems to be giving satis- 
faction. For some reason it has gained a much 
stronger foothold in Canada than the Poland-China, 
probably because it seems more easily bred to a 
lengthy type than the Poland-China. 

Types. 

The Chester-White is capable of showing ex- 
treme variations of type in the hands of different 
breeders. In American show -rings, the short- 
legged, fine-boned, deep, thick, smooth type is 
generally preferred by the judges, who seem will- 
ing to sacrifice considerable size in order to get 
smoothness and quality. Larger, heavier-boned 



SWINE 



SWINE 



663 



types occasionally appear, but are generally dis- 
couraged by the judges. In Canada, greater im- 
portance is attached to length, and some very 
lengthy, heavy-boned Chester- Whites are frequently 
seen in Canadian show-rings. At the 1907 Pro- 
vincial Winter Fair, at Guelph, Ontario, a pair of 
Chester-White carcasses were exhibited in the 
bacon class in competition with Yorkshires, Tam- 
worths and Berkshires, and though they were not 
ideal bacon carcasses by any means, they were 
good enough to win sixth prize ; and a number of 
Yorkshire and Tamworth carcasses, together with 
all the Berkshire carcasses, were ranked below 
them. Any person who has seen the unequaled 
exhibit of bacon carcasses at Guelph, will under- 
stand that these hogs must have been about as far 
away in type from the American prize-winning 
Chester-White as it is possible to get. This is an 
extreme case, but it illustrates the possibilities of 
the breed under different systems of selection and 
feeding. As to the different strains mentioned in 
the history of the breed, they have now all 
assumed very much the same type. 

Uses. 

Although the Chester-White can be made to 
approach the bacon type through selection and 
feeding, as mentioned in the preceding paragraph, 
it can never be made an ideal bacon hog, and it 
seems like a waste of energy to attempt to make 
it a bacon breed when first-class bacon breeds are 
already available. The Chester-White is especially 
adapted to the fat-hog trade, and will no doubt 
continue as such. Crosses of the Chester-White 
with the Large Yorkshire and Tamworth have 
given very satisfactory results in Canada, and it 
is only through crossing that Chester- White blood 
can be used successfully in the bacon trade. For 
the requirements of the American packer, the 
Chester- White is eminently well suited. 

The quality of meat produced by the Chester- 
White is good, but is somewhat lacking in lean. 
It is generally conceded that the Yorkshire, Tam- 
worth and Berkshire produce more lean in propor- 
tion to fat. 

In early maturity, the Chester-White compares 
favorably with other breeds, and it is an economi- 
cal producer of meat. In feeding trials it has 
given a good account of itself, but, as previously 
stated, no breed can claim superiority over other 
breeds in this respect, so far as we can judge 
from experimental work and from practical expe- 
rience. The Chester-White is also a good grazer, 
and in this feature probably excels the Yorkshire 
and the Tamworth, which are better adapted to 
pen feeding. 

It is said that the Chester-White, as a breed, is 
somewhat more prolific than the Poland-China and 
the fine type of Berkshire. The assertion is sup- 
ported by the findings of Dr. A. W. Bitting, who 
investigated the matter in 1897. 

For crossing purposes, the Chester -White is 
highly esteemed, a cross with the Poland-China 
being regarded with especial favor by feeders. 
The grade Chester-White sow is a very useful far- 



mer's pig, and pure-bred boars are very effective 
in improving common stock. 

Organizations and records. 

The American Chester- White Record Association 
took over the business of the Chester-White 
Record Association in 1894. The Chester-White 
Record Association was organized in 1884, to sup- 
port Todd's Improved Chester-White Swine, and 
issued four volumes previous to 1894, when it was 
changed to the American Chester-White Record. 
Thirteen volumes of the Record have been pub- 
lished to date (1908), with 18,528 registrations. 
The Ohio Improved Chester-White Swine Breeders' 
Association was organized in 1897. For registra- 
tion in the herdbook of this Association, pedigrees 
must trace to the herd of L. B. Silver, who has 
already been referred to as the originator of the 
Ohio Improved Chester - White, or the 0. I. C. 
strain, as it is generally called. The Standard 
Chester-White Record Association was organized 
in 1890, and has issued thirteen volumes of its 
herdbook to date (1908), containing 31,877 regis- 
trations. The National Chester-White Record 
Association was organized in 1880, and has pub- 
lished twelve volumes of its herdbook, containing 
over 18,000 registrations. 

In Canada, Chester-Whites are recorded in the 
Dominion Swine Breeders' Record, and 6,261 ani- 
mals have been recorded to date (1908). 

Literature. 

The American Chester-White Record Association 
has undertaken the publication of an annual called 
"The Annual Chester- White Bulletin," which con- 
tains some information regarding the breed, names 
of breeders and advertisements. " The Chester- 
White Hog Breeders' Directory," by Frank F. 
Moore, Secretary of the Standard Chester-White 
Record Association, contains considerable informa- 
tion, of interest to Chester-White breeders. [For 
further references, see page 646.] 

Duroc-Jersey Swine. Figs. 666, 667. 

By G. E. Day. 

The Duroc-Jersey is an American breed of swine, 
and is of the fat- or lard-hog type. 

Description. 

The Duroc-Jersey is similar in size to the Ches- 
ter-White and the Poland-China. Some specimens 
are of very large size, but the tendency of modern 
breeding is toward a medium size, with rather 
fine bone. It is possible that breeders are going 
too far in reducing the size of the animal and the 
weight of its bone, and the larger, heavier-boned 
hog will always find an important place in this 
breed, as, indeed, in all others. The snout is of 
medium length ; the face slightly dished ; the ear 
drooped, much the same as that of the Poland- 
China ; the jowl heavy ; the body wide and deep, 
set on short legs of medium to fine bone ; the ham 
heavily fleshed, and the body generally noted for 
thickness rather than for length. Cherry-red is the 



664 



SWINE 



SWINE 






popular color, but yellowish red and chestnut are 
frequently seen. A few black spots on belly and 
legs do not disqualify, but are objectionable. 
Black markings on any other parts of the body are 
very serious objections. 

Following is the scale of points and description 
adopted by the American Duroc-Jersey Record. It 
gives in detail the points desired in the breed and 
as well the characters that are undesirable avoided. 

Scale of Points for Duroc-Jersey 

SWINE Perfect 

score 

1. Head and face 4 

2. Eyes 2 

3. Ears 2 

4. Neck 2 

5. Jowl 2 

6. Shoulders 6 

7. Chest 12 

8. Back and loin 15 

9. Sides and ribs 8 

10. Belly and flank 6 

11. Hams and rump 10 

12. Legs and feet 10 

13. Tail 1 

14. Coat 2 

15. Color 2 

16. Size 5 

17. Action and style 4 

18. Condition • • 4 

19. Disposition 3 

Perfection 100 

Disqualifications. 

Form. — Ears standing erect ; small cramped chest, and 
crease back of shoulders and over back so as to cause a 
depression in the back easily noticed ; seriously deformed 
legs, or badly broken-down feet. 

Size. — Very small, or not two-thirds large enough as 
given by the standard. 

Score. — Less than fifty points. 

Pedigree. — Not eligible to record. 

Detailed description. 

1. Head and face. — Head small in proportion to size of 
body; wide between eyes; face nicely dished (about half 
way between a Poland-China and a Berkshire), and taper- 
ing well down to the nose ; surface smooth and even. 

Objections. — Large and coarse ; narrow between the 
eyes ; face straight ; crooked nose, or too much dished. 

2. Eyes. — Lively, bright and prominent. 
Objections. — Dull, weak and obscure. 

3. Ears. — Medium, moderately thin, pointing forward, 
downward and slightly outward, carrying a slight curve ; 
attached to head very neatly. 

Objections. — Very large, nearly round, too thick, swing- 
ing or flabby ; not of same size ; different position and 
not under control of animal. 

4. Neck. — Short, thick and very deep and slightly 
arching. 

Objections. — Long, shallow and thin. 

5. Jowl. — Broad, full and neat ; carrying fulness back 
to point of shoulders and on a line with breast-bone. 

Objections. — Too large, loose and flabby ; small, thin 
and wedging. 

6. Shoulders. — Moderately broad, very deep and full ; 
carrying thickness well down and not extending above 
line of back. 

Objections. — Small, thin, shallow ; extending above 
line of back. Boars under one year old heavily shielded. 



7. Chest. — Large, very deep, filled full behind shoul- 
ders ; breast-bone extending well forward so as to be 
readily seen. 

Objections. — Flat ; shallow, or not extending well down 
between fore-legs. 

8. Back and loin. — Back medium in breadth ; straight 
or slightly arching ; carrying even width from shoulder to 
ham ; surface even and smooth. 

Objections. — Narrow, crease behind shoulders ; swayed 
or humped back. 

9. Sides and ribs. — Sides very deep, medium in length; 
level between shoulders and hams, and carrying out full 
down to line of belly. Ribs long, strong, and sprung in 
proportion to width of shoulders and hams. 

Objections. — Flabby, creased, shallow, and not carrying 
proper width from top to bottom. 

10. Belly and Jlanh. — Straight and full and carrying 
well out to line of sides. Flank well down to lower line of 
sides. 

Objections. — Narrow ; tucked up or drawn in ; sagging 
or flabby. 

11. Hams and rump. — Broad, full and well let down 
to the hock ; buttock full and coming nearly down and 
filling full between hocks. Rump should have a round 
slope, from loin to root of tail ; same width as back and 
well filled out around tail. 

Objections. — Ham narrow, short, thin, not projecting 
well down to hock ; cut up too high in crotch. Rump nar- 
row, flat or peaked at root of tail ; too steep. 

12. Legs and feet. — Medium size and length, straight, 
nicely tapered ; wide apart and well set under the 
body ; pasterns short and strong. Feet short, firm, and 
tough. 

Objections. — Legs extremely long, or very short, slim, 
coarse, crooked ; legs as large below knee and hock as 
above ; set too close together ; hocks turned in or out of 
straight line. Feet, hoofs long, slim and weak ; toes 
spreading or crooked. 

13. Tail. — Medium ; large at base and nicely tapering, 
and rather bushy at end. 

Objections. — Extremely heavy ; too long and ropy. 

14. Coat. — Moderately thick and fine ; straight, smooth 
and covering the body well. 

Objections. — Too many bristles ; hair coarse, harsh 
and rough, wavy or curly ; swirls, or not evenly laid over 
the body. 

15. Color. — Cherry-red, without other admixtures. 
Objections. — Very dark red or shading brown ; very 

pale or light red ; black spots over the body ; black flecks 
on belly and legs not desired but admissible. 

16. Size. — Large for age and condition. Boar two 
years old and over should weigh 600 pounds ; sow same 
age and condition, 500 pounds. Boar eighteen months, 475 
pounds ; sow, 400 pounds. Boar twelve months, 350 
pounds ; sow, 300 pounds. Boar and sow pigs six months, 
150 pounds. The figures are for animals in a fair show 
condition. 

Objections. — Rough and coarse and lacking in feeding 
qualities. 

17. Action and style. — Action vigorous and animated. 
Style free and easy. 

Objections. — Dull or stupid ; awkward and wabbling. In 
boars, testicles not easily seen nor of same size or car- 
riage ; too large or only one showing. 

18. Condition. — Healthy; skin free from scurf, scales, 
sores and mange ; flesh evenly laid over the entire body 
and free from any lumps. 

Objections. — Unhealthy, scurfy, scaly, sores, mange ; 
too fat for breeding purposes ; hair harsh and standing 
up ; poor feeders. 

19. Disposition. — Very quiet and gentle ; easily han- 
dled or driven. 

Objections. — Wild, vicious or stubborn. 






SWINE 



SWINE 



665 



History. 

Red pigs have existed in the United States for a 
great many years, and there seems to be no satis- 
factory account of their origin. It is said that 
slave traders brought in a red breed of hogs from 
western Africa, known as the Guinea breed. It 
is also stated that Henry Clay imported 
Spanish red pigs in 1837, and that Daniel 
Webster brought red pigs from Portugal in 
1852. It is further stated that the Berk- 
shire, which, in its early days was freely 
marked with red or sandy hair, is responsi- 
ble for some of the red pigs. Whatever breeds, 
or mixture of breeds, were responsible, it is ^ 
certain that a large breed of red hogs attained / :k 
to considerable prominence in New Jersey, and 
was eventually given the name of Jersey-Red. 
The Jersey-Red had large lop ears, and good 
length of body. It was rather long in the 
leg, and coarse in bone and hair. It was "^ 
valued because of its size, strong constitu- 
tion, and rapid growth. 

The Duroc originated in Saratoga county, New 
York, and, to put it briefly, resulted from crossing 
a red boar on the common sows of the district. It 
is uncertain whether the boar came merely from 
another part of New York state, or from England. 
It is said that the boar was named " Duroc " after 
a famous stallion, and hence the name of the breed. 
The Duroc also had lopped ears, but it was a much 
finer type of pig than the Jersey-Red. 

In the course of time, the breeders of Jersey-Reds 
and Durocs came together, and the two breeds were 
blended into one, under the name of Duroc-Jersey. 
The amalgamation took place in 1883. 

Distribution. 

The Duroc-Jersey is found in a great many 
states, the most important of which are Iowa, Illi- 
nois, Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, Indiana, Ohio, 
Minnesota, Oklahoma, Texas, Kentucky, Tennessee, 
Michigan and Wisconsin. The breed is also largely 
represented in many other states. The breed has 
been introduced into Canada, but has not made 



striving for a fine-boned, smooth type of hog of 
medium size. It is asserted by some persons that 
this refining process has been carried too far, and 
breeders are to be found who are producing hogs 
of more bone and more size. These larger, heavier- 
boned hogs are attracting considerable attention 





<i0mm 



Fig. 666. Duroc-Jersey sow. 

much progress as yet in that country. It is prac- 
tically unknown outside the United States and 
Canada. 

Types. 

Like other breeds, Duroc-Jerseys present varia- 
tions in type. On the whole, breeders have been 



Fig. 667. Duroc-Jersey boar. 

among Duroc-Jersey breeders, and it would seem 
that they would yet perform an important work 
for the breed. 



The Duroc-Jersey is essentially a producer of fat 
or lard hogs, and it seems to be meeting the 
demands of the American packer in a satisfactory 
manner. As a bacon hog, it is not a success. 

It is an early maturing hog, and makes economical 
gains, as has been demonstrated by experiments. 
It must be repeated again, however, that individu- 
ality is much more important than breed in regard 
to economy of production. It is safe to say that 
the Duroc-Jersey will make as cheap gains as 
any other breed. The Duroc-Jersey has consider- 
able reputation as a grazer, and also takes kindly 
to corn-feeding. It has an advantage over most 
white breeds, in that its skin does not blister with 
the sun, and it is therefore gaining favor in the 
South. The meat of the Duroc-Jersey is similar to 
that of the Chester-White and the Poland-China 
when fed under the same conditions. If fed a 
mixed ration, it is capable of producing meat with 
a good proportion of lean. 

The Duroc-Jersey, for a fat hog, is prolific, 
although it can hardly be said to equal the Large 
Yorkshire and the Tamworth in this respect. 

The Duroc-Jersey crosses well with other breeds, 
and a cross with the Poland-China and the Berk- 
shire is very popular. The boars do excellent work 
as improvers of common stock. 

Organizations and records. 

The American Duroc-Jersey Swine Breeders' 
Association was organized in 1883, but it was not 
incorporated until 1888. The first herdbook was 
published in 1885, and twenty-five volumes have 
been issued since, containing 38,000 registrations. 
The National Duroc-Jersey Record Association was 
organized in 1891, and published its first herdbook 
in 1893. It has published twenty-eight volumes to 
date, containing 130,000 registrations. In Canada, 



666 



SWINE 



SWINE 



Duroc-Jerseys are recorded in the Dominion Swine 
Breeders' Record, but only 1,079 animals have been 
recorded to date. 

Literature. 

"The Duroc Bulletin" is a semi-monthly paper 
published at Peoria, Illinois, in the interests of 
Duroc-Jersey swine. The Duroc-Jersey is the only 
breed of swine having a paper published solely in 
its interests, although some other associations pub- 
lish yearbooks or directories for their respective 
breeds. [For further references, see page 646.] 

Essex Swine. Pig. 668. 

By G. E. Day. 

The Essex is a small, easily fattened pig of the 
American or fat-hog type. It originated in Eng- 
land. 

Description. 

The Essex must be classed with the small breeds, 
being, as a breed, decidedly smaller than the Berk- 
shire or the Poland-China. It is a short, thick, 
deep, chunky type of pig, with short, fine-boned 
legs. The snout is short, the face dished, the fore- 
head broad, and the ears small, fine and erect, but 
inclined to droop slightly with age. The neck is 
very short, and the shoulders and hams largely 
developed. Altogether, it is a very smooth, compact 
type of hog. The color is all black, no white being 
admissible. 

Following is the scale of points adopted by the 
American Essex Association : 

Scale op Points for Essex Swine Perfect 

score 

1. Color.— Black 2 

2. Head. — Small, broad and face dished 3 

3. Ears. — Fine, erect, slightly drooping with age . 2 

4. Jowl. — Full and neat 1 

5. Neck.— Short, full, well arched 3 

6. Shoulders. — Broad and deep 7 

7. Girth around heart 6 

8. Back. — Straight, broad and level 12 

9. Sides.— Deep and full 6 

10. Ribs.— Well sprung 7 

11. Loin. — Broad and strong 12 

12. Flank.— Well let down 2 

13. Ham.— Broad, full and deep 12 

14. Tail. — Medium, fine and curled 2 

15. Legs. — Fine, straight and tapering 3 

16. Feet.— Small 3 

17. Hair. — Fine and silky, free from bristles ... 3 

18. Action. — Easy and graceful 4 

19. Symmetry. — Adaptation of the several parts to 

each other 10 

Perfection 100 

History. 

The Essex pig takes its name from the county 
of Essex in England. The original Essex pig was 
an extremely undesirable feeder's type, being 
coarse in bone, flat in the rib, and long in the leg. 
It was hard to fatten and slow to mature. In color 
it was generally black and white. In 1830, Lord 
Western imported black Neapolitan pigs from 



Italy, and crossed them with the Essex pigs. In 
the course of time he evolved a type that was a 
wonderful improvement on the old Essex, and it is 
said that he used other blood than that of the Nea- 
politan. It is stated that Lord Western inbred too 
closely, and that his pigs became weak in constitu- 
tion and lacking in fecundity. 

Soon after Lord Western began his work of 
improvement, one of his tenants, named Fisher 
Hobbes, took up the breeding of Essex-Neapolitan 
pigs, and in his hands the breed was much im- 
proved, increasing in size and improving in consti- 
tution and breeding qualities. The Hobbes' strain 
was called Improved Essex, and gained in popular- 
ity very rapidly. 

In America. — It is said that some of the old 
Essex pigs existed in the United States as early as 
1820. When the Improved Essex had established 
its reputation, importations to America became 
common, and large numbers were brought out, but 
of late years very few importations have been 
made. 

Distribution. 

The Essex has spread from its native county 
into several other English counties. It has been 
exported to several European countries, to Aus- 
tralia, Canada and the United States. It would be 




Fig. 668. Essex boar. 



difficult to select any state as an important center 
for this breed, but it occurs, scattered here and 
there in small lots, in a large number of states. It 
has become very popular in the South. 

The Essex has nearly disappeared from Canada, 
only one or two herds being left. None of the 
Canadian exhibitions make a separate class for this 
breed. 

Types. 

To meet the modern demand, many breeders of 
Essex swine are striving to develop a type with 
more size, heavier bone, and greater length. That 
they are meeting with some degree of success is 
evidenced by the types of Essex placed on exhibi- 
tion at some of the fairs during the past few years. 
This recent type gives more promise of present-day 
utility than the type we have been accustomed to 
see. 

Uses. 

The Essex belongs to the extremely quick matur- 
ing, easily fattened type. Its lack of size prevents 



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667 



it becoming popular with the general farmer, and 
it is more suited to the requirements of the villager, 
who keeps one or two pigs, and who wishes to use 
the minimum amount of food. He will not have so 
many pounds of pork, but he will have a finished 
hog with a small outlay. The breed is regarded as 
being a cheap producer of meat, and no doubt such 
is the case; but it would not be safe to assume that 
it will always produce meat at a lower cost than 
larger breeds. The meat from the Essex is fine- 
grained, but excessively fat. 

The sows are not regarded as prolific, but a great 
deal depends on how they are fed and managed. 

For cross-breeding, the Essex is suitable for 
crossing with unduly coarse types. In the past, it 
played an important part in improving other 
breeds, but as the breeds of swine have been 
brought to a finer type, the field of the Essex has 
become narrowed, until the breed is now more 
famous for what it has accomplished than for what 
it is capable of doing at present. About the only 
important opening for it in the United States at 
present, is the conquest of the "Razorback" of the 
South, and on this mission it has already set forth. 

Organizations and records. 

The American Essex Association was organized 
in 1887, but its membership is not large. It has 
published two volumes of its record, which contain 
some 1,500 names. In Canada, Essex swine are 
recorded in the Dominion Swine Breeders' Record, 
but only 286 animals have been recorded to date 
(1908). In England, they are recorded in the herd 
book of the National Pig Breeders' Association. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 646. 

Hampshire or Thin Rind Swine. Fig. 669. 

By G. E. Day. 

The Hampshire or Thin Rind is said to be a 
bacon hog, but it may be placed more correctly 
between the bacon and fat-hog types. 

Description. 

The Hampshire is only medium in size, and, if 
there is any difference, it will scarcely equal the 
Chester-White and the Duroc-Jersey in weight. 
The face is straight, and the ear is inclined for- 
ward but does not droop like that of the Poland- 
China. The jowl is lighter than that of the gen- 
eral run of fat hogs, as is also the shoulder and 
the ham. The back is of medium width, and the 
side has fair length but is not so deep as that of 
a typical fat hog. The legs are of medium length, 
and the bone is of good quality. It may be de- 
scribed as between the bacon and the fat type. 
Mr. H. F. Work, at one time Secretary of the 
American Hampshire Association, describes the 
color as follows : " In color, they are either listed 
or blacks, the most fashionable colors consisting 
of black extremities with a white belt four to 
twelve inches wide, encircling the body and includ- 
ing the fore-legs, which should also be white." 



The term "listed" means that the white belt is 
present. Mr. Work further states that there are 
some breeders who try to run their herds all black, 
and asserts that breeders should not be too par- 
ticular regarding color, except in cases when 
white spots occur. 

Following is the standard of excellence adopted 
by the American Hampshire Swine Record Asso- 
ciation : 

Scale op Points for Hampshire Swine 
Disqualifications. 

Color. — Spotted or more than two-thirds white. 

Form. — Any radical deformity, ears very large or 
dropping over eyes, crooked or weak legs or broken-down 
feet. 

Condition. — Seriously impaired or diseased, excessive 
grossness, barrenness in animals over two years of age, 
chuffy or squabby fat. 

Size. — Not two-thirds standard weight. 

Pedigree. — Not eligible to record. Perfect 

score 

1. Head and face. — Head medium length, rather 

narrow, cheeks not full ; face nearly straight 
and medium width between ihe eyes, surface 

even and regular 4 

Objections : Head large, coarse and ridgy ; 
nose crooked or much dished. 

2. Eyes. — Bright and lively, free from wrinkles or 

fat surroundings 2 

Objections: Small, deep or obscure, or 
vision impaired by fat or other cause. 

3. Ears. — Medium length, thin, slightly inclined out- 

ward and forward 2 

Objections: Large, coarse, thick, large or 
long knuck, drooping or not under good con- 
trol of the animal. , 

4. Neck. — Short, well set to the shoulders, tapering 

from shoulder to head 2 

Objections : Long, thick or bulky. 

5. Jowl. — Light and tapering from neck to point, 

neat and firm 2 

Objections : Large, broad, deep, or flabby. 

6. Shoulders. — Deep, medium width and fulness, 

well in line with back 6 

Objections: Narrow on top or bottom, thick 
beyond line with sides and hams. 

7. Chest. — Large, deep and roomy ; full girth, ex- 

tending down even with line of belly .... 12 

Objections: Narrow at top or bottom, 
small girch, cramped or tucked up. 

8. Back and loin. — Back straight or slightly arched; 

medium breadth, with nearly uniform thick- 
ness from shoulders to hams and full at loins; 
sometimes higher at hips than at shoulders . 15 

Objections: Narrow, creased or drooped 
behind shoulders ; surface ridgy or uneven. 

9. Sides and ribs . — Sides full, smooth, firm, carrying 

size evenly from shoulder to hams; ribs, 
strong, well sprang at top and bottom ... 8 

Objections : Sides thin, flat, flabby or creased, 
or ribs not well sprang. 

10. Belly and flank. — Straight and full, devoid of 

grossness ; flank full and running nearly on 

line with sides 6 

Objections : Belly sagging or flabby ; flank 
thin or tucked up. 

11. Hams and rump. — Hams of medium width, long 

and deep ; rump slightly rounded from loin to 
root of tail ; buttock full and neat and firm, 
devoid of flabbiness or excessive fat .... 10 



668 



SWINE 



SWINE 



Scale of Points for Hampshire Swine, 

continued Perfect 

score 
Objections : Ham narrow ; cut too high in 
crotch, buttock flabby ; rump too flat, too 
narrow or too steep, or peaked at root of tail. 

12. Legs and feet. — Legs medium length, set well 

apart and squarely under body, wide above 
knee and hock and rounded and well muscled 
below, tapering; bone medium; pasterns 
short and nearly upright ; toes short and 
firm, enabling the animal to carry its weight 

with ease 10 

Objections: Legs too long, slim, crooked, 
coarse or short ; weak muscles above hock 
and knee bone ; large and coarse legs without 
taper ; pasterns too long to correspond with 
length of leg, too crooked or too slender ; feet 
long, slim and weak ; toes spreading, too long, 
crooked or turned up. 

13. Tail.— Medium length, slightly curled 1 

Objections: Coarse, long, clumsy, swing- 
ing like a pendulum. 

14. Coat. — Fine, straight, smooth 2 

Objections: Bristles or swirls, coarse or 
curly. 

15. Color. — Black, with exception of white belt en- 

circling the body, including fore-legs .... 2 

Objections: White running high on hind- 
legs or extending more than one-fourth length 
of body, or solid black. 

16. Size. — Large for condition ; boar two years old 

and over, 450 ; sow, same age, 400 ; eighteen 
months, boar, 350 ; sow, 325 ; twelve months, 
boar or sow, 300 ; six months, both sexes, 
140 5 

17. Action and style. — Active, vigorous, quick and 

graceful ; style attractive and spirited ... 4 
Objections : Dull, sluggish and clumsy. 

18. Condition. — Healthy, skin free from all defects; 

flesh evenly laid on and smooth and firm, not 
patchy, and devoid of all excess of grossness . 4 

Objections: Skin scurfy, scaly, mangy or 
otherwise unhealthy ; hair harsh ; dwarfed or 
cramped, not growthy. 

19. Disposition. — Docile, quiet and easily handled . 3 

Objections : Cross, restless, vicious or with 
no ambition. 

Perfection 100 

History. 

The original American name of this breed is 
Thin Rind. In 1904, the organization which looks 
after the interests of the breed, changed the name 
to Hampshire, which is now the official name of 




Fig. 669. Hampshire hog. 



the breed. It is the latest addition to the recog- 
nized pure breeds of swine in the United States. 

According to Mr. H. F. Work, the Hampshire 
traces to pigs brought to Massachusetts from 
Hampshire, England, about 1820 or 1825. It is 
also stated that descendants of this importation 
were taken to Kentucky about 1835. Be this as it 
may, the breed has been known in Kentucky for 
many years. Various theories regarding its origin 
have been advanced, but it seems impossible to 
secure definite and reliable information regarding 
the origin of the breed. 

Distribution. 

According to the secretary of the Hampshire 
Association, the breed is to be found in a large 
number of states, but the numbers in any one 
state are not large, comparatively speaking. Ken- 
tucky, Illinois and Indiana are probably the most 
important centers, but the breed has been making 
rapid progress of late. One or two very small 
importations have been made into Canada, but no 
registrations have yet been made in the Canadian 
Record. 

Types. 

Hampshires do not vary extremely in type, if 
we may judge by exhibits made at the leading 
shows, and the breed has not yet attained sufficient 
prominence to admit of an intelligent study of 
this phase of the question. 

Uses. 

It is claimed for the Hampshire that it is a 
bacon hog. In regard to this claim, we must bear 
in mind that what the American packer calls a 
bacon hog is a very different animal from the one 
required to make a "Wiltshire side" for export to 
England. It is animals suitable for making " Wilt- 
shire sides" that have given rise to the market 
term, " bacon hog," and if judged from this stand- 
point, the Hampshire would fall far short of 
requirements. It is altogether too short in the 
side, too thick in the shoulder, and too heavy in 
the neck to make a number one " Wiltshire side," 
but as a light-weight hog for supplying bacon for 
home consumption, the Hampshire answers the 
purpose very satisfactorily. 

In early maturity and feeding qualities, the 
Hampshire seems to be giving good satisfaction to 
those who are handling it, and it is highly esteemed 
as a grazer. It is an active, hardy breed, and 
there is no apparent reason why it should not give 
a3 good an account of the food it consumes as any 
other breed. 

In quality of flesh, the Hampshire has an envi- 
able reputation. It has made an excellent record in 
the dressed carcass competitions at the Interna- 
tional Live Stock Exposition at Chicago, and the 
packers appear to regard it with high approval. 
Its strong point is the large proportion of lean. 

The Hampshire ranks high in regard to fecun- 
dity, and appears to be one of the most prolific of 
American breeds so far as we are able to investi- 
gate the matter. 



SWINE 



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669 



The value of the Hampshire for cross-breeding is 
not well known, but it seems reasonable to suppose 
that it should cross well with the fat types of hogs. 

Organizations and records. 

The American Hampshire Swine Record Associa- 
tion was organized in 1893, and published its first 
herdbook in 1906. Three volumes of the herdbook 
have been published to date (1908), with a total of 
4,775 registrations. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 646. 

Large Yorkshire or Large White Swine. Figs. 
670, 671. 

By G. E. Day. 

The Large Yorkshire is an English breed of swine. 
It possesses very superior bacon qualities, and 
stands preeminent among the bacon-hog types. 

Description. 

The Large Yorkshire is one of the largest breeds 
of swine. The snout is of medium length, and 
should possess little or no dish, although there is a 
moderate dish in the face. The jowl is of good 
width and muscular, but it should not be flabby, 
nor heavily loaded with fat. The ears are rather 
large, and sometimes inclined forward, especially 
in old animals, but they should be firmly attached 
to the head, should not be coarse, and should be 
fringed with fine hair. The shoulder and back are 
only of medium width, the side is long, and the 
ham carries very little surface fat, making it 
lighter than the ham of the fat or lard type 
of hog. The flesh of the ham should be carried well 
round the inside of the thigh, and the ham gener- 
ally shows a tapering appearance toward the hock. 
The bone is fairly heavy, but should be clean and 
flinty in appearance. The leg is longer than the 
leg of the fat hog. The color is white. Black hair 
on any part should disqualify. Black or blue spots 
on the skin do not disqualify, but are objected to, 
and the aim of breeders is to reduce these spots to 
a minimum. In the description of the snout of the 
Large Yorkshire, the standard of excellence pre- 
pared by the American Yorkshire Club falls short 
of the ideal of the best breeders of the present day. 
The short, turned-up snout is no longer popular, 
although it is very frequently seen. 

Following is the standard of excellence and scale 
of points adopted by the American Yorkshire Club 
in 1899 : 

Scale op Points foe Large Yorkshire 

SWINE Perfect 

score 

1. General outline. — Long and deep in proportion 

to width, but not massive ; slightly arched in 
the back, symmetrical and smooth, with body 
firmly supported by well-placed legs of medium 
length 5 

2. Outline of head. — Moderate in length and size, 

with lower jaw well sprung, and considerable 
dish toward snout, increasing with advanced 
maturity 4 



Scale op Points for Large Yorkshire Swine, 

continued Perfee 

score 

3. Forehead and poll. — Wide 

4. Eye. — Medium size, clear and bright 

5. Jowl — Medium, not carried too fai back toward 

neck, and not flabby 

6. Snout. — Turning upward with a short curve, in- 

creasing with age 

7. Ear. — Medium in size, standing well out from the 

head, of medium erection and inclining slightly 
forward 

8. Neck. — Of medium length, fair width and depth, 

rising gradually from poll to withers ; muscu- 
lar, but not gross, evenly connecting head with 
body 3 

9. Outline of body. — Long, deep and of medium 

breadth, equally wide at shoulder, side and 
hams; top- line slightly arched, under-line 
straight 7 

10. Back. — Moderately broad, even in width from 

end to end ; strong in loin, short ribs of good 
length 10 

11. Shoulder. — Large but not massive, not open 

above 6 

12. Arm and thigh. — Broad and of medium length 

and development 2 

13. Brisket. — Wide and on a level with under-line . 3 

14. Side. — Long, deep, straight and even from shoul- 

der to hip 8 

15. Ribs. — Well arched and deep 5 

16. Heart girth and flank girth. — Good and about 

equal 8 

17. Hind-quarters. — Long, to correspond with shoul- 

der and side ; deep, with moderate and gradual 
droop to tail 5 

18. Ham. — Large, well let down on thigh and twist, 

and rear outline somewhat rounded 10 

19. Twist. — Well down and meaty 1 

20. Tail. — Medium, not much inclined to curl ... 1 

21. Legs. — Medium in length, strong, not coarse, but 

standing straight and firm 5 

22. Hair. — Abundant, long, of medium fineness, with- 

out any bristles 4 

23. Skin. — Smooth and white, without scales, but 

dark spots in skin do not disqualify 2 

24. Color. — White on every part 1 

25. Movement. — Active, but not restless 5 

Perfection 100 

History. 

The large Yorkshire undoubtedly descended from 
a race of a large, coarse-boned, leggy, white hogs, 
that were common in Yorkshire and adjacent coun- 
ties for so long a time that we have no definite 
knowledge of their origin. These coarse white hogs 
possessed the merit of size, and hence it was pos- 
sible to improve them by crossing with finer breeds, 
and still retain plenty of size in the improved type. 
It is only within the past sixty or seventy years 
that any marked improvement was effected in the 
Large White hogs of Yorkshire. According to 
Sidney, the first important step was the crossing 
of the Yorkshire with the white Leicester, a large 
breed, but finer in bone, and more easily fattened 
than the original Yorkshire. Perhaps the most 
important improvement was effected by crossing 
with the Small Whites, or, as they are now called 
in America, the Small Yorkshires. These small, fine- 
boned, easily fattened hogs, produced a very marked 



670 



SWINE 



SWINE 



improvement in the old Yorkshire, which has been 
still further improved and brought up to its present 
high standard of excellence by judicious selection 
in the hands of skilful breeders. 




Fig. 670. Large Yorkshire boar. 

In America. — Large White hogs have been 
brought to the United States at different times 
during the past century, but the improved type of 
Large Yorkshires can scarcely be said to have 
attained a standing in the United States until 
1892. Among the first to import them into Canada 
were some of the packing houses, who brought 
them into the country for the purpose of improv- 
ing the bacon qualities of Canadian hogs. During 
the past twenty or twenty-five years, the breed has 
made wonderful progress in Canada, and has more 
animals recorded in the Canadian record than any 
other breed. 

Distribution. 

On the American continent, Large Yorkshires 
have made the greatest progress in Canada, owing 
to the fact that Canadians have been paying 
special attention to the production of bacon hogs. 
In the United States, their progress has been com- 
paratively slow, and it is doubtful whether they will 
ever attain a high degree of popularity, especially 
in the corn-belt, where the fat type of hog seems 
better adapted to prevailing conditions. Minnesota 
is the headquarters for the breed, and they 
are also found in North Dakota, South Da- 
kota, Iowa, New York, Ohio, Michigan, Wis- 
consin, Virginia, Massachusetts, and some 
other states. In Canada, they are to be 
found in every province, Ontario taking the 
lead. 

Large Yorkshires occupy a very important 
place in Denmark, and there are compara- 
tively few countries of any importance, from 
a live-stock stand-point, where the breed is 
not represented. 

Types. 

Large Yorkshires vary more or less in 
type, and it requires skill in selection to keep 
them true to the best type. Some years ago, 
it was common to find Large Yorkshires with very 
short, turned-up snouts. This style of snout is gen- 
erally associated with a rather heavy jowl, neck 
and shoulder, which, from a bacon standpoint, are 



very objectionable. Another type, which is fre- 
quently seen, has a long, scrawny neck, narrow 
chest, and long coarse-boned legs. This type is 
generally very long in the side and smooth in the 
shoulder, both very desirable features from a 
bacon curer's standpoint ; but it has too much 
bone and too coarse a skin, and lacks in quan- 
tity and quality of flesh. It is also a some- 
what slow feeder, and is therefore objection- 
able from a farmer's standpoint. The most 
desirable type has sufficient length of side to 
make a good packer's hog, and has constitu- 
tion and quality to such a marked degree that 
it is unexcelled from a feeder's standpoint. 



As previously intimated, the Large York- 
shire is especially valued for bacon-produc- 
tion, where a long side abounding in lean 
meat, and a light shoulder and neck are espe- 
cially desirable. The large size and strong bone of 
this breed make it valuable for crossing on breeds 
that have become unduly fine in the bone, and 
lack size. It crosses remarkably well with the Berk- 
shire, Chester-White and Poland-China, as well as 
other fat breeds, increasing the size and the pro- 
portion of lean meat without impairing the feed- 
ing qualities. 

The Large Yorkshire is frequently spoken of as 
being "slower maturing" than the fat types of 
hogs, but this is not a fair way of stating the 
case. From the bacon curer's standpoint, the breed 
will reach desirable market weight and condition 
at as early an age as any existing breed, and there 
are few breeds that equal it in this respect. There- 
fore, from the standpoint of the farmer who is 
feeding hogs for the bacon trade, no breed excels 
the Yorkshire in point of early maturity. For the 
production of a fat carcass at an early age, how- 
ever, the Large Yorkshire is not so well adapted. 
It is a special-purpose breed, and must be regarded 
as such. 

From the fact that the Large Yorkshire grows 
rapidly and develops bone and muscle more rapidly 




Fig. 671. Large Yorkshire sow. 

than it develops fat, feeders are inclined to regard 
it as an expensive hog to feed. Careful experi- 
ments go to show that such is not the case, and 
that, under most circumstances, it is capable of 



SWINE 



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671 



giving as good results for food consumed as any 
other breed. It is, perhaps, not so well adapted to 
grazing as some other breeds, and a hot sun is 
likely to blister the skin. It is probable, too, that 
an exclusive corn ration would not agree with it 
so well as with some other breeds that have been 
developed especially to consume corn. The Large 
Yorkshire has been developed in a country where 
a mixed ration is used, and where feeding in pens 
is largely practiced ; and under such conditions it 
gives an excellent account of the food it consumes. 

For quality of bacon, the Large Yorkshire is 
rivaled only by the Tamworth. The large propor- 
tion of lean to fat, the thick, fleshy belly and great 
length of side, render the breed peculiarly desira- 
ble from a bacon curer's and a consumer's stand- 
point. At the Provincial Winter Fair, held annually 
at Guelph, Canada, there is the largest exhibit of 
bacon carcasses of any show in existence, and the 
Yorkshires and Yorkshire grades always carry off 
the largest share of the prizes. 

Large Yorkshire sows are very prolific, and are 
splendid nurses. The boars are exceptionally pre- 
potent and stamp their character and color on their 
progeny to a remarkable degree, no matter what 
they are crossed with. 

Organizations and records. 

The American Yorkshire Club was organized in 
1892, and the first herdbook was published in 1901. 
Up to 1908, three herdbooks had been published, 
in which 10,582 animals are recorded. In Canada, 
Yorkshires are recorded in the Dominion Swine 
Breeders' Record, and up to January 1, 1908, 
29,185 animals had been recorded. For further 
information regarding Canadian records, see under 
Berkshires. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 646. 

Poland-China Swine. Fig. 672. 

By G. E. Day. 

Poland-China swine are entirely the product and 
development of American swine-breeders. They are 
of the lard-hog type. 

Description. 

The Poland-China is a medium-sized breed, and, 
as commonly bred, is not so large as the large 
type of Berkshire ; but the average Poland-China 
is well up to the average Berkshire in weight. 
The face is slighty dished ; the jowl full and 
heavy ; the ears should be fine, firmly attached to 
the head, and about one-third of the ear should 
droop. The neck is short, thick, and heavily arched 
on top. The shoulder is heavy, the side rather 
short, but deep, and the back wide, with a slightly 
arched top-line. The whole hind-quarter is heavily 
fleshed, the ham being exceptionally wide and deep. 
The legs are short, and the bone fine, breeders hav- 
ing gone to an extreme in regard to fineness of 
bone in many cases. Some years ago, Poland- 
Chinas were freely marked with white, but the 



fashionable color today is black, with six white 
points, namely, white in face, on the feet, and tip 
of the tail. A limited number of white markings 
on other parts of the body are not seriously 
objected to. 

Following is the description and scale of points 
adopted by the National Association of Expert 
Judges of Swine : 

Scale op Points for Poland-China 

SWINE Perfect 

score 

1. Head 4 

2. Eyes 2 

3. Ears 2 

4. Neck 2 

5. Jowl 2 

6. Shoulders 6 

7. Chest 12 

8. Back and loin 14 

9. Sides and ribs 10 

10. Belly and flank 4 

11. Ham and rump 10 

12. Feet and legs 10 

13. Tail 1 

14. Coat 3 

15. Color 3 

16. Size 5 

17. Action and style 3 

18. Condition 2 

19. Disposition 2 

20. Symmetry of points 3 

Perfection 100 

1. Head. — Head should be broad, even and smooth 
between and above the eyes; slightly dished, tapering 
evenly and gradually to near the end of the nose ; broad 
lower jaw, head inclined to shortness, but not enough to 
give the appearance of stubby nose; and in male, a mascu- 
line expression and appearance. 

Objections. — Head long, narrow between the eyes; nose 
uneven and coarse; too large at the muzzle or the head too 
short ; not full or high above the eyes, or too much 
wrinkled around or above the eyes. 

2. Eyes. — Full, clear, prominent and expressive. 
Objections. — Dull expression, deep set or obscure. 

Sight impaired by wrinkles, fat or other cause. 

3. Ears. — Ears attached to the head by a short, firm 
knuck, giving free and easy action; standing up slightly 
at the base to within two-thirds of the tip, where a gentle 
break or droop should occur; in size neither too large nor 
too small, but even, fine, thin, leaf shape; slightly inclined 
outward. 

Objections. — Large, floppy, straight, upright or e»arse; 
knuck long, letting the ear droop too close to the head 
and face, hindering the animal of free use of the ears. 

4. Neck. — Short, wide, even, smooth, well arched; 
rounding and full from poll to shoulder, with due regard 
to the characteristics of the sex. 

Objections. — Long, narrow, thin and drooping from the 
shoulder to the poll, with unevenness caused by wrinkles 
or creases. 

5. Jowl. — Full, broad, deep, smooth and firm, carrying 
fullness back to near point of shoulders, and below line of 
lower jaw so that the lower line will be as low as breast- 
bone when head is carried up level. 

Objections. — Light, flabby, thin and wedge-shapei/, 
deeply wrinkled, not drooping below line of lower jaw, 
and not carrying fulness back to shoulder and brisket. 

6. Shoulders. — Broad and oval at the top, showing 
evenness with the back and neck, with good width from 



672 



SWINE 



SWINE 



the top to the bottom, and even smoothness extending 
well forward. 

Objections. — Narrow at the top or bottom; not so deep 
as the body; uneven width. Shields on pigs under eight 
months of age, or showing too much shield at any age. 

7. Chest. — Large, wide, deep and full ; even under-line 
to the shoulder and sides with no creases; giving plenty 
of room for heart and other organs, making a large girth, 
indicating much vitality. Brisket smooth, even and broad, 
wide between legs, and extending well forward, showing 
in front. 

Objections. — Pinched appearance at the top or bottom, 
or tucked in back of fore-legs; showing too narrow 
between the legs; not depth enough back of the shoulder. 
Brisket uneven, narrow, not prominent. 

8. Back and loin. — Broad, straight or slightly arched, 
carrying same width from shoulder to ham, surface even, 
smooth, free from lumps, creases or projections, not too 
long, but broad on top, indicating well-sprung ribs; should 
not be higher at hip than at shoulder and should fill out 
at junction with side so that a straight-edge placed along 
at top of side will touch all the way from point of shoulder 
to point of ham; should be shorter than lower belly line. 

Objections. — Narrow, creased back of shoulders, swayed 
or hollow, drooping below a straight line; humped or 
wrinkled; too long or sun-fish shaped; loin high, narrow, 
depressed or humped up; surface lumpy, creased, ridgy or 
uneven, width at side not so much as shoulder and ham. 

9. Sides and ribs. — Sides full, firm and deep, free from 
wrinkles; carrying size down to belly; even from ham to 
shoulder. Ribs of good length, well sprung at top and 
bottom. 

Objections. — Flat, thin, flabby, pinched, not so full at 
bottom as at top; drawn in at shoulder so as to produce a 
crease, or pinched and tucked up and in as it approaches 
the ham; uneven surface; ribs flat or too short. 

10. Belly and jlank. — Belly broad, straight and full, 
indicating capacity and room, being about the same or on 
a level at the flank with the under chest-line. Under-line 
straight or nearly so, and free from flabby appearance. 

Objections. — Belly uneven and flabby, or apparent 
looseness in the make-up. Pinched up in the flank or 
flanked too high. 

11. Ham and rump. — Hams broad, full, deep and long 
from rump to hock; fully developed above and below, 
being wide at the point of the hip, carrying width well 
down to the lower part of the hams; fleshy, plump, round- 
ing, fulness perceptible everywhere. Rump rounding and 
gradually sloping from the loin to the root of the tail; 
broad and well developed all along from loin, and gradu- 
ally rounding to the buttock; lower front part of ham 
should be full, and stifle well covered with flesh. Even 
width of ham and rump with the back, loin and body; 
even a greater width as to females not objectionable. 

Objections. — Ham, short, narrow, too round or slim; 
not filled out above or below, or unshapely for deep meat; 
nor so wide as the body, back or loin; too tapering or 
small. Rump narrow or pointed, not plump or well filled, 
or too steep from loin to the tail. 

12. Legs and feet. — Legs medium length, straight, set 
well apart and squarely under body, tapering, well muscled 
and wide above knee and hock ; below hock and knee 
round and tapering, capable of sustaining weight of 
animal in full flesh without breaking down; bone firm and 
of fine texture; pasterns short and nearly upright. Feet 
firm, short, tough and free from defects. 

Objections. — Legs long, slim, coarse, crooked; muscles 
small above hock and knee; bone large, coarse; as large 
at foot as above knee; pasterns long, slim, crooked or 
weak; the hocks turned in or out of straight line; legs too 
close together; hoofs long, slim and weak; toes spreading 
or crooked or unable to bear weight of animal without 
breaking down. 



13. Tail. — Tail of medium length and size, smooth and 
tapering well, and carried in a curl. 

Objections. — Coarse and long without a curl; short, 
crooked or stubby; too small, even, not tapering. 

14. Coat. — Fine, straight, smooth, lying close to and 
covering the body well; not clipped, evenly distributed 
over the body. 

Objections. — Bristles, hair coarse, harsh, thin, wavy or 
curly; swirls, standing up, ends of hair split and brown, 
not evenly distributed over all of the body except belly. 
Clipped coats should be cut 1.5 points. 

15. Color. — Black, with six (6) white points: Tip of 
tail, four white feet and white in face on the nose or on 
the point of lower jaw; all to be perceptible without close 
examination. Splashes of white on the jaw, legs or flank, 
or a few spots of white on the body not objectionable. 

Objections. — Solid black, white mixed or sandy spots; 
speckled with white hairs over the body; mottled face of 
white and black, hair mixed, making a grizzly appearance. 

16. Size. — Large for age. Condition, vigor and vitality 
to be considered. There should be a difference between 
breeding animals and those kept or fitted for the show, of 
at least 25 per cent in size. In show condition, or when 
fat, a two-year-old boar should weigh not less than six 
hundred (600) pounds, and a sow not less than five hun- 
dred (500) pounds. Boar one year and over, four hundred 
(400) pounds; sow, three hundred and fifty (350) pounds. 
Boar, eighteen months, five hundred (500) pounds; sow, 
four hundred and fifty (450) pounds. Boars and sows six 
months old, not less than one hundred and sixty (160) 
pounds. All hogs in just fair breeding condition, one- 
fourth less for size. The keeping and chance that a young 
hog has cuts a figure in his size and should be considered, 
other points being equal. Fine quality and size combined 
are desirable. 

Objections. — Overgrown; coarse, flabby, loose appear- 
ance, gangling, hard to fatten ; too fine, undersize; short, 
stubby, inclined to chubby fatness; not a hardy, robust 
animal. 

17. Action and style. — Action vigorous, easy and 
graceful. Style attractive; high carriage; and in males, 
testicles should be prominent and of about the same size, 
and yet not too large and pouchy. 

Objections. — Clumsy, slow, awkward movement; low 
carriage; waddling or twisting walk; a seeming tired or 
lazy appearance; not standing erect and firm. 

18. Condition. — Healthy, skin clear of scurf, scales 
and sores; soft and mellow to the touch; flesh fine; evenly 
laid on and free from lumps and wrinkles. Hair soft and 
lying close to body; good feeding qualities. 

Objections. — Unhealthy, skin scaly, wrinkled, scabby 
or harsh; flabbiness or lumpy flesh; too much fat for 
breeding. Hair harsh, dry and standing up from body; 
poor feeders; deafness, partial or total. 

19. Disposition. — Lively, easily handled and seemingly 
kind, responsive to good treatment. 

Objections. — Cross, sluggish, restless, wild or of a 
vicious turn. 

20. Symmetry or adaptation of points. — The adaptation 
of all the points, size and style combined to make the 
desired type or model. 

History. 

The Poland-China originated in Butler and War- 
ren counties, in Ohio. These two counties are 
drained by the Great Miami and the Little Miami 
rivers. The valley of the Miami is a very fertile 
district, and its name is closely associated with the 
early history of this breed. The history of the 
origin of Poland-China swine is not altogether 
clear, and some points have been the subject of 



SWINE 



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673 



lengthy controversies. From the varying theories 
and claims put forward, we may accept the following 
statements as being reasonably accurate. Previous 
to 1816, the Russia and Byfield breeds were largely 
used for crossing on the common hogs of the Miami 
valley. These were both white breeds, possessing 
more or less merit as feeders. In 1816, the Society 
of Shakers, of Union Village, Warren county, 
brought a boar and three sows from Philadelphia. 
The pigs were represented to the Shakers as being 
of pure Chinese blood, and they were called Big 
Chinas. The boar and two of the sows are said to 
have been pure white, and the other sow was white, 
with some sandy and black spots. These Big 
Chinas and their descendants were extensively 
crossed on the hogs then in the county, and the 
resulting type came to be known as the Warren 
county hog. The Big China was a medium-sized 
breed, of fine bone and good feeding qualities, and. 
its use on the hogs of Warren county effected a 
marked improvement. It is also stated that subse- 
quent to the introduction of the Big China, other 
China hogs of finer and smaller type were brought 
into the county. In 1835 or 1836, Berkshires were 
introduced and extensively used, and about 1839 or 
1840, the Irish Grazier was imported and used on 
these pigs of complicated breeding in Warren 
county. The Irish Grazier was a white breed of 
considerable merit and did its share toward modi- 
fying the Miami valley hogs. It was also said by 
some persons that a Poland breed was used for 
crossing on Warren county hogs, while others 
maintained that no such breed was ever introduced. 
An extended controversy ensued, which was finally 
ended by the findings of a committee that was 
appointed to investigate the origin of the breed, 
and which reported its findings to the National 
Swine Breeders' Convention held in Indianapolis 
in 1872. This committee reported against the 
theory that a Poland breed had been used, but 
recommended that the name Poland-China be 
recognized as the accepted name of the breed. The 
recommendation was adopted, and since that 
time the breed, which previously had been known 
by a great variety of names has been known 
as the Poland - China. It is said that since 
1845 no outside blood has been infused into this 
breed. 

Distribution. 

The Poland-China is widely distributed over the 
United States. The principal states in which the 
breed is found, according to the Secretary of 
the American Poland-China Record Association, 
are Iowa, Illinois, Texas, Missouri, Kansas, Ne- 
braska, Indiana, Ohio, Minnesota, South Dakota, 
Wisconsin, Oklahoma, and Michigan, but there are 
few states where Poland-Chinas are not to be 
found. 

In Canada, the breed has not obtained a very 
strong foothold, and has rather decreased in num- 
bers during recent years. The strong demand for 
the bacon type in Canada is mainly responsible for 
this fact. Outside of the United States and Canada, 
the breed is but little known. 

C43 



Types. 

As is the case with other breeds, the Poland- 
China differs more or less in the hands of different 
breeders. The older type of Poland-China was a 
larger, more rangy, and heavier-boned hog than 
the Poland-Chinas seen in the show-rings of today. 
Breeders of Poland-Chinas have gone rather to an 
extreme, on the whole, in the matter of selecting 




Fig. 672. Poland-China boar. 

for fineness of bone, and the result, in many cases, 
is a hog that lacks somewhat in size and in fecun- 
dity. These facts have been brought forcibly before 
breeders during recent years, and any defects of 
the nature stated will be remedied, no doubt, 
by thoughtful breeders. Even now, we can see 
evidences of a change in methods, and there 
is little doubt that the Poland-China will be bred 
to retain its high quality without sacrificing its 
utility. 

Uses. 

The Poland-China has been developed especially 
to meet the market demand for a fat or lard hog. 
Its heavy shoulder, wide back, and heavily developed 
hams, render it an exceptionally good yielder from 
the packer's standpoint. 

The quality of the meat produced by the Poland- 
China has frequently been criticised because of its 
large proportion of fat to lean. The development 
of a tendency to produce lean along with fat has 
been largely overlooked in bringing this breed to 
its present stage of perfection from a feeder's 
standpoint, but it appears to meet the demands of 
the American packer, and he is willing to pay top 
market price for it. 

In early maturity, that is, in ability to produce 
a finished fat carcass for the packer at an early 
age, the Poland-China is unexcelled. It has been 
bred for early maturity for generations, and 
has attained an enviable reputation in this con- 
nection. 

As a feeder, the Poland-China is a favorite with 
corn-belt farmers. The breed has been developed on 
corn-feeding, and seems to thrive on an exclusive 
corn ration better than many other breeds. In a 
colder climate, and on a mixed ration, the Poland- 
China might not show to so good advantage as 
some other breeds, but for the purpose of turning 
corn into pork, it is difficult to beat. The Poland- 
China has also demonstrated its usefulness as a 
grass hog, making good gains on pasture with a 



674 



SWINE 



SWINE 



light grain ration. Experiments with breeds of 
swine have resulted differently at different stations, 
and it would seem that economy of production is 
more a question of individuality than of breed. 
Their exceptional tendency to fatten renders ani- 
mals of this breed especially valuable for crossing 
purposes, and the Poland-China is highly esteemed 
for crossing on other breeds, as well as on common, 
or grade stock. A cross between the large York- 
shire and the Poland-China has been found to give 
an excellent hog, both from a farmer's and a packer's 
standpoint. For crossing with the Berkshire, Duroc- 
Jersey and Chester-White, the breed is very highly 
esteemed, and the cross-breds are generally re- 
garded as superior to the pure-breds for feeding 
purposes. 

The most serious criticism directed against the 
Poland-China is on the score of fecundity. In any 
breed in which so much attention has been paid to 
the development of fine bone and a very marked 
tendency to fatten, it is only natural to expect that 
there would be some loss of fecundity, and statistics 
appear to indicate that the Poland-China is no 
exception to the rule. This criticism applies especi- 
ally to the very fine-boned types. 

Organizations and records. 

Organizations in the interests of Poland-Chinas 
are numerous. The largest organization is the 
American Poland-China Record Association, which 
was organized in 1878. It published its first herd- 
book in 1879, and has published fifty volumes to 
date (1908), containing the names of 278,000 ani- 
mals. The Ohio Poland-China Record was organized 
in 1877, and up to 1906 had published twenty-seven 
volumes. The Central Poland-China Association 
was organized in 1880, and published twenty-six 
volumes of its Record up to 1906. In 1906, the 
Ohio and Central Associations amalgamated under 
the name of the National Poland-China Record 
Company, and since amalgamation two volumes 
have been published, which are numbered twenty- 
eight and twenty-nine, beginning where the Ohio 
herdbooks left off. The Ohio Association recorded 
103,000 head, the Central Association 48,000 head, 
and since amalgamation, 13,000 head have been 
recorded in the two volumes of the National. The 
Northwestern Poland-China Swine Association was 
organized in 1881. The Standard Poland-China 
Record Association was organized in 1887, and has 
published some twenty volumes since that time. 
The Southwestern Poland-China Record Association 
was organized in 1896, and has published two herd- 
books, with 2,378 registrations. These associations 
in the main are thrifty and influential, as indicated 
by the large number of registrations ; but the best 
interests of the breed demand greater unity of 
effort and of ideals. 

In Canada, Poland-Chinas are recorded in the 
Dominion Swine Breeders' Record, but only 3,367 
hogs of this breed have been recorded to January 
1, 1908. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 646, 



Small Yorkshire or Small White Swine. 

673, 674. 



Figs. 



By G. E. Day. 

The Small Yorkshire is an English breed of pigs, 
and may be said to be of the fat-hog type. It is of 
relative unimportance in America. 

Description. 

The Small Yorkshire may be considered the 
smallest breed of swine kept in the United States. 
It has a very short, turned-up snout, wide face, 
small, erect ears, heavy jowl, and a very short, 
heavy neck. The body is short, thick, deep, and 
smooth, and the legs are very short and fine in the 
.bone. The color is white and the hair is abundant, 
but fine. 

Following is the description and scale of points 
adopted by the American Yorkshire Club. 

Scale of Points for Small Yorkshire 

SWINE Perfect 

score 

1. General outline. — Wide and deep in proportion 

to the length, straight above and below, and 
short in head, neck, body and limbs 5 

2. Outline of head. — Short, abrupt, inclining to 

fine, and possessed of much dish and down- 
ward springing under the jaws 4 

3. Forehead and poll. — Wide 1 

4. Eye. — Medium size, clear and bright 1 

5. Jowl. — Large, smooth and carried well back to- 

ward the neck 1 

6. Snout. — Short, turning upward somewhat with a 

deep indenture or curve immediately above it . 1 

7. Ear. — Small, thin, erect and inclining slightly 

forward rather than backward at the tips . . 1 

8. Neck. — Short, wide and deep, the width slightly 

increasing towards the shoulders ...... 3 

9. Outline of body.— Short, broad, deep and straight 

above, below, and on the sides 7 

10. Back. — Very broad, of even width and straight 

from withers to tail head 10 

11. Shoulder. — Large, smoothly and evenly devel- 

oped, and blending perfectly with neck and 
crops 6 

12. Arm and thigh. — Moderately wide, tapering 

nicely down, and inclining to be short .... 2 

13. Brisket. — Wide and on level with under-line . . 3 

14. Side. — Deep, thick in every part, straight and 

even from shoulder to hip 8 

15. Ribs. — Widely and deeply sprung 5 

16. Heart and flank girth. — Excellent in proportion 

to the length of body and about equal .... 8 

17. Hind-quarters. — Relatively long ; broad in every 

part and deep, with but little lowering toward 
the tail head 5 

18. Ham. — Large, well let down at thigh and twist 

and inclined to be straight behind 10 

19. Twist.— Well down and full 1 

20. Tail. — Fine, short and inclined to curl .... 1 

21. Legs. — Short, fine rather than coarse, strong, 

straight, and placed well apart 5 

22. Hair. — Abundant, fine, even in quality .... 4 

23. Skin. — Smooth and white and free from creases 

and scales 2 

24. Color. — White on every part 1 

25. Movement. — Gentle and easy but not sluggish . 5 

Perfection .100 






SWINE 



SWINE 



675 



History. 

The Small Yorkshire comes from England, where 
it goes by the name of " Small White," the name 
" Small Yorkshire " being of American origin. The 
breed is thought to be of Chinese origin, modified, 




Fig. 673. Small Yorkshire boar. 

of course, by the methods of the English breeders. 
Various types or strains of Small Whites have been 
bred in England, but at present they are all classed 
as one breed. 

In America. — The Small Yorkshire was brought 
to the United States, according to Curtis, in 1860, 
and numerous importations were made between 
that time and 1878. 

Distribution. 

Small Whites are found in many parts of Eng- 
land. In the United States, under the name of 
Small Yorkshire, small herds are to be found, 
mainly in the East. The breed no longer attracts 
much attention. 

Uses. 

It is somewhat difficult to give any very impor- 
tant use for Small Yorkshires in America. The 
breed matures very early, and fattens easily, but 
produces excessively fat meat. It is probably most 
suitable for the cottager who wants a pig that can 
be matured with a small amount of feed. 

There is no American breed that requires cros- 
sing with a breed like the Small Yorkshire, unless 
it is the " Razorback," and the Essex seems to be 
rather better adapted to this purpose, as it will 
stand the' hot sun of the South better than a white 

pig. Any advan- 
tage from cross- 
ing with ordi- 
nary breeds 
would accrue to 
the Small York- 
shire, rather 
than to the 
other breed. 

The Small 
Yorkshire is not 




Fig. 674. Small Yorkshire sow. 



noted for fecundity, and it would seem as though 
the breed were destined gradually to disappear, 
unless some unforeseen conditions arise which call 
for the services of a pig of this kind. 

Organizations and records. 

The American Small Yorkshire Club was organ- 
ized in 1878, and has recorded some 1,500 pigs in 
its herdbook. The American Yorkshire Club also 
records Small Yorkshires, the Small Yorkshires 



being recorded in what is called Class A and the 
Large Yorkshires in Class B. In England, the breed 
is registered in the herdbook of the National Pig 
Breeders' Association. No Small Yorkshires have 
been recorded under this name in Canada. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 646. 

Suffolk Swine. Fig. 675. 

By G. E. Day. 

The Suffolk is an English breed of swine, closely 
identified with the Small Yorkshire, and of little 
importance in America. It may be classed with 
the fat- or lard-hog types. It is best adapted to 
intensive conditions, where land for grazing is 
scarce and soiling food is used in addition to 
pasture. 

Description. 

At the National Swine Breeders' Convention at 
Indianapolis, Indiana, in 1872, the following de- 
scription of the Suffolk was approved : " Head 
small, very short ; cheeks prominent and full ; face 
dished; snout small and very short; jowl fine; ears 
short, small, thin, upright, soft and silky ; neck 
very short and thick, the head appearing almost as 
if set on front of shoulders, no arching of crest ; 
chest wide and deep; elbows standing out ; brisket 




Fig. 675. Suffolk hog. 

wide but not deep ; shoulders thick, rather upright, 
rounding outward from top to elbow ; crops wide 
and full, long ribs, well arched out from back, good 
length between shoulders and hams ; flanks well 
filled out and coming well down at ham ; back 
broad, level, straight from crest to tail, not falling 
off or down at the tail ; hams wide and full, well 
rounded out, twist very wide and full all ' the way 
down ; legs small and very short, standing wide 
apart — in sows, just keeping belly from the ground; 
bone fine, feet small, hoofs rather spreading ; tail 
small, long and tapering ; skin thin, of a pinkish 
shade, free from color ; hair fine and silky, not too 
thick ; color of hair, pale yellowish white, perfectly 
free from any spots or other color ; size, small to 
medium." In size, the Suffolk is probably slightly 
larger than the Small Yorkshire, but it is practi- 
cally the same breed. 

Following is the scale of points adopted by the 
American Suffolk Association : 



676 



SWINE 



SWINE 



Scale of Points for Suffolk 

Swine Perfect 

score 

1. Color.— White 2 

2. Head. — Small, broad, and face dished 3 

3. Ears. — Fine, erect, slightly drooping with age . 2 

4. Jowl. — Full and neat 1 

5. Neck. — Short, full and slightly arched 3 

6. Shoulders. — Broad and deep 7 

7. Giith around heart 6 

8. Back.— Straight, broad, level 12 

9. Sides.— Deep and full 6 

10. Ribs.— Well sprung 7 

11. Loin. — Broad and strong 12 

12. Flank.— Well let down 2 

13. Ham.— Broad, full, deep 12 

14. Tail. — Medium, fine and curled 2 

15. Legs.— Fine, straight and tapering 3 

16. Feet.— Small 3 

17. Hair. — Fine and silky, free from bristles ... 3 

18. Action. — Easy and graceful 4 

19. Symmetry. — Adaptation of the several parts to 

each other 10 

Perfection 100 

History. 

The Suffolk is undoubtedly of the same origin as 
the Small Yorkshire, and is an offshoot of the Small 
White breed in England. There is no such breed as 
a White Suffolk recognized in England, but the 
name Suffolk is sometimes applied locally to the 
Small Black breed, of which the Essex is a repre- 
sentative. 

In America. — The breed is said to have been 
brought to the United States in 1855, but it has 
never made much progress, and seems to be losing 
ground steadily. 

Distribution. 

The so-called Suffolk pig is confined to the United 
States and Canada, although it has practically dis- 
appeared from the latter country. In the United 
States it is found mainly in the Mississippi valley, 
but herds are not at all numerous. 



What has been said regarding Small Yorkshires 
under this heading applies here, as the breeds are 
essentially the same. [See page 674.] 

Organizations and records. 

The American Suffolk Association was organized 
many years ago, but no herdbook has yet been 
published. In Canada, Suffolks are recorded in the 
Dominion Swine Breeders' Record, only 850 animals 
having been recorded up to January 1, 1908. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 646. 

Tamworth Swine. Fig. 676. 

By G. E. Day. 

Tamworth swine are of the bacon type, and as 
such have been accorded a high place by breeders. 
They are much more popular in Canada than in 
the United States. 



Description. 

According to the standard of excellence adopted 
by the National Pig Breeders' Association of Great 
Britain, the Tamworth should have "golden red 
hair on a flesh-colored skin, free from black." 
However, the shade of red varies considerably in 
individuals, and a chestnut shade is very common. 
In aged animals, it is not uncommon to see such a 
dark shade of chestnut that the casual observer 
might mistake it for a dull black. The snout is 
long and straight, and the ear large, and somewhat 
more pointed than the Yorkshire ear. The ears 
should be firmly attached to the head. The jowl is 
narrower and lighter than that of the Yorkshire, 
the neck and shoulder are light, the back and loin 
of medium width, and the side of good length and 
only moderately deep. Deficiency of ham is a com- 
mon weakness of the Tamworth. Since the Tam- 
worth belongs to the bacon type, it is not desira- 
ble that it should have a heavy, fat ham like a 
fat hog ; but the ham is often lacking seriously 
even from a bacon standpoint, and the breeders 
are making an effort to strengthen this point. 
The Tamworth is a large hog, strong in the bone, 
and looks leggy beside a hog of the fat type. The 
Tamworth and Large Yorkshire are similar in size, 
and are the two leading breeds of the bacon type. 

Following is the standard of excellence adopted 
by the National Pig Breeders' Association of Great 
Britain. 

Standard of Excellence for Tamworth Swine 

1. Color. — Golden red hair on a flesh-colored skin, free 

from black. 

2. Head. — Fairly long, snout moderately long and quite 

straight, face slightly dished, wide between ears. 

3. Ears. — Rather large, with fine fringe, carried rigid 

and inclined slightly forward. 

4. Neck. — Fairly long and muscular, especially in boai. 

5. Chest. — Wide and deep. 

6. Shoulders. — Fine, slanting, and well set. 

7. Legs — Strong and shapely, with plenty of bone and 

set well outside body. 

8. Pasterns. — Strong and sloping. 

9. Feet. — Strong and of fair size. 

10. Back. — Long and straight. 

11. Loin. — Strong and broad. 

12. Tail. — Set on high and well tasseled. 

13. Sides. — Long and deep. 

14. Ribs. — Well sprung and extending well up to flank. 

15. Belly. — Deep, with straight under-line. 

16. Flank.— Full and well let down. 

17. Quarters. — Long, wide, and straight from hip to tail. 

18. Hams. — Broad and full, well let down to hocks. 

19. Coat. — Abundant, long, straight, and fine. 

20. Action.— Firm and free. 

Objections: Black hair, very light or ginget 
hair, curly coat, coarse mane, black spots on skin, 
slouch or drooping shoulders, wrinkled skin, inbent 
knees, hollowness at back of shoulders. 

History. 

The Tamworth takes its name from Tamworth, 
in Staffordshire, England. It is also to be found 
in adjoining counties. It is of ancient and uncer- 
certain origin, and there seems to be no well 
authenticated account of where it came from. As 
first known, it was an extremely leggy, narrow 



SWINE 



SWINE 



677 



type of hog, but it has been greatly improved dur- 
ing the past thirty years. Whether this improve- 
ment was wrought solely by selection, or whether 
cross-breeding was resorted to, is uncertain. Pro- 
fessor Long favors the theory that the Tamworth 
was crossed with some white breed, but apparently 
no proof exists as to the correctness or incorrect- 
ness of this claim. Although it is one of the oldest 




Fig. 676. Tamworth sow. 

English breeds, it was not given a separate class at 
the Royal Agricultural Society's Show until 1885. 

In America. — Representatives of the Tamworth 
breed were brought to the United States nearly 
thirty years ago, but the breed does not make 
rapid progress. The long snout tends to prejudice 
the average farmer, and the fact that the produc- 
tion of bacon hogs receives little or no encourage- 
ment in the United States also tends to work 
against the general adoption of the breed. 

Like the Large Yorkshire, the Tamworth was 
brought to Canada by the packers some twenty 
years ago, with a view to improving the bacon 
qualities of Canadian hogs, and large numbers have 
been imported by Canadian breeders during the past 
twenty years. The Tamworth has not attained the 
degree of popularity in Canada that is enjoyed by 
the Yorkshire, although it is always well repre- 
sented at the leading Canadian fairs. 

Distribution. 

As already stated, the Tamworth has not made 
rapid progress in the United States, although rep- 
resentatives are to be found in Illinois, Kentucky, 
Iowa, Kansas, Texas, Wisconsin and Ohio. In 
Canada, it is more numerous in Ontario than in any 
other province, but it is to be found in practically 
every province. England and Canada are the two 
leading countries in the production of this breed. 



The Tamworth is especially adapted to the pro- 
duction of bacon. Its light shoulder, neck and 
head, its good length of side, and its tendency to 
produce a large proportion of lean to fat, render 
it well suited to the bacon curer's requirements. 
Being a large breed, and strong in the bone, it has 
become popular for crossing on finer and fatter 
breeds in districts where it is well known. A cross 
between the Tamworth and the Berkshire is very 
popular in Canada. 



As to early maturity, it is similar to the Large 
Yorkshire. For producing fat carcasses at an 
early age, it is unsuitable, as this is not the pur- 
pose for which it is bred. It will reach suitable 
weight for the bacon curer, however, at as early 
an age as any of the fat breeds, and will not carry 
the excessive fat which renders the fat breeds 
unsuitable for bacon purposes. For bacon-produc- 
tion, therefore, it matures early, and it is from the 
bacon standpoint that the Tamworth must always 
be judged. 

There is a popular belief among farmers that 
the Tamworth does not make economical use of 
food. A good deal of this prejudice is due to the 
appearance of the animal, and the man who is used 
to the short, thick, fine-boned type of hog, finds 
difficulty in reconciling himself to a hog of Tam- 
worth type. Experiments show, however, that the 
Tamworth is capable of making good use of the 
food it consumes, and that it compares very favor- 
ably with other breeds in this respect. Like the 
Yorkshire, it is rather better adapted to pen feed- 
ing than to pasture. It has been impossible to 
secure much information regarding its ability to 
stand exclusive corn-feeding. Available informa- 
tion indicates that the breed is not particularly 
well adapted to this purpose. 

It is asserted by some persons that Tamworths 
produce higher class bacon than any other breed, 
but this is too sweeping an assertion, and when 
they have come together in dressed-carcass compe- 
titions, the Large Yorkshire has won the largest 
share of prizes. There is no question, however, 
that the Tamworth produces excellent bacon, 
which is well mixed with lean of fine quality. The 
Large Yorkshire and Tamworth are the only 
strictly bacon breeds with which we are familiar 
in America. 

Tamworth sows are prolific and are good moth- 
ers. The boars are prepotent, but perhaps scarcely 
equal to the Large Yorkshire in this respect. 
According to Shaw, the Tamworth as compared 
with the Chester -White shows greater adapta- 
bility, is more active as a grazer, more hardy, and 
produces a superior quality of bacon. 

Organizations and records. 

The American Tamworth Swine Record Associa- 
tion was organized in 1897. The first volume of 
the herdbook was published in 1903, and up to 
January 1, 1908, two volumes had been pub- 
lished, in which 4,510 animals are recorded. In 
Canada, Tamworths are recorded in the Dominion 
Swine Breeders' Record. Up to January 1, 1908, 
6,970 animals had been recorded. [For further 
information regarding Canadian swine organiza- 
tions, see under Berkshire swine, on pages 659 and 
660. 

In Great Britain, Tamworth swine are recorded 
in the herdbook of the National Pig Breeders' 
Association. 

Literature. 

For references, see page 646, where a general 
list of swine books is given. 



678 



SWINE 



SWINE 







Victoria Swine. Fig. 677. 

By G. E. Day. 

The Victoria breed of swine was originated in 
America, but unlike the Poland-China, the great 
American breed, it has not gained much popularity. 
It is of the fat-hog type. 

Description. 

The Victoria ranks with the medium-sized breeds, 
being similar to the Berkshire in size. The snout is 
rather short, the face dished, and the ear, which is 
of only medium size, is firmly attached to the head 
and erect. The body is broad and deep, and the hams 

w 

Fig. 677. Victoria sow. 

and shoulders reasonably well developed. The color 
is white, with occasional dark spots on the skin. 

Following is the scale of points adopted by the 
Victoria Swine Breeders' Association : 

Scale op Points for Victoria 

SWINE Perfect 

score 

1. Color. — White, with occasional dark spots in the 

skin 2 

2. Head. — Small, broad, and face medium dished . 3 

3. Ears. — Fine, pointing forward 2 

4. Jowl. — Medium size and neat 1 

5. Neck. — Short, full and well arched 3 

6. Shoulders. — Broad and deep 7 

7. Girth around heart 6 

8. Back. — Straight, broad and level 12 

9. Sides.— Deep and full 6 

10. Ribs.— Well sprung 7 

11. Loin. — Broad and strong 12 

12. Flank.— Well let down 2 

13. Ham. — Broad, full and deep, without loose fat . 12 

14. Tail. — Medium fine and curled 2 

15. Legs. — Fine and straight 3 

16. Feet.— Small 3 

17. Hair. — Fine and silky, free from bristles ... 3 

18. Action. — Easy and graceful 4 

19. Symmetry. — Adaptation of the several parts to 

each other 10 

Perfection 100 

Detailed description. 

1. Color. — White, with occasional dark spots in the 
skin. 

2. Head and face. — Head rather small and neat. Face 
medium-dished and smooth ; wide between eyes ; tapering 
from eyes to nose. 

3. Eyes. — Medium size ; prominent, bright, clear and 
lively in young, and quiet expression in aged animals. 

4. Ears. — Small, thin, fine, silky ; upright in young 



pigs, pointing forward and slightly outward in aged 
animals. 

5. Neck. — Medium wide, deep, short, well arched, and 
full at top. 

6. Jowl. — Medium full, nicely rounded, neat and free 
from loose, flabby fat. 

7. Shoulders. — Broad, deep and full, not higher than 
line of back, and as wide as top of back. 

8. Chest. — Large, wide, deep and roomy, with large 
girth back of shoulders. 

9. Back and loin. — Broad, straight, or slightly arched ; 
carrying same width from shoulders to ham ; level and 
full at loin, sometimes slightly higher at hips than at 
shoulders. 

10. Ribs and sides. — Ribs well sprung at top ; strong 
and firm ; sides deep, full, smooth and firm ; free from 
creases. 

11. Belly and flank. — Wide, straight and full; as low 
or slightly lower at flank than at chest. Flank full and 
nearly even with sides. 

12. Hams and rump. — Hams long, full and wide, 
nicely rounded ; trim and free from loose fat. Buttocks 
large and full, reaching well down to hocks. Rump 
slightly sloped from end of loin to root of tail. 

13. Legs and feet. — Legs short, set well apart and 
firm ; wide above knee and hock, tapering below. Feet 
firm and standing well up on toes. 

14. Tail. — Small, fine and tapering, nicely curled. 

15. Coat. — Fine and silky, evenly covering the body. 

16. Size. — Boar two years old and over when in good 
condition should weigh not less than 500 pounds ; sow 
same age and condition, 450 pounds. Boar twelve months 
old, not less than 300 pounds ; sow in good flesh, 300 
pounds. Pigs five to six months old, 140 to 160 pounds. 

17. Action. — Easy and graceful, but quiet. 

18. Condition. — Healthy ; skin clean, and white or 
pink in color, free from scurf ; flesh firm and evenly laid 
on. 

19. Disposition. — Quiet and gentle. 

Disqualifications. 

Color. — Other than white or creamy white, with occa- 
sional dark spots in skin. 

Form. — Crooked jaws or deformed face ; crooked or 
deformed legs ; large, coarse, drooping ears. 

Condition. — Excessive fatness ; barrenness ; deformity 
in any part of the body. 

Pedigree. — Not eligible for record. 

History. 

At one time there were two breeds of Victoria 
swine, but only one breed and type is now recog- 
nized. The breed that has secured the ascendancy 
was originated by George F. Davis, Dyer, Indiana, 
and was formed by combining the blood of the 
Poland-China, Berkshire, Chester-White, and Suffolk, 
accompanied by careful selection to a type. The 
origin of the breed dates to about 1870. 

The other breed was established about 1850 by 
Colonel F. D. Curtis, of New York state, who is 
said to have used Irish Grazier, Byfield, Yorkshire, 
and Suffolk blood. This breed seems to have disap- 
peared as a recognized pure breed. 

Distribution. 

According to Professor Plumb, the Victoria is 
found mainly in Indiana, Ohio, and Illinois, with 
scattered herds in a few other states. A very few 
Victorias have found their way into Canada, but 
the breed is now nearly extinct in that country. 



SWINE 



SWINE 



679 



For some reason the breed does not make much 
progress. 

Uses. 

The Victoria belongs to the fat class. We have 
little information regarding its early maturity and 
feeding qualities, but from the fact that it does 
not increase rapidly in popularity, it would seem 
that the public does not recognize any outstanding 
merit, or advantage over other breeds. In quality 
of meat, it appears quite equal to other breeds, and 
it has a good reputation for being prolific. 

Its value for cross-breeding has not been well 
demonstrated. 

Organizations and records. 

The Victoria Swine Breeders' Association was 
organized in 1886, and the Victoria Swine Record 
is published by this association. In Canada, only 
nine animals of this breed have been recorded in 
the Dominion Swine Breeders' Record. 

Literature. 

For references, see page 646. 

Miscellaneous Breeds of Swine. 

By G. E. Day. 

There are certain little-known breeds or types of 
hogs that are of interest historically, or in restric- 
ted areas. In order to make the discussion of swine 
in this cyclopedia more nearly complete, brief notes 
on several of these breeds are introduced. 

Historic Breeds. 

It is an old opinion, apparently well substanti- 
ated, that the English swine, from which the 
modern American types are derived, sprung from 
breeds introduced from the east, as Chinese, Nea- 
politan and Siamese pigs. Even in such a noted 
live-stock country as Great Britain, the pigs of less 
than a century ago, were, on the whole, a rather 
undesirable lot, according to descriptions that have 
been handed down to us. Long legs, general coarse- 
ness, and slow fattening propensities were then 
commonly characteristic of British breeds. It is 
out of the question, even if it were desirable, to 
attempt to trace all the steps that led to the estab- 
lishment of British breeds as we know them today, 
but there is no doubt that much of the improve- 
ment came from the introduction of foreign breeds, 
which were crossed on the native stock. Although 
these foreign breeds are now practically unknown 
in Great Britain and America, there are three 
breeds whose influence has been so far-reaching as 
to render them worthy of at least a passing notice. 

The introduction into England of these Chinese, 
Neapolitan and Siamese pigs wrought a revolution 
among the earlier types of swine, and the crossing 
and inter-crossing of various types, which followed 
. the introduction of foreign blood, and which is too 
intricate and too little known to admit of complete 
investigation, resulted eventually in the English 
breeds of the present day. 

Chinese, Neapolitan, and Siamese swine were also 



imported into the United States. The great bulk 
of American foundation stock came from Great 
Britain, especially England, and as was the case in 
England, the use of Chinese, Neapolitan, and other 
similar blood, followed by the crossing of various 
local types, has led to the establishment of what 
are known as American breeds. 

Chinese swine. — Youatt writes of these swine as 
follows: "There are two distinct varieties, the 
white and the black ; both fatten readily, but from 
their diminutive size attain no great weight. 
They are small in limb, round in body, short in the 
head, wide in the cheek, and high in the chine ; 
covered with very fine bristles growing from an 
exceedingly thin skin ; and not peculiarly sym- 
metrical, for, when fat, the head is so buried in 
the neck that little more than the tip of the snout 
is visible." 

Neapolitan swine. — This breed came from the 
country about Naples, in Italy, and was also of the 
extremely fine-boned, easily fattened type. It is 
especially noted for the part it played in the 
formation of what is now known as the Essex 
breed. 

Siamese swine. — Mr. A. B. Allen, who bred 
Siamese swine many years ago, describes them in 
part as follows : "They varied in color from deep, 
rich plum to dark slate and black ; had two to 
three white feet, but no white on the legs or other 
parts of the body. The head was short and fine, 
with a dished face and rather thin jowl; ears 
short, slender, and erect; shoulders and hams 
round, smooth and extra large ; back broad and 
slightly arched ; body of moderate length, deep, 
well ribbed up, and nearly as round as a barrel; 
. . . legs fine and short ; hair soft, silky, and 
thin ; no bristles, even on boars ; . . . flesh firm, 
sweet and very tender, with less lean than in the 
Berkshire." 

Mule-foot Hog. 

A hog in which the hoof is single has recently 
come into notice. Its origin seems to be obscure, 
being attributed by one account to a cross of a 
Berkshire boar on a native razorback sow in Ar- 
kansas previous to 1900, and by others to intro- 
ductions from various foreign countries. The 
National Mule-foot Hog Record Association, re- 
cently organized in Indiana, makes the following 
statements : foot solid, short, smooth, enabling the 
animal to carry its own weight with ease ; color 
black, with white points admissible ; boar two 
years and over should weigh 500 pounds, sow same 
age 450 pounds ; neither a lard or bacon hog, but 
a medium between the two. 

Large Black Swine. 

The Large Black, as its name implies, is a large 
breed, all black in color, and possessing very large 
drooping ears. In general conformation it ap- 
proaches the bacon type, having a good length of 
side, medium width of back and shoulder, a rather 
light neck and jowl, and fairly heavy bone. 

The Large Black hog is the latest addition to the 
recognized pure breeds of swine in Great Britain. 



680 



SWINE 



SWINE 






The origin of the breed is not well known, but it 
has been bred for a great many years in the east 
and south of England. It is hardly known outside 
of England, and is not widely distributed even in 
England, being confined mainly to the southern 
part of the country. Some years ago, representa- 



X 






Si 




Fig. 678. Middle White boar. 

tives of the breed were brought to the Central 
Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada, but did not 
prove very satisfactory. At present, the breed is 
practically not represented on the American conti- 
nent. 

The main claims for the Large Black are its 
bacon qualities, its fecundity, and its value as a 
scavenger. Its bacon is highly esteemed in England, 
containing, as it does, a large percentage of lean. 
It is worthy of note, however, that at Ottawa the 
bacon of the Large Black was not equal to that of 
the Large Yorkshire or the Tamworth. The sows 
are excellent nurses, and the breed is regarded as 
a first-class farmer's breed in England. 

The interests of the breeds in England are looked 
after by "The Large Black Pig Society of Great 
Britain." This organization publishes the only herd- 
book for the breed. 

Middle White or Middle Yorkshire Swine. 
Fig. 678. 

The Middle White, as the name implies, is inter- 
mediate in type between the Large White and the 
Small White. It is recognized in England as a dis- 
tinct breed, but it is a difficult breed to describe, 
because of its variations. Some representives of 
the breed might easily pass as Large Whites, and 
from this extreme they shade down nearly all the 
way to the Small White type. There is little doubt 
that many so-called Large White pigs carry some 
Middle White blood, and that many Middle Whites, 
or pigs containing a large percentage of Middle 
White blood, have been brought to America and 
passed as Large Whites. Generally speaking, they 
are smaller than the Large Whites, have a shorter 
side, shorter leg, finer bone, and a heavier neck and 
jowl. They usually have a shorter snout than the 
Large White, and have more dish in snout and face. 
They belong to the fat type of hog. 

The Middle White originated from a cross 
between the Large White and the Small White 
breeds. Even at present, pigs may appear in 
Large White litters that are classed by their 
breeders as Middle Whites, so that it sometimes 
happens that Large Whites and Middle Whites may 



come from the same litter, especially in those 
herds in which Middle White blood is occasionally 
used to refine the Large White. Sometimes Middle 
Whites are produced by one cross of Small Whites 
on Large Whites, and animals produced in this 
way should scarcely be regarded as a distinct 
breed. 

The Middle White is unknown outside of its 
native country, and if any have been brought to 
America, they were introduced under the name of 
Large Yorkshire. 

The utility of the Middle White is necessarily 
limited. The practice of crossing, followed by 
many breeders, has told against the usefulness of 
the breed. Middle Whites which have been bred 
pure for a number of generations would no doubt 
prove satisfactory, but so many of them possess 
recent crosses of other blood, that the breed as a 
whole lacks prepotency and trueness to type. The 
mixing of Middle White blood with that of Large 
White, as practiced by many English breeders, 
cannot be too strongly condemned. A so-called 
Large Yorkshire boar produced in this way may 
look more attractive to the inexperienced breeder 
of Large Yorkshires than a pure Large Yorkshire, 
but he makes a very unsatisfactory sire. Breeders 
of Large Yorkshires soon learn to avoid boars 
showing any evidence of Middle White blood. 

Razorback Swine. Fig. 679. 

Whether it is strictly correct to call the 
"Razorback" a distinct breed may be open to 
question, but since it represents a type of hog 
existing in some parts of the United States, it 
should receive passing notice. 

The " Razorback " is characterized by long, 
coarse legs and snout ; coarse ears, coarse skin, 
and a bristly coat ; narrow back, slab sides, no 
hams worth mentioning, and an absence of any 
tendency to fatten. In spite of its undesirable 
qualities, it is more or less amenable to improve- 
ment, and some of the finer breeds, notably the 
Essex, have been crossed on it with a fair degree 
of success. Its hardiness and its ability to look 
after itself, are its main recommendations. 




Fig. 679. Razorback sow and litter. 



There is little doubt that the "Razorback" is a 
degenerate descendant of pigs brought into the 
country by the earliest white settlers. Hunger, 
exposure and the necessity for looking after itself 
and foraging its own living, have been the chief 
factors in evolving the type. 

The " Razorback " is now found almost exclus- 
ively in a comparatively limited area of the South, 



TURTLES 



TURTLES 



681 



and this area is becoming more and more restricted 
as improved agriculture advances. It is only a 
question of time until the type entirely disappears. 

Literature. 
For references, see page 646. 

TURTLES AND TURTLE- FARMING. Figs. 
680, 681. 

i By E. A. Andrews. 

Along the coasts of America, four kinds of ma- 
rine turtles lay their eggs in the sandy beaches, 
where they are left to develop by themselves, if 
such enemies as the bear and man do not discover 
them. While the flesh of the green turtle is most 
highly esteemed, and the shell of the " hawk's bill " 
or tortoise-shell turtle is greatly valued, a third of 
these four, the loggerhead, is also used as food, 
so that much profit would come from an increase 
in the abundance of these marine turtles. How- 
ever, as they are wide wanderers, seeking food 
over large areas and coming to shore only to lay 
their eggs, there is no question of private turtle- 
farming for these large oceanic reptiles, although 
the government might well take steps to lessen 
the too rapid extermination of the race by dimin- 
ishing the destruction of eggs and young, just as 
has been done for equally pelagic fish. 

The green turtle feeds on marine grass, off the 
Florida coasts, in comparatively shallow water, but 
the females, after mating in May, migrate hun- 
dreds of miles to lay their eggs on the Bahama 
banks and small islands. The eggs are laid in 
batches of 130 to 180, and it is thought that each 
female may lay four batches in June, July and 
August, but no more for one or two years. The 
eggs require ten to twelve weeks to hatch, and 
so many are eaten by gulls and sharks that prob- 
ably only 2 to 3 per cent survive the first week 
out of the shell. 

Fresh-water and land turtles. 

Among the fresh -water and land turtles the 
problem is somewhat different, and, in time, a 
turtle-farming industry will arise. There are some 
fifty kinds of these land and fresh-water turtles: 
snappers, mud turtles, painted turtles and terra- 
pins, pond turtles and wood - terrapin (Chelopus 
insculptus), box turtles, tortoises or gophers of 
Florida, and the soft-shelled turtles. The wood- 
terrapin eats berries and insects, and, in New York, 
is protected by a state law from capture and sale. 

Of these several turtles, the terrapins and snap- 
pers are most often used as food, although the 
soft-shelled turtles are sold in the markets, both 
North and South. The snapping turtles may be 
readily kept alive and fed on animal refuse, which, 
however, they must take under water to swallow. 
On the market they bring but ten cents a pound, so 
that there is not the incentive to artificial culture 
that there is in the very high-priced diamond-back 
terrapin. The snapping turtles leave the water to 
lay their eggs — some two dozen — in the earth, and 
if there were a sufficient supply of cheap animal 



food, a business of rearing these turtles in confined 
areas might be developed. However, like the bull- 
frog, these large carnivorous animals belong natu- 
rally to the conditions prevailing in wild, unsettled 
regions, and man will not find it profitable to rear 
carnivorous animals as food unless they may roam 
over unutilized regions, or for some reason they 
become esteemed far above their real food value. 
This latter condition is met in the diamond-back 
terrapin, which sells for $60 to $70 per dozen 
when eight inches long. When about seven and 
one-half inches long they bring $6 each ; at eight 
inches long, bring $8 ; but when five inches long, 




Fig. 680. Terrapin {Malaclemmys centrata concentrica). 

bring only $1.50. Every year these turtles are 
becoming scarcer and the price higher. To take 
their places, many of the less-esteemed species of 
the same genus, and of the related forms of painted 
turtles (Chrysemys), are sold as " sliders," at $1.25 
to $1.50 each for large specimens. 

The diamond - back terrapin differs from the 
others in living in salt and brackish water along 
the coast and up tidal rivers. In captivity, it does 
not thrive without the addition of some salt to the 
water, becoming, in fresh water, infected with a 
fungus that causes its death. However, it needs 
fresh water also. In captivity, it may be fed on 
chopped clams, meat, fish, Crustacea and periwin- 
kles. As in the case of the snapper, all the feed is 
taken under water, so that these turtles cannot be 
reared without sufficient water. In nature, the 
diamond-back turtle eats such soft shell-fish as its 
weak jaws enable it to crush, and also a consider- 
able amount of soft roots and shoots of plants. 

The different sorts of diamond-back turtles have 
been divided by Hay into the following species : 
Malaclemmys centrata, the Carolina terrapin ; M. 
centrata concentrica, the famous Chesapeake bay 
terrapin ; M. macrospilota, the Florida terrapin ; 
M. pileata, the Louisiana terrapin ; M. lateralis, 
the Texas terrapin. The life history and habits are 
best known in the case of the Carolina terrapin. 
It has been found as far north as Buzzard's bay. 
The adults sleep in the bottom of ponds and rivers 
all winter and mate in the spring. The males are 
so small, not exceeding five inches as measured 
lengthwise of the under shell, that they are ex- 
cluded from the market by the laws of some states, 
which fix the limit at five or six inches. Hence, 
there is great destruction of females and rapid 
diminution in the number of eggs that might be 
laid. The female lays the eggs in May or June, 
digging a hole in the bank, five or six inches deep, 
and carefully covering the five to twelve eggs with 
earth and then leaving them to hatch by them- 
selves. This they do in six to twelve weeks, accord- 



682 



TUETLES 



TURTLES 



ing to the temperature of the season. Soon after 
hatching, the young bury themselves in the marsh 
and there remain all winter and perhaps part of 
the following summer also. They grow about one 
inch a year up to five inches, and then more slowly. 
They reach a maximum length of eight to nine 
inches and are supposed to live twenty-five to 
thirty years. Apparently the diamond-back does 
not migrate but remains in the region where it 
was hatched or where it was put, so that it would 
be readily possible to protect and increase the local 
supply. 

Turtle-farming industry. 

In Japan. — It is only in Japan that a profitable 
turtle-farming industry has been developed. There, 
the soft snapping-turtle (Trionyx Japonieus) is 
reared from eggs laid by captive turtles in special 




Fig. 681. Arrangement for catching newly-hatched turtles. 

ponds made for the business. The farms of the 
Hattori family have shown a healthy and steady 
growth since their establishment in 1875, with a 
stock of fifty turtles. In 1904, the three " farms " 
of 25, 7 and 2 acres were expected to yield about 
4,100 batches of eggs, or say 82,000 eggs, hatch- 
ing 70,000 young and yielding some 60,000 mar- 
ketable turtles at the end of the third year. 

One of these "farms" is a collection of ponds fed 
by canals and separated by low board walls to con- 
fine the turtles. The ponds are but two to three 
feet deep, and as the turtles are shy and will not 
feed well in clear water, it has been found expedient 
to keep carp and other fish in the same ponds, in 
order that they may stir up the mud to conceal the 
turtles. The eggs are laid in the steep banks of 
earth, and each batch is at once covered with wire 
netting by the attendants. When the young hatch, 



they are prevented from crawling into the water by 
planks on edge, that divert them from a straight 
course to the water until they finally fall into sun- 
ken jars, whence they are removed by the attend- 
ants and placed in rearing ponds. There they are 
fed on chopped fish until they go into the winter 
sleep. Gradually they are given the food of the 
adults, and are finally not kept separate from large 
turtles. The young of three to five years are the 
most esteemed, and are the ones sold in the market. 
When six years old, they begin to breed, but are 
not yet at the maximum of reproductive power. 

These farms have been successful because of the 
abundance of cheap animal food — a kind of clam, 
which is crushed under heavy millstones. The 
turtles are also given boiled wheat grains, dried 
fish scraps, silkworm pupa;, and other food. 

In America, the so-called turtle-farms prove to 
be merely places for holding the stock for shipment 
to market, with the one important exception of the 
turtle-farm at Lloyds, Maryland. This is now under 
the control of the United States Bureau of Fisher- 
ies. It has been there demonstrated that young 
turtles may be secured from eggs laid in enclosed 
pens by the diamond-back terrapin. Whether the 
young can be reared profitably to a marketable 
size, remains to be demonstrated by this experi- 
mental farm. Although this industry is thus merely 
in the experimental stage, there is hope that if 
properly undertaken on a large scale, with large 
outlay and with the realization that some six years 
must elapse before the product of the hatched egg 
can be of marketable size, financial success might 
result. 

As turtles lay but few eggs as compared with 
fish and Crustacea, the first essential in turtle-farm- 
ing is to have ponds with proper conditions of 
moisture and temperature in the neighboring shores, 
so that all the eggs laid in the ground may hatch. 
Another necessity is to protect the young turtles 
and to feed them enough, not only for growth, but 
to carry them safely through the long hibernating 
period of winter. On the other hand, the long life 
of the adults enables one to secure many successive 
broods from the same parents. At the best, only 
exceptional conditions of cheap, natural feeding- 
grounds and cheap labor may be utilized for profit 
in turtle-raising. 

Literature. 

Hay, Revision of Malaclemmys, Bulletin of the 
United States Bureau of Fisheries, Volume XXIV 
(1904) ; Munroe, The Green Turtle and the Possi- 
bilities of its Protection and Consequent Increase 
on the Florida Coast, Bulletin of the United States 
Fish Commission (1897) ; R. L. Ditmars, The Rep- 
tile Book, Doubleday, Page & Co., (1907) ; Mitsu- 
kuri, The Cultivation of Marine and Fresh Water 
Animals in Japan, Bulletin of the United States 
Bureau of Fisheries, Volume XXIV (1904). 



INDEX 



Abdallah, 501, 502, 503. 

Abdallah 15, 478, 504. 

Abdominal sweetbread, 20. 

Aberdeen, 505, 506. 

Aberdeen-Angus cattle, 330-333; for baby beef, 31S; 
heredity in, 36; notes, 34, 303. 

Abeyan Arabs, 44S. 

Abnormal characters, transmission of, 37. 

Abomasum, IS. 

Abortion, 32; contagious, 32, 143; notes, 123. 

Abscess, 125, 442. 

Abyssinian cat, 300. 

Abyssinian caw, 520. 

Achilles, 467, 502. 

Acid test, 180, 202. 

Acidimeter, 211. 

Aconite, 120. 

Aconitum Columbianum, 120. 

Acorns, composition, 96; digestibility, 99; digestible 
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 102. 

Acquired characters, inheritance, 39. 

Acryllium vulturinum, 578. 

Actinomycosis, 138; effect on meat, 248. 

Acute bronchial catarrh, 327. 

Acute gastro-intestinal catarrh, 325. 

Adams, Seth, quoted, 619. 

Adbell, 504. 

Adn'ev, George, quoted, 627. 

Adulteration of milk, tests for, 179, ISO. 

Advanced register, Holstein-Friesian, 358. 

Aemulus, 459. 

African ass, wild, 276. 

African geese, 572. 

African gray parrot, 524. 

Afterbirth, retained, 324, 325. 

Age, determining, of cattle, 321 ; horses, 433 ; sheep, 
603; swine, 653. 

Agronomy, 273. 

Aguirre Merino sheep, 619. 

Air, atmospheric, composition, 21. 

Airdrie 2478,372; 3d 13320,372; Duke 5306,372. 

Airedale terrier, 515. 

Alton, Mr., quoted, 335. 

Aix sponsa, 571. 

Ajax flakes, 74. 

Aladdin oven, 269. 

Alaska fur seal, 399; farming, 404; notes, 404. 

Alaska sable, 402. 

Albion (14), 371. 

Albumen, 177; notes, 17. 

Alderney cattle, notes, 335, 361. 

Aldrich, D. G., quoted, 338. 

Alexander, A. J., quoted, 372, 375. 

Alexander, Dr., quoted, 494. 

Alfalfa, as honey-plant, 2S5; composition, 95; digesti- 
bility, 98, 99; digestible nutrients and fertilizing 
constituents, 102,109; factors affecting feeding value, 
71 ; for meat-production, 247 ; notes, 11, 151 ; nutritive 
ratio and protein-equating value, 104; production 
''■ value, 67. 

Alfalfa hay, available energy in, 66; for beef cattle, 
318-321; for colts, 43; composition and digesti- 
bility of dried, 68; for dairy cows, 316; digestibility, 
61; digestible nutrients in stated amounts, 111 
nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 105 
production value, 67. 

Algarroba as honey-plant, 2S6. 

Alix, 505. 

Alkali water poisoning of stock, 118. 

Allen, A. B., quoted, 658, 679. 

Allen, L. F., quoted, 31, 375. 

Allerton, 504. 

Allround 6498 (Fig. 366), 340. 

Al m onds, composition and fuel-value, 264. 



Alpaca, 7. 

Alterative foods, 106. 

Althrope quoted, 372. 

Alvord, Major Henry E., quoted, 374. 

Amazon parrot, 524. 

Amble, 423, 424. 

Ameba meleagridis, 140. 

American Breeders' Association of Jacks and Jennets 
quoted, 276. 

American Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association 
quoted, 303, 337. 

American Girl, 492. 

American Hackney Horse Society quoted, 481, 487. 

American Jockey Club quoted, 499. 

American Merino sheep, 621. 

American mockingbird, 523. 

American Poultry Association quoted, 547, 563, 

American sable, 401. 

American saddle horse (See Saddle horse). 

American Saddle Horse Breeders' Association quoted, 
490. 

American Sebright fowls, 564. 

American Star 14, 506. 

Amides, 58. 

Ammonia, for poisoning, 120; refrigeration, 259. 

Amylopsin, 20. 

Ancona fowls, 567. 

Andalusian ass, 277; horse, 450; jacks, 508, 509. 

Andalusian fowls, Blue, 566. 

Anderegg, Professor, quoted, 411. 

Anderson quoted, 37. 

Anderson, Captain, quoted, 398. 

Anderson and Findlay quoted, 332. 

Anderson's Kaleege, 5S2. 

Andrew, J. T-, quoted, 625. 

Andrew Jackson, 503, 505. 

Andrews, E. A., articles by, 394, 635, 681. 

Angle-berries, 32S. 

Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company quoted, 191. 

Angora goat, 405-408, 409. 

Angora rabbit, 517. 

Angus Doddie, 331. 

Animal, breeding, 26-43; chemical basis of, 158; com- 
position of body, 58; domestic, place in civilization, 
3-14; husbandry, progress, of, 9-11, 273; number 
and value, 122; physiology, 15-26; products, total 
value of, 9; types and score-cards, 44—55. 

Animals, wild, in relation with agriculture, 163—169. 

Anos boschas, 569, 572. 

Anser albifrons, 575; cinereus, 572, 576; segetum, 576. 

Antar Jr. 217 (Fig. 307), 277. . 

Antelope, 2. 

Anthrax, 129-131; inoculating for immunity, 145; 
note, 126. 

Apes, 2. 

Aphtha;, 553. 

Apiculture, 278. 

Apis Adansonii, dorsata, florea, Indica, unicolor, 279; 
mellifica, 278, 279. 

Apoplectiform septicemia in chickens, 129. 

Appenzeller goat, White, 410. 

Apple pomace, composition, 95, 96 ; digestible nutrients 
in stated amounts, 116. 

Appleby, J. C, quoted, 481. 

Apples, composition, 96; composition and fuel- value, 
264; digestible nutrients in stated amounts, 116, 117. 

Aquiculture, 390. 

Arab horse, 446-449, 488; notes, 450, 497, 501. 

Arabella, 372. 

Aratus, 490. 

Archangel pigeon, 521. 

Arctomys monax, 165. 

Ardennais horse, 460. 

Arenga saccharifera, 286, 



(683) 



684 



INDEX 



Argali, 596. 

Argallus spicatus, 121. 

Argonaut, 506. 

Argus pheasant, 580. 

Argusianus argus, 5S0. 

Arion, 504. 

Aristophanes quoted, 528. 

Aristos, 506. 

Aristotle quoted, 144, 278. 

Armsby, H. P., article by, 58. 

Armstrong, John M., quoted, 373. 

Arnold test for boiled milk, 180. 

Arrowside Duke (Fig. 488), 493. 

Artichoke, composition, 95; digestible nutrients 
and fertilizing constituents, 102. 

Artillery horses, 471, 472. 

Asbestos as insulating material, 239. 

Ascarid megalocephala, 443. 

Ascarides, 443. 

Aseel fowl, 528, 529. 

Ash of milk, 177. 

Ash, nature and function, 58, 62. 

Asiatic ass, wild, 276. 

Aspergillosis, 553. 

Ass, 276-278; diseases, 122-146; extent of sweating, 
23; milk of, 176; period of gestation, 31; wild, note, 
419. 

Association of Breeders of Thoroughbred Holstein 
Cattle quoted, 357. 

Aster as honey-plant, 285. 

Asthenia in fowls and pigeons, 131. 

Astrachan, 396, 407. 

Astragalus mollissimus, 121. 

Atavism, 39. 

Atlas gluten feed, digestible nutrients and fertilizing 
constituents, 100; meal, 74; nutritive ratio and pro- 
tein-equating value, 105. 

Atrophy, 584. 

Atropin for poisoning, 120. 

Atwater quoted, 65. 

Atwood Merino sheep, 619. 

Audubon quoted, 400. 

Audubon Boy, 504. 

Aurochs, 287. 

Australian Merino sheep, 620. 

Australian Trustee, 503. 

Auten 495 (Fig. 36S), 342. 

Avadavat, 524. 

Avery, J. D., quoted, 366. 

Avian tuberculosis, 135. 

Awards, show, 15S. 

A. W. Richmond, 506. 

Axtcll, 504. 

Aylesbury duck, 569. 

Aylmer, Hugh, quoted, 611. 

Ayres, H. L., article by, 226. 

Ayrshire cattle, 333-337; notes, 177, 303. 

Babcock, Dr. S. M., quoted, 178, 181, 185. 

Babcock milk test, 178, 179; note, 308. 

Babirussa, 646; alfurus (Fig. 651), 647. 

Baby-beef, 318, 319; Hereford cattle for, 353. 

Bacillus alvei, 285; cholerse suis, 137; chauvsei, 137; 
diseases caused by bacteria of genus, 136-138; 
necrophorus, 137, 607, 608, 656. 

Bacon, canned, 262; production, 647-649; notes, 644, 
645, 646; shipping, 260; sugar-cured, 256. 

Bacon hog, finishing, 652; type, 55. 

Bacon, W. C, article by, 468. 

Bacterdemia, 124. 

Bacteria, in milk, 182, 187-190, 200; in relation to 
infection, 124; in relation to meat-canning, 261. 

Bacteriology applied to refrigeration, 238. 

Bacterium, anthracis, 126. 129; asthenia?, 131; dis- 
eases caused by bacteria of genus, 129-136; mallei, 
131; of Preisz, 132; sanguinarium, 131; tuberculosis, 
133. 

Bactrian camel, 297. 

Badgers, notes, 164, 16S. 

Bailey, Charles, quoted, 31. 

Bailey, C. P., quoted, 406. 

Bailey, Vernon, quoted, 166. 

Baker quoted, 370. 



Baker's cheese, 230. 

Bakewell Leicester sheep, 615, 616. 

Bakewell, Robert, quoted, 43, 303, 352, 3S0, 493, 616. 

Balanced rations, computing, 103-118; supplementing 
pasture, 118. 

Balata as honev-plant, 286. 

Bald Stockings" 76, 490. 

Balking, 426. 

Balls, 322. 

Banastar (Fig. 492), 497. 

Bang method of tuberculosis control, 136. 

Bang, Professor, quoted, 136. 

Bane-berry, 121. 

Bantams, 56S, 569. 

Barb dog, 388. 

Barb horse, 449-451 ; notes, 420, 497. 

Barb pigeons, 521. 

Barbados sheep, 631. 

Bari (411), 3S1. 

Barker, Richard, quoted, 370. 

Barker, William, quoted, 370. 

Barley and peas, digestibility, 98. 

Barley, composition, 93; digestibility, 96; digestible 
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100, 112; feed, 
74; feeding value, 72; for calves, 313; for horses, 
428-432; for show animals, 153; fresh, digestibility, 
98; green, digestible nutrients and fertilizing con- 
stituents, 101 ; nutritive ratio and protein-equating 
value, 105 ; screenings, 93. 

Barley hay, composition, 94; digestible nutrients and 
fertilizing constituents, 101; digestibility, 9S; nutri- 
tive ratio and protein-equating value, 104; produc- 
tion value, 67. 

Barley meal, composition, 93; digestibility, 99; nutri- 
tive ratio and protein-equating value, 105. 

Barley-straw, composition, 95; digestibility, 9S; digesti- 
ble nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 101; feed- 
ing value, 71 ; for dairy cattle, 316. 

Barnacle, 634. 

Barnard Morgan, 506. 

Barnum, P. T., quoted, 342. 

Barnyard millet, composition, 94; and soybean silage, 
composition, 95; digestibility, 99; digestible nutri- 
ents and fertilizing constituents, 102. 

Baron's Pride (Fig. 464), 456, 457. 

Barrel churn, 202. 

Barrenness, 33, 34. 

Barrett, O. W., quoted, 293. 

Barron, Commodore, quoted, 633. 

Barrow, 149, 647. 

Bars 1st, 451, 475. 

Barss, 475. 

Bartlett's Childers, 501. 

Barton, E. M., quoted, 338. 

Bashaw, 503. 

Bashaw 50, 505. 

Bashaw Arabian, 450. 

Bass, black, 391, 392, 394. 

Basswood as honev-plant, 285. 

Bates, Thomas, quoted, 43, 370-372. 

Bats, 168. 

Battledor (Fig. 47S), 482, 4S3. 

Bay lvnx, 403. 

Baynes, E. H., article by, 2S7. 

Beaglehound, 517. 

Beale, Lieut. E. F., quoted, 297. 

Beall, C. H., quoted, 622. 

Bean goose, 576. 

Bean straw, digestible nutrients in stated amounts, 
111, 112. 

Beanes, Captain, quoted, 616. 

Beans, available energy in, 66; factors affecting feed- 
ing value, 71 ; feeding value, 72; for horses, 431, 432; 
dried, composition and food value, 264; fresh, 264. 

Bear, 402; notes, 168; period of gestation, 31; protec- 
tion, 397. 

Bear mice, 166. 

Beattie, Simon, quoted, 373. 

Beautiful Bells, 505. 

Beauty 604,491. 

Beaver, 399, 400; farming, 404; notes, 165, 404; period 
of gestation, 31 ; protection, 397. 

Bedding, 147; for show animals, 156. 



INDEX 



685 



Bedford, George M., quoted, 372. 

Bede quoted, 36S. 

Bedfordshire pigs, 662. 

Bedlington terrier, 516. 

Bedson, S. L., quoted, 290. 

Bee-plant, 285. 

Bees, 27S-2S6; notes, 33. 

Beef, amount of dry matter to produce a pound of, 11 ; 
canned roast, 262; characteristics of good, 265; com- 
position and fuel-value, 264, 269, 275; cutting, 253; 
dried, 255; scrap for fattening fowls, 540; shipping 
carcasses, 260; storing, 25S; tallow, 259. 

Beef cattle, feeding, 317-321; type, 4S-50. 

Beeswax for candles, 259. 

Beet molasses, composition, 96; digestible nutrients 
and fertilizing constituents, 102, 116; nutritive ratio 
and protein-equating value, 105. 

Beet pulp, 75; composition, 96; digestibility, 99; diges- 
tible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 102. 

Beets, composition, 95; digestible nutrients and ferti- 
lizing constituents, 102; feeding value, 71; nutritive 
ratio and protein-equating value, 105. 

Beimling milk test, 178, 179. 

Belgian draft horse, 451-453; notes, 274. 

Belgian hare, 412—115; note, 517. (See Hare, Belgian.) 

Belindas Shorthorns, 371. 

Bell Duke of Airdrie 2552, 372. 

Belle Acton, 504. 

Belle Sarcastic, No. 1108 (Fig. 379), 358, 359. 

Bellflower as honev-plant, 286. 

Bellfounder 5, 502'; (55), 467, 502; Imported, 502. 

Belvedere (1706), 371. 

Bement, C. N., quoted, 629. 

Ben Franklin, 506. 

Ben Lomond, 506. 

Benign venereal disease, 140. 

Benjamin 1931 (Fig. 374), 346. 

Bergh & Company quoted, 475. 

Berkshire swine, 65S-660; fitting for exhibition, 154; 
notes, 644. 

Berkshire-knot sheep, 614. 

Berlin Board of Health quoted, 134. 

Bernacle goose, 576. 

Bernese cattle, 3S1. 

Berniela eucopsis, 576. 

Bern', William, quoted, 622. 

Bertholf, Lieut. E. P., quoted, 589, 591. 

Berthune, 490. 

Bertus, 463. 

Berwick swan, 586. 

Best quoted, 370. 

Betsey Harrison, 490. 

Beverages, milk, 187. 

Bey Mohammed Pasha quoted, 297. 

Bezoar goat, 408. 

Big China swine, 673. 

Big head, 13S, 438; notes, 500. 

Big-horn sheep, 597. 

Bigotte (No. 2405) (Fig. 467), 461. 

Bile, 19. 

Bile's XXXX, digestible nutrients in stated amounts, 
115. 

Biliary jaundice, 20. 

Bilirubin, 19. 

Bilivirdin, 19. 

Bingen, 504. 

Bird-hawks, 173. 

Birds, cage-, 522-524. 

Birds as carriers of disease, 127; in their relations with 
agriculture, 169-173. 

Birth, premature, 32. 

Bishop's Hambletonian, 467, 501, 502. 

Bison, 2, 287-292; Americanus, 287; bison, 287; 
bonasus, 287. 

Bisulfid of carbon for rodents, 165, 167. 

Bitting, Dr. A. W., quoted, 663. 

Black-backed Kaleege, 582. 

Black Bess, 459. 

Black Brant goose, 576. 

Black-breasted Red Malay fowl, 568. 

Black brood, 285. 

Black cap, 522. 

Black Cayuga duck, 570. 



Black Eagle 74, 490. 

Black East India duck, 570. 

Black-face Highland sheep, 631. 

Black-footed ferret, 168. 

Black, George, quoted, 623. 

Black grass hay, digestibility, 98. 

Black gum as honey-plant, 285. 

Black Hawk 5, 506. 

Black horse of Flanders, 450, 493. 

Black leg, 137; immunity, 145. 

Black-necked Valaisan goat, 410. 

Black quarter, 137. 

Black sheep, 597. 

Black Spanish fowls, White-faced, 566. 

Black Sumatra fowls, 568. 

Black swine, Large, 679; Small, 676. 

Black squirrel 58, 490. 

Black-throated Golden pheasant, 582. 

Black tooth, 655. 

Black-top Spanish Merino sheep, 622. 

Black trotter of Friesland, 451 

Black Welsh cattle, 377, 378. 

Black-winged peafowl, 5S0. 

Black-and-tan terrier, 516. 

Blackbird, 170, 171; red-winged, notes, 170. 

Blackbird 401, 506. 

Blackbird 402, 506, 523. 

Blackburn's whip, 490. 

Blackcat, 401. 

Blackhead, 140. 

Blanketing stock, 14S, 154. 

Blaze, 466, 467, 497, 500, 501, 502. 

Bleeding cattle, 250. 

Blenheim dog, 517. 

Blind gut, 20. 

Bloating, 326; of sheep, 60S. 

Blondenettes, 521. 

Blood circulation, 20, 21. 

Blood, dried, digestibility, 99; digestible nutrients 

and fertilizing constituents, 102; nutritive ratio 

and protein-equating value, 105. 
Blood meal for show animals, 153. 
Blood poisoning, note, 150. 
Blood's Black Hawk, 490. 
Blood worms, 392. 
Bloodhound, 516. 
Bloody Buttocks, 505. 
Blossom, 371. 
Blue-birds, 173. 
Blue Bull, 476, 490. 
Blue Front parrot, 524. 
Blue goose, 575. 
Blue-grass, notes, 69, 71. 
Blue-grays, 347. 

Blue-joint grass, digestibility, 98. 
Blue Swedish duck, 570. 
Blue thistle as honey-plant, 285. 
Blundeville, Thomas, quoted, 497. 
Boar, feeding, 649; wild, 646. 
Board of Health lactometer, 181. 
Bob Hester, 387. 
Bobolink, 171. 

Bobtail Sheep-dog. (See Sheep-dog.) 
Bobwhite, domestication, 584, 585. 
Body functions, 62, 63. 
Boece, Hector, quoted, 631. 
Boiled milk, test for, 180. 
Boiling meats, 268. 
Bollinger quoted, 132. 
Bologna sausage, 257 ; canned, 263. 
Bombay buffalo, 295. 
Bombyx mori, 640. 
Bonasa umbella, 576. 
Bone, 174; flour, 174. 
Bone spavin, 445. 
Bonnie Scotland, 503. 
Boophilus annulatus, 141. 
Booted White bantam, 569. 
Booth, James, quoted, 467. 
Booth, John, quoted, 371. 
Booth Red Roses, 371. 
Booth, Richard, quoted, 371. 
Booth, Thomas, quoted, 371, 



686 



INDEX 



Boracic acid, a9 meat preservative, 254; in milk, test, 
179. 

Boralma, 504. 

Borax as meat preservative, 254; test for, in milk, 179. 

Borden, A. P., quoted, 378. 

Borden, Gail, quoted, 191. 

Border Leicester sheep, 615, 617. 

Bornean Fireback pheasant, 581. 

Bos bubalus, 292; frontosus, 302; Indicus, 301, 303, 
378; longifrons, 302; primigenius, 302; taurus, 301, 
302, 303. 

Boss, Andrew, article by, 248. 

Boston, 49S. 

Boston terrier, 516. 

Botryomycosis, 125. 

Bots"and bot-fly, 442. 

Boulonnais horse, 461 ; notes, 452, 479. 

Bourbon Chief 976, 490. 

Bourne, F. G., quoted, 475. 

Bo vo vaccine, 136. 

Boyd, Mossom, quoted, 291. 

Bowditch, E. F., quoted, 613. 

Bracelet tribe of Shorthorns, 371. 

Bradley, Peter B., quoted, 447. 

Brahma bantam, 569. 

Brahma fowls, 565; note, 529. 

Brahmin cattle, 378. 

Braising meat, 268. 

Bran, 73; composition, 92, 93; for beef cattle, 318-321 ; 
for dairy cows, 316; for dairy heifer, 314; for horses, 
431, 432; for show animals, 153; mash, 430, 431; 
notes, 151. 

Branch grass, digestibility, 98. 

Branding stock, 151. 

Brant quoted, 575. 

Branta bernicla, 576; Canadensis, 574. 

Brassica campestris, 597. 

Brazilian cardinal, 523. 

Bread, composition and fuel-value, 264. 

Breed, defined, 421. 

Breeders' associations, notes, 27. 

Breeding, animal, 26-43; back, 39; poultry, 529-532; 
young stock, 306. 

Brennus, 33. 

Brentnall, John, quoted, 658. 

Breton cattle, 379. 

Breton horse, 461. 

Brewer, W. H., article by, 3. 

Brewers' grains, 74; for calves, 313; composition, 93; 
digestibility, 97; digestible nutrients and fertilizing 
constituents, 100; digestible nutrients in stated 
amounts, 114, 115; nutritive ratio and protein-equat- 
ing value, 105; production value, 67. 

Brewing, notes, 74. 

Brick-cheese, 224; notes, 220. 

Bridle, 426. 

Brie cheese, 223 ; notes, 220. 

Brienz No. 168, 338. 

Briggs, H. A., quoted, 452. 

Bright Eyes, 371. 

Brimse cheese, 223. 

Brindse cheese, 223. 

Brine-curing of meat, 255. 

Brinse cheese, 223. 

British War Office quoted, 474. 

Brittany cattle, 379. 

Broader quoted, 371. 

Broiling meat, 267. 

Broken-wind, 22; inheritance of, 38. 

Bronchitis, 327, 441; in fowls, 555; verminous, 655. 

Bronco, 483, 484. 

Broncho-pneumonia, 133. 

Brooding, 542-544. 

Brooks, Dr. W. K., quoted, 638. 

Broom-corn seed, composition, 93; digestible nutri- 
ents and fertilizing constituents, 100. 

Broughton Shorthorns, 371. 

Brown Bessie (Fig. 3S1), 363, 374. 

Brown, E. A., quoted, 335. 

Brown Hal, 477. 

Brown, Hon. George, quoted, 373. 

Brown Schwyzer cattle, 33S. 

Brown Sequiird quoted, 38, 39. 



Brown Swiss cattle, 337-339; note, 303. 

Brown Switzer cattle, 338. 

Brownlow Turk, 467. 

Bubalis ami, bos, bubalis, buffalus, 292; Caffer, 293. 

Bubonic plague immunity, 145. 

Buchan, George, quoted, 345. 

Buchan Humblies, 331. 

Buck knees, 500. 

Buckeye fowls, 565. 

Buckskin, tanning, 271. 

Buckthorn for birds, 172. 

Buckwheat, bran, 73, 93, 100, 105, 114; composition, 
93; digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 
100, 113; flour, 93; as honey-plant, 285; hulls, 93, 
100; middlings, 73, 74, 93, 100, 105, 114; shorts, 93, 
100; straw, 95. 

Buffalo, 292-296; milk, 176; period of gestation, 31. 
(See Bison). 

Buffalo-grass, nutritive ratio and protein-equating 
factor, 104. 

Bulk in the ration, 106. 

Bull, dairy, 304, 306; feeding, 308, 317. 

Bull nose, 655. 

Bull terrier, 515. 

Bulldog, 515. 

Bullfinch, 523. 

Bullfrog, 395. 

Bulle Rock, 498. 

Bullock horse, 502. 

Bulman quoted, 42. 

Bulrush, 503, 506. 

Bureau of Animal Industry quoted, 161, 325. 

Bureau of the Census quoted, 272. 

Bureau of Fisheries quoted, 390, 391, 393, 394. 

Burke, John, quoted, 453. 

Burkett, Charles W., article by, 507. 

Burleigh, A. E., quoted, 375. 

Burleigh, J. F., quoted, 375. 

Burma pony, 489. 

Burnens quoted, 278. 

Burrell quoted, 396. 

Burrell-Lawrence— Kennedy milking machine, 312. 

Burro, 276, 277. 

Buttel-Reepen, H. von, quoted, 279. 

Butter, 19S-207; amount of dry matter to produce a 
pound of, 11; composition and fuel-value, 264; milk 
for, note, 176; notes, 174; packing, 204; pasteurized, 
207; records, 207; refrigeration, 236, 245; workers, 
204. 

Butter-fat, cost of producing, 14; increase in percent- 
age of, 10; nature, and causes of variation in quan- 
tity in milk, 176, 177. 

Buttercups, composition, 94; digestibility, 98. 

Butterine, note, 259. 

Buttermilk, composition, 96; composition and fuel- 
value, 264; digestible nutrients and fertilizing 
constituents, 102, 117; nutritive ratio and protein- 
equating value, 105. 

Buttiro, cheese 219. 

Butvrin, 177. 

Bye'rly Turk, 451, 497, 501, 505. 

Byfield swine, 662, 673. 

By-product feeding-stuffs, 73; production value, 67. 

Cabbage, composition, 96; composition and fuel-value, 
264; digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 
102, 116; for show animals, 153; tainting milk, 86. 

Cabell's Lexington, 490. 

Cabeza de Vaca quoted, 498. 

Cackling goose, 576. 

Caddis-worms, 392. 

Cadet 1251, 467. 

Caecum, 20. 

Ccenuris cerebralis, 605. 

Caesar, Julius, quoted, 302, 484, 493, 528. 

Cage-birds, 522-524. 

Caked-bag, 323. 

Calamagrostis Canadensis, 98. 

Caldwell, William H., article by, 34S. 

Calf, composition of body, 59; feeding the dairy, 305, 
306, 313; pulse in, 21. 

Caliban, 505. 

Call ducks, 571. 






INDEX 



687 



Call, Surg. S. J., quoted, 591. 

Callinectes hastatus, 634. 

Callorhinus Alascanus, 399. 

Calorie, 65, 264. 

Camas, death, 120. 

Camel, 296-299; pulse ,21; rumination in, 18. 

Camelus baeterianus, 297; dromedarius, 297. 

Camembert cheese, 223 ; notes, 220. 

Campbell Patent, 193. 

Canada Chief, 490. 

Canada lynx, 403. 

Canada peas, digestibility, 98. 

Canadian geese, 574. 

Canaries, 522; mule, 522; notes, 31. 

Candles, making, 259. 

Canine malaria, 139. 

Canis familiaris, 3S3; lupus, 402. 

Canker, 584; of fowls, 553; of the mouth, in swine, 656. 

Canning meat and fish, 261-263; oysters, 639. 

Canter, 427, 491. 

Capital investment on stock-farm, 12. 

Capons and caponizing, 540, 541 ; notes, 149, 150. 

Capped elbow, 443 ; hock, 443. 

Capra aegagrus, 405; angorensis, 405; falconeri, 405; 
ibex, 408. 

Carabao, 292. (See Buffalo.) 

Caracu, 278. 

Carbohydrates, nature and function, 58, 62, 63; fuel- 
value, 65. 

Carbolic acid as disinfectant, 146, 147. 

Carcajou, 397. 

Cardinal, 523; Brazilian, 523. 

Caribou, 588, 590, 592. 

Carlvle, W. L., articles by, 451, 460, 632; quoted, 483. 

CarmichEcl, T. J., quoted, 610. 

Carmieha^l, W. E., quoted, 31. 

Carmon, 506, 507. 

Carnivorous mammals, 167. 

Carob bean as honey-plant, 286. 

Carolina duck, 571. 

Carp, German, 393, 394; notes, 390, 392. 

Carpet-grass as honey-plant, 285. 

Carriage-horse breeding, 274; type, 46, 47. 

Carrier pigeons, 521. 

Carrot, available energy, 66 ; composition, 95 ; digestible 
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 102, 110_; feed- 
ing value, 71 ; for horses, 430 ; nutritive ratio and 
protein-equating value, 105; production value, 67. 

Carthagena parrot, 524. 

Cartilaginous quittor, 443. 

Casein, 177. 

Caseous lymph-adenitis, 132. 

Cashmere goat, 405. 

Casings for sausage, 257. 

Cassandra (Fig. 473), 472; 2nd 16305, 369. 

Casserole, 26S. 

Cassius M. Clav 20, 505. 

Casswell, I. E.; quoted, 618. 

Castleman, David, article by, 489. 

Castor fiber, 399. 

Castration, 149. 

Cat, 299-301; fecundity, 33; mastication in, 17; notes, 
167, 173; period of gestation, 31; sweating in, 23; 
vomiting, 19. 

Catalonian jack, 277, 508, 509. 

Catarrh in fowls, 554. 

Catarrhal fever, malignant, 60S ; rhinitis, 656. 

Catbird, 170, 172. 

Catclaw as honey-plant, 285. 

Catfish, 392. 

Catreus Walliehi, 581. 

Cattalo, 2, 2S8-292. 

Cattle, 301-382; age to breed, 30; branding, 151; com- 
mon ailments, 122-146, 321-330; composition of 
increase in live weight, 80; determining the age, 321; 
digestibility notes, 61; distribution, 10; dressing, 
250-252; dry matter per day for, 13; feeding stan- 
dards, 82, 108; fitting and exhibiting, 153-158; in- 
crease in number, 910; inspection, 161; maintenance 
requirements, 77; marketing, 158-162; number in 
relation to size of farm, 12; origin of domestic, 302, 
303; period of heat in, 30; poisoning, 120, 121; pre- 
paring for shipment, 151; prolificacy, 13; proteid re- 



quirements, 81; puberty, 30; pulse, 436; statistics, 
302; types, 47-51; value, 10; vomiting, 19. 

Cattle tick, 141 ; as an agent of infection, 125; notes, 123. 

Cavalry horses, 471. 

Cavanaugh, Geo. W., article by, 194. 

Cavy, 519-520. 

Cecil, Lord Arthur, quoted, 4S7. 

Cecil Palmer 933, 490. 

Cedar birds, notes, 170. 

Cedric (1087), 457. 

Cell, animal, characters and functions of, 28. 

Cellulitis, infectious suppurative, 125. 

Cellulose, 58, 59; notes, 17. 

Celtic ox, 302; pony, 420, 488. 

Central Experimental Farm (Ottawa) quoted, 344, 
648, 6S0. 

Centralizers, 230. 

Century plants as honey-plants, 285. 

Ceratophyllum, 392. 

Cereal grains, feeding value, 72, 316; notes, 8, 11. 

Cerebritis, notes, 119. 

Cerebro-spinal meningitis in horses, 143. 

Cereopsis goose, 576. 

Certified milk, 186; note, 175. 

Ceylon jungle-fowl, 582. 

Chaffinch, 522. 

Chamberlain, Wm., quoted, 620. 

Chambers, E. T. D., article by, 395. 

Champion, 467. 

Champion, E. R. B., article by, 299. 

Chapman horse, 454. 

Chapped teats, 323. 

Chappie Lee (Fig. 493), 49S. 

Chara, 392. 

Charcoal as insulating material, 237, 239; notes, 106. 

Charge quoted, 370. 

Chargers, 474. 

Charlemagne (Fig. 43), 46. 

Charles II quoted, 497. 

Charles Caffrey, 506. 

Charles Kent mare, 467, 502. 

Chaucer quoted, 464. 

Chauveau quoted, 24. 

Chesapeake bay dog, 515. 

Cheddar cheese-making, 208-217. 

Cheer pheasant, 581. 

Cheese, 208-226 ; American, composition and fuel- 
value, 264; factories, 174, 208, 209, 214-217, 245; 
importations, 220; milk for, notes, 176; notes, 174; 
refrigeration, 236, 245, 246. 

Chelopus insculptus, 681. 

Chemical basis of plants and animals, 58. 

Chemical-poisoning of stock, 118. 

Chen ca?rulescens, 575; hyperborea, 575. 

Chenery, Winthrop W., quoted, 357, 360. 

Chenopis atrata, 585. 

Cherry, wild, 121. 

Cherry birds, 172. 

Cheshire quoted, 285. 

Cheshire cheese, note, 208. 

Cheshire swine, 660. 

Chester Dare 10, 490. 

Chester White swine, 661-663; notes, 644. 

Chestnut finch, 524. 

Cheviot sheep, 609. 

Chicago Horse Show rules, 157. 

Chickadee, 170, 173. 

Chicken, canned, 263. 

Chicken cholera immunity, 145; pox, 143. 

Chickens, breeds and types, 563-569 ; care of young, 
543; marketing, 544-547; statistics, 527. 

China torquatus, 581. 

Chinalopex ^Egypticus, 554. 

Chinese geese, 573, 574; swine, 658, 679. 

Chipmunks, 164. 

Chloral hydrate for poisoning, 120. 

Chlorinated lime as disinfectant, 146. 

Choice goods (Fig. 46), 48. 

Chokeberry for birds, 172. 

Choking, 326. 

Cholera, effect on meat, 248; fowl, 131, 555. 

Christobel, 373. 

Christopher, 384. 



INDEX 



Churn, 202. 

Churning, 202-204, 207. 

Chrvsolophus Amherstia?, 582; pictus, SS2. 

Chyme, 19. 

Cicuta occidentalis, 120. 

Cinghalese buffalo, 294. 

Cinnamon bear, 402. 

Circulation of the blood in animals, 20, 21 ; in fowls, 25. 

Citation, 478. 

Citellus Oregonus, 164. 

Cladonia rangiferina, 591. 

Cladothrix actinomyces, 138. 

Clam, 634. 

Clark Chief, 505. 

Clark County (Ohio) Importing Association, 372. 

Clark, Henry M., quoted, 338. 

Clay Arabian, 450. 

Clay family, 502, 503, 505. 

Clay, Henry, quoted, 276, 499, 665. 

Clay Pilot, 505. 

Clear Grit, 476. 

Cleome integrifolia, 285. 

Cleveland Bay horse, 453-455; note, 451. 

Cleveland Studbook quoted, 453. 

Clift, L. D., quoted, 618. 

Climate as a cause of variation in animals, 34. 

Clinton County (Ohio) Importing Association, 377. 

Clipping horses, 148. 

Clos, Wm. C, article by, 408. 

Close-breeding, 42. 

Clothilde No. 155, 359. 

Clover, factors affecting feeding value, 71 ; as honey- 
plant, 2S5; hay, 59, 61, 63-66, 151, 316, 318-321, 
428-432; notes,' 11. 

Clover, alsike, composition, 95; digestibility, 98; 
digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 

101, 102; hay, 104. 

Clover, crimson, as honey-plant, 2S5; composition, 95; 
digestibility, 98; digestible nutrients and fertilizing 
constituents, 102; hay, 105; nutritive ratio and pro- 
tein-equating value, 104. 

Clover, mammoth red, 95, 102. 

Clover, Japan, 95. 

Clover, red, composition, 94, 95; digestibility, 9S; di- 
gestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 101, 

102, 109; hay, 111; nutritive ratio and protein-equa- 
ting value 104; silage, 67, 95. 

Clover, white, 95, 98, 102, 104. 

Club-house broilers, 544. 

Clumber Spaniel, 515. 

Clydesdale horse, 455-45S; notes, 274. 

Coach dog, 515. 

Coach horse, for military purposes, 472; type, 46, 47, 

420. (See French coach horse and German coach 

horse.) 
Coal sparks as insulating material, 235. 
Coal-tar dyes in milk, test for, ISO. 
Coates, George, quoted, 374. 
Cobs, 474. 

Coburn quoted, 658, 660. 

Cochin bantam, 569; fowls, 565; notes, 528, 529. 
Cochineal insect, 2. 
Cochran milk test, 178. 
Cochrane, M. H., quoted, 373. 
Cocker spaniel, 514. 
Cockle-bur, 121. 
Cockspur, 490. 
Cococavallo cheese, 219. 

Coconut, cake, 93, 101 ; as honey-plant, 286. 
Codman, James M., quoted, 350. 
Coffee as honey-plant, 2S6. 
Coffin quoted, 372. 
Cohippus, 418. 
Coit, Henrv L., quoted, 175. 
Colantha 4th's Johanna, 310, 359. 
Cold-storage, note, 245. (See Refrigeration.) 
Colds, in fowls, 554. 
Cole, Truman A., quoted, 379. 
Coleman, Hon. Robert W., quoted, 342. 
Coleman's Eureka, 490. 
Colic, 439. 

Colin, Dr., quoted, 37, 428. 
Colinus Virginianus, 584. 



Collagen, 261. 

Collie dog, 383-386; notes, 595. 

Collings, Charles, quoted, 370. 

Collings, Robert, quoted, 370, 371. 

Collum, William, quoted, 373. 

Colon, 20. 

Colorado Experiment Station quoted, 274, 507. 

Colored Muscovev duck, 570. 

Coloring butter, 202. 

Colostrum, 311; composition, 96; digestible nutrients 
and fertilizing constituents, 102. 

Colts, training, 424. 

Columbianus, 586. 

Columbine, 506. 

Columbus quoted, 498. 

Columbus pacing family, 476, 503. 

Columella quoted, 278. 

Combination Jerseys, 364. 

Comet (155), 370. 

Compton, J. L. Gibb, quoted, 612. 

Concentrated feeding-stuffs, 69, 316; composition, 92, 
93; nature and value, 72; when to feed, 18. 

Condensed milk manufacture, 190-194,; notes 176. 

Condimental foods, 106. 

Condition powders, 106. 

Conestoga horse, 421. 

Coney, 504. 

Confidence (158), 467. 

Congenital diseases, 38. 

Connemara pony, 488. 

Conover, U. G., article by, 412. 

Consanguineous breeding, 42. 

Constance, 372. 

Consumption, 133. 

Contagious pleuro-pneumonia in cattle, 142. 

Continuity of germ plasm, 39, 40. 

Controlling sex of offspring, 40, 41. 

Cook, "William, quoted, 567. 

Cooking feeds, value, 69; meats, 265—270. 

Coolidge, Cornelius, quoted, 372. 

Cooling arrangements for milk-room, 205. 

Cooper gravity brine-system of refrigeration, 246. (See 
Vol. I.) 

Cooper, T. S., quoted, 613. 

Copeland 1153, 492. 

Copperbottom, 476, 503. 

Corbeau, 476. 

Cordon Blue bird, 524. 

Cork, granulated, as insulating material, 237, 239. 

Corn, 264; bran, 75, 92, 100; cob, 92, 96, 100; -and-cob 
meal, 67, 92, 96, 99, 100, 105, 113, 431, 432; composi- 
tion and value, 67, 72, 92, 96, 100, 103, 105, 112; 
effect on fecundity of animal, 33; energy in, 66; 
ensiling, 6S; feeding value, 314, 318-321; flower, 121 ; 
fodder, 67, 94, 97, 101, 104, 109, 111; forage, 94; 
germ meal, 76, 92; as honev-plant, 285; for horses, 
428-432; husks, 94; kernels, 99; leaves, 94; meal, 
59, 63-66, 76, 92, 96, 99, 105, 151, 264; notes, 8, 11, 
69-71, 151; and oats, 105; for show animals, 153; 
silage, 67, 95, 99, 102, 104, 110, 247; and soybean 
silage, 95, 99, 102; stover, 67, 71, 94, 97, 101, 104, 
111, 316. 

Corn, sweet, composition, 92. 

Corn-stalk disease, 119, 130. 

Corned-beef, 255, 262; shipping, 260. 

Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station 
quoted, 182, 310. 

Corning, Erastus, quoted, 612. 

Cornish Indian fowls, 568. 

Correlation of parts in animal-breeding, 38, 39. 

Corrosive sublimate as disinfectant, 146. 

Cortez quoted, 49S. 

Coryza, acute, 656. 

Cotentin cattle, 3S1. 

Cotswold sheep, 611, 612. 

Cottage cheese, 220, 221; composition and fuel-value, 
264; ripened, 226. 

Cotton, notes, 8; as honey-plant, 285. 

Cotton rat, 166. 

Cottonseed feed, 93, 97, 101, 105; feeding value, 73, 
313, 316, 319-321; hulls, 93, 97, 101, 105; kernels, 
93; meal, 67, 75, 76, 93, 97, 101, 105, 115. 116; oil, 
notes, 75; poisoning, 119, 657. 



INDEX 



689 



Cottontails, 167. 

Cough, 327. 

Coulommier cheese, 224 ; notes, 220. 

Country Gentleman, The, quoted, 33. 

Couteur, Colonel Le, quoted, 361, 362. 

Couture, Dr. J. A., quoted, 345. 

Cow, fecundity, 33; period of gestation, 31; records, 

181; test associations, 181. 
Cow ponies, 4S3, 507. 
Cowie, James, quoted, 366. 
Cowpea, 93, 101, 104; hay, 67, 95, 98, 99, 102, 105, 

151, 318-321. 
Cows, milch, feeding standards, 107, 108; number in 

United States, 176. 
Cox, quoted 372. 
Covotes, 164, 167, 595. 
Crab, 634, 635. 
Craddock quoted, 372. 
Craig, John A., articles by, 453, 455, 458, 464, 476, 478, 

493, 494, 500, 600, 631, 632, 633; quoted, 44. 
Crane, William W., quoted, 375. 
Crangon vulgaris, 640 
Crawfish, 635. 
Crayfish, 635. 
Creameries, 226-232; notes, 174; refrigeration in, 

241-245. 
Creamery methods of butter-making, 206, 207. 
Creaming milk, 198. 
Cream cheese, 221. 
Cream gauge milk test, 178. 
Cream gluten, 92, 96, 105. 
Cream, refrigeration, 236. 
Creatin, 19, 22. 
Creatinin, 22. 
Creeper, 170. 
Cregan, 38. 
Creole ponies, 484. 
Cresceus (Fig. 495), 501, 504, 505. 
Crested White duck, 570. 
Crevecceur fowls, 567. 
Crib-biting, inheritance of, 38. 
Crimson-ear waxbill, 524. 
Crisp horse, 495. 
Crocker, Daniel, quoted, 482. 
Crosman, Maj. G. H., quoted, 297. 
Cross-bred, defined, 421. 
Cross-breeding, 42; as related to reversion, 39; effect 

on fecundity, 33. 
Cross-fox, 401. 
Cross-heredity, 37. 
Crossoptilon Mantchurieum, 580. 
Crouch & Son, J., quoted, 452, 463. 
Crow, 170, 171, 172, 173. 
Crowfoot, 120. 
Crown Prince (10087), 371. 
Cruickshank, Amos, quoted, 373. 
Cruickshank, Anthony, quoted, 373. 
Crying back, 39. 
Cuban parrot, 525. 
Cuckoo, yellow-billed, notes, 170. 
Cud, loss of, 330. 

CuUey quoted, 335, 366, 382, 454, 464, 617. 
Cumberland pigs, 662. 
Cumulets, 522. 
Cunningham cattle, 334. 
Curb, 443. 
Curb-bit, 422, 423. 
Curing meats, 254; recipes, 255-257. 
Curtis quoted, 378, 675. 
Curtiss, Charles F., article by, 478. 
Curwen's Bay Barb, 505. 
Cushing, John P., quoted, 335. 
Cut-throat sparrow, 524. 

Cutting fodders, effect on feeding value, 68, 69. 
Cuttlefish, 634. 
Cuvier's Animal Kingdom, 1 . 
Cygnopsis cygnoides, 573. 

Cygnus Berwicki, 586; musicus, 585; olor, 585. 
Cynomys Ludovicianus, 165. 
Cyphers, Charles A., article by, 542. 
Cyprinus Carpio, 393. 

Dachshund (Fig. 4), 6. 

C44 



Dairy breeds, 275; bull, 304, 306, 308, 317; herd, se- 
lection and management, 303-309; husbandry, 309; 
type, 50, 51, 303, 304, 310. 

Dairy Maids, 371. 

Dairy products, manufacture of, 175-246; relation to 
farm management, 12; total value, 9. 

Dairy refrigeration, 232-246. 

Daisy, white, composition, 94; digestible nutrients and 
fertilizer constituents, 101. 

Dalmatian, 515. 

Dame Hester, 387. 

Dan Patch, 476, 477, 478, 502, 504. 

Dandruff, 23. 

Dandy Rex 71689 (Fig. 376), 353. 

Danegelt, 467. 

Daniel Boone, 476. 

Daniel Lambert, 506. 

Danish methods of bacon-production, 648. 

Danthonica spicata, 98. 

Dariel, 504. 

Darley Arabian, 448, 450, 451, 467, 497, 498, 501, 502. 

Darnley (222), 457. 

Dartmoor ponies, 487. 

Darwin quoted, 31, 33, 37, 3S, 42, 43, 276, 520, 532. 

Date as honey-plant, 286. 

Daumas quoted, 449. 

Dave Alsin, 775, 491. 

Davenport, C. B., articles by, 528, 529. 

Davenport, Eugene, article by, 26. 

Davenport, Homer, articles by, 446, 579; quoted, 450. 

Davenport, Samuel, quoted, 490. 

Davidson, James I., quoted, 373. 

Davis, Mr., quoted, 378. 

Davis, George F., quoted, 678. 

Davis, James B., quoted, 405. 

Davis, Jefferson, quoted, 297. 

Davy, Colonel, quoted, 340, 341. 

Davy Crockett, 476, 490. 

Davy, John Tanner, quoted, 340. 

Dawn horse, 418. 

Dawson quoted, 131. 

Day, G. E., articles by, 343, 658, 660, 661, 663, 666, 
667, 669,671, 674, 675, 676, 678, 679. 

De Kol Creamelle, 359. 

De Laval lactocrite, 178. 

De Schweinitz quoted, 137. 

De Soto quoted, 498. 

Death camas, 120. 

Decker, John W., notes by, 218, 219, 224, 225. 

Decotyles torquatus (Fig. 652), 647. 

Deer, 2, 163. 

Deer mice, 166. 

Deerhounds, 516. 

Degive quoted, 24. 

Deglutition, 17. 

Dehorn, note regarding use of word, 332. 

DehorniDg cattle, 150. 

Delaine Merino sheep, 622; notes, 599. 

Delhi buffalo, 294. 

Delphinium bicolor, 120; glaucum, 120. 

Demi-Sang horse, 458, 461, 500. 

Demodex folliculorum, 654, 655. 

Denis Albert No. 1477 (Fig. 370), 344. 

Denise Championne No. 6247 (Fig. 371), 344. 

Denning Allen, 506. 

Denmark, 467, 490, 500. 

Derby, 498; of Rouen, 460. 

Derbyshire cheese, 218. 

Dettweiler quoted, 409. 

Deviled meats, 263. 

Devon cattle, 339-341; heredity in, 36; milk, 177; 
note, 303; period of gestation, 31; oxen, 366. 

Dexter, 503, 506. 

Dexter, Mr., quoted, 380. 

Dexter-Kerry cattle, 379, 380. 

Dexter Prince, 505. 

Dextrin, 58, 59. 

Diabetes, 20. 

Diamond-back terrapin, 681. 

Diamond sparrow, 524. 

Diarrhea, in calves, 126; in foals, 431; in fowls, 554. 

Diaz, President, quoted, 342. 

Dick Taylor 5508, 372. 



690 



INDEX 



Dickinson Delaine Sheep, 622. 

Dickinson, Wra. R., quoted, 622. 

Dictator, 478, 502, 505. 

Didelphis Virginiana, 163. 

Digestibility of feeding-stuffs, 50-62. 

Digestion, coefficient, 60; conditions affecting, 60-62; 
in animals, 17-20; in fowls, 24, 25. 

Dilham Prime Minister (Fig. 470), 465. 

Dillon, Mr. quoted, 4S0. 

Dinsmore, Wayne, article by, 649. 

Dinwiddie quoted 657. 

Diomed, 49S. 

Diphtheria, immunity, 145; in fowls, 142, 553. 

Direct, 478, 505. 

Direct Hal, 478, 505. 

Directly, 505. 

Director, 505. 

Directum, 505; (Fig. 44), 47. 

Disease, of animals, 122-146 (See also, Cattle, Horse, 
Poultry, Sheep, Swine); heredity of, 38; of the 
rump, 140. 

Dishley sheep, 616. 

Disinfection, 146. 

Distemper, colt, 442; in cats, 301 ; dog, 142, 3S5. 

Distillers' grains, 74, 100, 105, 115, 313. 

Distillery slop, 74, 96. 

Distomum hepaticum, G04; lanceolatum, 604. 

Divi-divi as honey-plant, 2S6. 

Dobinson quoted, 370. 

Docking horses, 150; lambs, 150. 

Doddies, note, 331. 

Dog, amount of blood in body, 21 ; as carriers of disease, 
127; digestion in, 18, 20; distemper, 142; fecundity, 
33; heredity, 37; mastication in, 17; nature of stom- 
ach, 18; notes, 7, 595; period of gestation, 31 ; pulse, 
21, 436; respiration, 21, 437; sweating, in 23; tem- 
perature, in 21, 436. 

Dogbane, 121. 

Dogs, farm, 383-389; notes, 167; pet, 514-517. 

Dominique fowls, 563. 

Dominor 2631, 490. 

Donkey. (See Ass.) 

Dorking fowls, 567; notes, 529. 

Dorothy 1210, 492. 

Dorset-Horn sheep, 612; hothouse lambs, 595, 599. 

Double-Standard Polled Durham cattle, 375. 

Double-Standard Polled Hereford cattle, 355. 

Double Yellow-headed Mexican parrot, 254. 

Dourine, 139; note, 125. 

Doves, mourning, note, 170. 

Down-Cotswold sheep, 625. 

Doyle, Martin, quoted, 454. 

Dr. Buckingham, 372. 

Draco, 506. 

Draco Prince, 506. 

Draft breeds of horses, 420; for military purposes, 472, 
473, 474; type, 44-46. 

Dragoon pigeon, 521. 

Drenches, 322. 

Drennon, 476. 

Dried beef, 255; canned, 262. 

Driver, 467, 501, 502. 

Driving, 426, 427. 

Druce, Samuel, quoted, 625. 

Dry-cured pork, 256. 

Dryden, Hon. John, quoted, 373. 

Drying forage, effect on digestibility, 68. 

Dual-purpose cattle, 303; type, 4S, 50. 

Duchess Airdrie, 372. 

Duchess Athol, 372. 

Duchess family, 371. 

Duchess of Geneva, 373. 

Duchess X, No. 8900 (Fig. 367), 340. 

Duck, effect of domestication, 35; period of incuba- 
tion, 542. 

Ducks, 569-572; feeding, 536; notes, 35, 542; statis- 
tics, 527; wild, 2, 571, 572. 

Dudding, Henry, quoted, 61S. 

Duke of Airdrie, 372; (12730), 372. 

Duke of Northumberland (1940), 371. 

Duke of Rutland's Black Barb, 467. 

Duncan, Jere, quoted, 372. 

Duncan's Duke of Airdrie 2743, 372. 



Dunham & Fletcher quoted, 452. 

Dunham, M. W., quoted, 460, 475, 480. 

Dunlop cattle, 334. 

Dunlop cheese, note, 20S. 

Dunn, Christopher, quoted, 612. 

Dunn, Walter, quoted, 372. 

Dunsley's Dart, 454. 

Durham cattle, 369; Ox, 370; Polled, 375, 376; note, 

303. (See Shorthorn cattle.) 
Duroc-Jersey swine, 663-666; notes, 644. 
Dutch Belted cattle, 341-343; note, 303. ■ 
Dutch cattle, 357; horses, 49S; rabbit, 518. 
Dutch cheese, 221. 
Dwarf parrot, 525. 
Dzierzon quoted, 278. 

Eagles, notes, 164. 

Fared pheasant, 580. 

Karl of Arundel, quoted 497. 

Earl of Cawdor quoted, 37S. 

Earl of Marchmont quoted, 335. 

Earl of Morton mare, 41. 

Earl of Spencer quoted, 31. 

Earth-wax for candles, 259. 

East Friesian cattle, 357. 

East Friesland horse, 463. 

Eaton, Gen. Wm., quoted, 633. 

East Prussian horse, 463. 

Echo II 701 (Fig. 369), 342. 

Eclipse, 497, 501. 

Ecology, 15. 

Ecraseur for castrating, 150. 

Edam cheese, 21 S; note, 208. 

Edgbaston Marvel, 384. 

Education of horse, 421, 422, 424-428. 

Eelgrass (Vallisneria), 394. 

Egbert, 505. 

Egg-cell, nature and function, 29. 

Eggs, care and preservation, 546, 547; composition 

and fuel-value, 264; feeding to show animals, 153; 

formation, 26; notes, 174; period of incubation, 542; 

statistics of production, 527; value, 9. 
Egyptian geese, 574. 
Elder for birds, 172. 
KMivdge, J. B., quoted, 338. 
Eleata, 505. 
Electioneer, 504, 505. 
Electuaries, 322. 
Elephant, 3; notes, 9; period of gestation, 31; pulse in, 

21 ; (Fig. 12), 10. 
Elk, 2. 

Ellard, C. H., article by, 514. 
Ellenberger quoted, 17, 18. 
Elliot, Prof. D. G., quoted, 5S1. 
Elliot, S. B., article by, 481. 
Elliot's pheasant, 581. 
Elliott, J. D., quoted, 447. 
Ellis quoted, 617. 
Ellman, John, quoted, 628. 
Ellwvn Perfection, 384. 
Ely, "David, quoted, 37. 
Emasculator for castrating, 149. 
Embden, geese 573. 
Emily 855, 492. 
Emmenthaler cheese, 21S. 
Emperor goose, 576. 
Endocarditis of erysipelas, 133. 
Endow, 504. 

Energy values of feeding-stuffs, 65. 
Engineer, 467, 501, 502. 
English canary, 522. 
English Cart Horse Society, 493. 
English cavy, 520. 
English dairy cheese, 218. 
English pheasant, 581. 
English rabbit, 518. 
English setter, 514. 
English sparrow, 171, 173. 
Enhydra Marina, 397. 
Ensiling, effect on feeding-stuffs, 68. 
Entering show stock, 155, 156. 
Entero-hepatitis in turkeys, infectious, 140. 
Ento, 463. 






INDEX 



691 



Environment as a cause of variation, 34. 

Eohippus, 419. 

Epithelioma contagiosa, 143. 

Epizootic catarrhal fever, 144; lymphangitis, 139. 

Equine contagious pleuro-pneumonia, 12S, 129. 

Equine malaria, 140. 

Equisetum arvense, 121. 

Equity, 372. 

Equus asinus, 276, 419; caballus, 415, 419; caballus 

libyeus, 450; hermionus, 276; zebra, 419. 
Erf, Oscar, article by, 232. 
Ergot, 121. 

Ermine, 400; notes, 403. 
Erysipelas, 125; swine, 133. 
Escurial Merino sheep, 619. 
Esparsette, digestibility of, 6S. 
Essex swine, 666; note, 675. 
Ethan Allen, 503, 506. 
Ethel Downs, 506. 
Etradegant (Fig. 477), 479. 
Eucalyptus as honey-plant, 285, 286. 
Eugenia, 492; Jarnbas as honev-plant, 286. 
Euren quoted, 36S, 369, 464, 467. 
Evaporated cream, 190; milk, 190. 
Ewart, Professor, quoted, 42, 420. 

Ewes, fecundity, 33; milk, composition, 96; note, 176. 
Exchange, live-stock, 160. 
Exercise, 148; in relation to meat-production, 82; 

to milk-production, 84; of show stock, 155. 
Exhibiting animals, 152— 15S. 
Exmoor ponies, 487. 
Extasy, 504. 

Factories, butter and cheese, 208, 209, 214-217, 226- 
232; refrigeration in, 241-245. 

Failver and Willard milk test, 17S. 

Fan-child quoted, 294. 

Falle, Rev. Philip, quoted, 362. 

Fallopian tube, 29. 

False colic, 439. 

False mangrove as honey-plant, 285. 

Fancy, 505. 

Fantail pigeon, 521. 

Fantasy, 504. 

Farcy, 131, 132. 

Farewell Shorthorns, 371. 

Farm management, relation of domestic animals to, 
11; relation of feeding practices to, 57. 

Farm products, total value, 9. 

Faroe island sheep (Fig. 3), 4, 597. 

Farrington, Harvey, quoted, 209. 

Farrington's alkali tablets, ISO. 

Fat, crude, 59; digestibility of, 64; fuel-value, 65; 
nature and function, 5S, 62, 63; notes, 17. 

Fat in milk, nature and quantity, 176, 177. 

Fat hog type, 54, 55. 

Fat-tailed sheep, 597, 633. 

Fattening stock, 79, 80; poultry, 538-540. 

Favorite (252), 370. 

Fearnaught, 506. 

Feathers, value, 527. 

Fecundation, 23, 24. 

Fecundity, 32, 33; as affected by heredity, 36; as af- 
fected by crossing, 42. 

Feed, effect on health of cows, 182. 

Feeding, 56-118; beef cattle, 317-321; dairy cattle, 
30S, 310, 313-317; horses, 428-432; poultry, 533-540; 
sheep, 600-603; swine, 649-653; for exhibition, 153, 
154, 156; for gains, 82; standards, 57, 89, 107, 314, 
315 ; standards for meat-production, 82 ; for milk- 
production, S5, 86; tables, 64, 92-102. 

Feeding-stuffs, 63-76; composition and digestibility of , 
59; preservation and preparation of, 68; relative 
values, 63. 

Feet, care of horses', 149; sore, in sheep, 608. 

Felch, I. K., quoted, 529. 

Felis domesticus, 299. 

Fenugreek, notes, 106. 

Feral horses, 419. 

Fermentation test of milk, 184. 

Ferret, black-footed, 168. 

Fertility of animals, 32, 33. 

Fertilization of ovum, 29, 30. 



Fescue, meadow, notes, 71. 

Feser's lactoscope, 178. 

Fiber, crude, 59. 

Fiber zibethicus, 166, 400. 

Field, Capt. Thomas, quoted, 29S. 

Field-curing of forage, effect, 6S. 

Field mice, 166. 

Field-pea vine silage, composition, 95. 

Field spaniel, 514. 

Figgis 76106 (Fig. 37), 36. 

Figs, composition and fuel-value, 264. 

Filho-de-Puta, 490. 

Filigree, 372. 

Finch, 524. 

Findley. (See Anderson & Findley.) 

Fire finch, 524. 

Fireaway, 467, 502; (Burgess'), 467; (Jenkinson's), 
467; (Ramsdale's), 467; (Scott's), 467; (Triffit's), 
502; (West's), 467. 

Fireback pheasant, 581. 

Fireless cooker, 269. 

Fireweed as honey-plant, 2S5. 

First consul, 505. 

Fish, 390-394; canning, 261-263; culture, 390-392; 
digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents in, 
102; dried, composition, 96; food and feeding- 
grounds, 392, 393; notes, 35. 

Fish Commission, United States, quoted, 390, 394. 

Fish guano, digestibility, 99. 

Fishcher, Ferdinand, quoted, 620. 

Fish-hawks, 172. 

Fisher, 401. 

Fisher, Dr. A. K., quoted, 171. 

Fisheries, United States Bureau of, quoted, 635, 636. 

Fistula, 125, 442. 

fistulous withers, 125. (See Fistula.) 

Fitting live-stock for exhibition, 153. 

Fjord's control apparatus, 178. 

Flamande cattle, 357. 

Flashwood (3604), 493. 

Flat-footed walk, 491. 

Flat pea, composition, 95. 

Flax, notes, 8. 

Flaxseed, composition, 93 ; digestibility, 97 ; digestible 
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100; feeding 
value, 73; for horses, 430; meal, 75, 153, 154, 313. 

Fleas on dogs, 386. 

Flemish cattle, 357. 

Flemish Giant rabbit, 517; note, 412. 

Flemish horses, 451, 452, 456, 461, 479, 493. 

Flesh meal, digestibility, 99. 

Flicker, notes, 170, 173. 

Flies as agents of infection, 125. 

Flora Temple, 503. 

Florine of River Meadow, No. 1407 (Fig. 365), 339. 

Flour, composition and fuel-value, 92, 264; digestible 
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100, 113, 114. 

Floyd, John B., quoted, 297. 

Fluke diseases of sheep, 604. 

Flycatcher, 171, 173. 

Flying childers, 467, 501, 502. 

Flying Cloud 134, 506. 

Flying Fox, 499. 

Flying-squirrel, 164. 

Foal, feeding, 431 ; pulse in, 21. 

Fodder, coarse, 69; production value, 67. 

Food, measure of nutritive value, 264; requirements, 
81, 264; supply as a cause of variation, 34, 35. 

Foot-and-mouth disease, 143, 296; non-infectious, 
325; notes, 123. 

Foot-rot, 125, 137, 607. 

Forage-poisoning of stock, 119. 

Forbes, E. B., quoted, 44. 

Forbush, E. H., article by, 169. 

Fordham, 467. 

Forest horse, 419. 

Formaldehyde test of milk, 179. 

Formalin as disinfectant, 146; as preservative, 254. 

Forshay, C. G., quoted, 625. 

Foul brood, 285. 

Foul-foot, 607. 

Founder, 444 ; inheritance of, 38. 

Four-horned sheep (Fig. 3), 4. 



692 



INDEX 



Fowl cholera, 131, 155; pest, 143; typhoid, 131. 

Fowlers quoted, 350. 

Fowls, 525-587 ; composition and fuel-value, 264; 
cost of keeping, 526; diseases, 122-146; fecundity, of 
33; marketing, 544—547; origin of domestic, 528; 
period of incubation, 31. 

Fox, 166, 167 ; as carrier of disease, 127 ; notes, 396, 
397, 404; period of gestation, 31; skins, 401. 

Fox terrier, 515. 

Fox-trot, 427, 492. 

Foxhound, 516. 

Francis, Dr. Mark, quoted, 378. 

Francisco, Stephen, quoted, 175. 

Franco-Merino sheep, 624. 

Frandsen, Peter, quoted, 164. 

Frapp6, 195. 

Frederick William I quoted, 463. 

Free-martin, 24, 33. 

French bulldog, 515. 

French-Canadian cattle, 343-345; notes, 275, 303. 

French-Canadian pacer, 476. 

French coach horse, 458-460; influence of Thorough- 
bred on, 500. 

French draft horse, 460-462; notes, 274. 

French Merino sheep. (See Rambouillet sheep.) 

French Percheron Society quoted, 480. 

Friesland cattle, 302. 

Frill-back pigeon, 522. 

Frizzles, 569. 

Frogs, 2, 394, 395. 

Fromage de Brie, 225. 

Fromage d'Isigny, 225. 

Frosch, 143. 

Fruhstuck Ka-se, 226. 

Fruit-bloom as honey-plant, 285. 

Fryers, 544. 

Fuchsia, 459. 

Fuel-values of feeding-stuffs, 65. 

Fulcher, Mr., quoted, 368. 

Fullington, Mr., quoted, 480. 

Fungi, diseases caused by, 138, 139; infection by, 124. 

Fur-bearing animals of North America, 395-404. 

Fur-seal, 399. 

Furgeson, Adam, quoted, 373. 

Furs, tanning, 271. 

Gadflv, sheep, 605. 

Gaines' Denmark 61, 490, 491. 

Gaits of horses, 423, 424; saddle, 491, 492. 

Galalith, 177. 

Galbraith Brothers quoted, 495. 

Gallberry as honey-plant, 285. 

Gallipoli, 451. 

Gallop, 423, 424. 

Galloway cattle, 345-348; notes, 34, 154, 303,331-333. 

Galloway ponies, 4S7, 488. 

Gallus bankiva or ferrugineus, 528, 5S2; Lafayettii, 582; 

sonnerati, 582; varius, 582. 
Gambian goose, 576. 
Game birds, 2. 

Game fowls, 568; bantams, 31; note, 529. 
Game preserves, 2. 
Gammelost cheese, 223; notes, 220. 
Gangrene, treatment, 323. 
Gapes, 555. 

Garbage poisoning of stock, 118. 
Garden mole, 168. 
Garget, 323, 609. 
Garlic, tainting milk, 86. 
Game quoted, 611. 
Garrard quoted, 362. 

Garvanza peas as honey-plant, 285, 286. 
Gas-producing bacteria in milk, 188. 
Gathered-cream creameries, 230. 
Gaudy Shorthorns, 371. 
Gay, Carl W. , articles by, 449, 496. 
Geese, 572-576; feeding, 537; period of incubation, 131, 

542; statistics, 527 ; wild, 2. 
Gehin quoted, 390. 
Geisskaes, 411. 
Gelding, defined, 149. 
General (Fig. 472\ 471. 
General Gates, 506. 



General Knox, 506. 

General-purpose cow. (See Dual-purpose cow.) 

General Washington, 506. 

Gennaeus Andersoni, 582; lineatus, 581; Muthura, 582; 
nycthemerus, 581 ; Swinhoii, 582. 

Gentian, notes, 106. 

Gentry, N. H., quoted, 43. 

Geomyidce, 167. 

Geo. M. Patchen, 503, 505. 

George Wilkes, 478, 503-505. 

Georgeson, C. C. , article by, 588; quoted, 175. 

Gerber milk test, 179. 

Germ meal, 75; composition, 92; digestible nutrients, 
and fertilizing constituents, 100. 

Germ plasm, continuity of, 39, 40. 

German breakfast cheese, 225. 

German coach horse, 462-464; influence of Thorough- 
bred on, 500; note, 451. 

German feeding standards. (See Wolff feeding stand- 
ards. ) 

German Merino sheep, 620. 

Germinative vesicle, 29. 

Gestation period in animals, 30, 31. 

Giant thistle as honey-plant, 286. 

Gid, 605. 

Gilbev, Sir Walter, quoted, 481. 

Gillett quoted, 611. 

Gillett, Wm., quoted, 625. 

Gillispie, Rev. John, quoted, 346. 

Gilt, 647. 

Ginge, J. H., quoted, 648. 

Ginger, notes, 106. 

Gipsy Maid (Fig. 385), 371. 

Giraffe notes, 35; period of gestation, 31. 

Gist's Black Hawk, 490. 

Gizzard shad, 392. 

Glanders, 131, 132. 

Glencoe, 503. 

Glorious Thundercloud, 507. 

Glossinia morsitans, 140. 

Gloucester cheese, 218; note, 208. 

Glucose, 17; meal, 100; notes, 75. 

Glue, note, 174. 

Gluten feed, 75; composition, 92; digestibility, 96; di- 
gestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100, 
115; for beef cattle, 319-321 ; for dairy cows, 316; for 
dairy heifer, 314 ; nutritive ratio and protein-equating 
value, 105; production value, 67. 

Glycocholate, 19. 

Glycocholic ac'd, 19. 

Glycogen, 20, 58. 

Goat, 405-412; milk, 96, 176; mountain, 597; nature of 
stomach, 18; period of gestation, 31; rumination in, 
18; respiration, 21, 437. 

Godolphin Arabian, 505. 

Godolphin Barb, 451, 497, 501. 

Going light, 131, 135. 

Gold Spangled Lizard Canary, 522. 

Golddust, 450, 506. 

Golden pheasant, 582. 

Goldenrod as honey-plant, 285. 

Goldfinch, 522; American, 524; canary, 522. 

Goldsmith Maid, 503, 505. 

Goodnight, Charles, quoted, 290, 292. 

Goodwin, John S., article by, 330. 

Goose. (See Geese.) 

Goose septicemia, 132. 

Gopher, pocket, 167; notes, 164. 

Gopher turtles, 681. 

Gorden setter, 514. 

Gorgonzola cheese, 220, 222. 

Gouda cheese, 218; note, 208. 

Gough, Mr., quoted, 371. 

Grade, defined, 421 ; grading, 27, 42. 

Grakle, musical, 523. 

Graffian follicles, 28, 29. 

Graham, W. R., article by, 538. 

Graham Brothers quoted, 346. 

Graham flour, 264. 

Grain, effect of grinding on feeding value, 69; feeding, 
151 ; feeding value, 72; production value, 67; when to 
feed, 18. 

Grana cheese, 219. 



INDEX 



693 



Grand Bashaw, 450, 503, 505. 

Grandeau quoted, 79. 

Grano-gluten, composition, 92; digestible nutrients and 
fertilizing constituents, 100. 

Grant, Gen. U. S., quoted, 447, 450. 

Grapes, composition and fuel-value, 264. 

Grass, digestible nutrients, 101 ; fresh, for beef-produc- 
tion, 31S— 321; mixed hay, nutritive ratio and pro- 
tein-equating value, 104; notes, 12, 69-51, 171; pas- 
ture, percentage composition and digestible matter, 
69-70; silage, 102; time to harvest for hay, 70. 

Grass staggers, 609. 

Grass swine, 662. 

Grasses, and clover mixed, composition, 94; digesti- 
bility, 97; digestible nutrients and fertilizing constit- 
uents, 101, 110, 111; nutritive ratio and protein- 
equating value, 104. 

Grasshopper mice, 166. 

Grav-blue finch, 524. 

Gray call duck, 571. 

Gray, Charles, article by, 345. 

Grav-lag goose, European, 572, 576. 

Great Alne Douglas, 3S4. 

Great Dane, 516. 

Great white plague, 133. 

Green, Francis, quoted, 373. 

Green frog, 395. 

Green Mountain Maid, 502; (by Harry Clay), 505. 

Green Japanese pheasant, 5S1. 

Green peafowl, 580. 

Green's Bashaw, 503. 

Green, Seth, quoted, 390. 

Greenheart as honey-plant, 2S6. 

Greiner, T., article by, 540. 

Grenfell, Dr., quoted", 592. 

Grey, Clyde, 78, 458. 

Grey Grantham, 467. 

Greyhound, 516; notes, 34. 

Greylight, 486. 

Griffith's Animal Kingdom, 1. 

Griffon dog, 517. 

Griggs, Money, quoted, 368. 

Grinding grain, effect on feeding value, 69. 

Grindlev, H. S., quoted, 265, 268, 270. 

Grits, 73. 

Grizzly bear, 402. 

Grooming, 148; exhibition animals, 154; notes, 23. 

Grosbeak, cardinal, 523. 

Ground-hog, 165. 

Ground-mice, 166. 

Ground-squirrel, 164; notes, 401. 

Grouse, ruffed, domestication, 576-578. 

Growth, feeding for, 79, 80. 

Grub in the head, 605. 

Gruyere cheese, 21S; note, 208. 

Guadalupe Merino sheep, 619. 

Guaranteed milk, 175. 

Guardsman (Fig. 471), 469. 

Gudgell, Charles, article by, 351. 

Guenon's Lad 54422 (Eig. 380), 363. 

Guernsey cattle, 348-351 ; milk, percentage of butter- 
fat in, 177; note, 303. 

Guinea-fowl, 578-579; notes, 31, 172; statistics, 527. 

Guinea-pig, 519; Brown-Sequard experiments with, 38, 
39; note, 5. 

Guinea swine, 665. 

Gujarat buffalo, use, 295. 

Gum, 58, 59; trees as honey-plant, 285. 

Gunn quoted, 141. 

Gutta-percha as honey-plant, 286. 

Guy, 506. 

Gwynne's Shorthorns, 375. 

Hackney horse, 464-46S; influence of Thoroughbred 
on, 500; pony, 484; Society quoted, 466, 481, 487; 
note, 451. 

Hadban Arabs, 448. 

Haemonchus contortus, 603. 

Hagemann quoted, 79, 87, 88, 89. 

Haight, D. H., quoted, 342. 

Haines, Reuben, quoted, 349. 

Hair, felt as insulating material, 237; treatment of 
show animals, 154. 



Hair seals, 399; 

Hal Dillard, 477. 

Hal family, 476. 

Haleb (Fig. 460), 477. 

Hall, Capt. Basil, quoted, 279, 370. 

Hall, D., quoted, 338. 

Halter-pulling, 426. 

Ham, production, 644-646; shipping, 260; sugar- 
cured, 256. 

Hambright fowls, 564. 

Hambletonian 10, 502, 503, 504; note, 467. 

Hambletonian family, 504, 505. 

Hambletonian fowls, 564. 

Hamburg fowls, 568; period of incubation, 31. 

Hamburg steak, 257. 

Hamdani Arabs, 448. 

Hampshire Down Sheep, 614, 615; notes, 599. 

Hampshire swine, 667-669; note, 342. 

Hand, General, quoted, 633. 

Handling stock, 148. 

Handsome Boy, 388. 

Hannibal, 463. 

Hannis, 505. 

Hanover, 499. 

Hanoverian horse, 463. 

Happy medium, 502, 505. 

Hard cheeses, 208-219. 

Hare, Belgian, 412-415; wild, 167. 

Harger, S. J. J., article by, 17. 

Harness and harnessing, 422, 423, 426; leather, 271. 

Harold, 505. 

Harper, M. W., articles by, 424, 428, 462, 647. 

Harriet, 372. 

Harris, Edward, quoted, 480. 

Harris, John S., quoted, 406. 

Harris, Col. W. A., quoted, 373. 

Harris, Dr. W. T. quoted, 589. 

Harrison Chief 1606, 491. 

Harry Clay, 505. 

Hart, Geo. H., articles by, 321, 436, 653. 

Hartz Kajse, 226. 

Harvest mice, 166. 

Harvey quoted, 41. 

Haskins, Joseph, quoted, 662. 

Hattori family quoted, 682. 

Havemeyer, Theodore A., quoted, 381, 

Hawes, Sidney, quoted, 629. 

Hawk, 171 ; notes, 164, 166. 

Hawk's bill turtle, 681. 

Hay, composition, 94; digestibility, 97, 98; production 
value, 67; time for digestion, 18; when to feed, 18. 

Hayes, Captain, quoted, 451. 

Hayward, Harry, article by, 333. 

Head-cheese, 256. 

Heart, 20 

Heartsease as honey-plant, 285. 

Heasman, Alfred, quoted, 376. 

Heat, period of, 2S, 29, 30. 

Heat-stroke, 437 ; notes, 23. 

Heather monk (Fig. 360), 332. 

Heaton, Mr., quoted, 371. 

Heaves, 440. 

Heber, Reginald, quoted, 501. 

Hedgehog, 167. 

Hegelund method of udder manipulation, 84. 

Hehner's test for formaldehyde, 179. 

Heifer, feeding dairy, 314. 

Helen Hale, 505. 

Helmet p'geon, 521. 

Hemaglobin, 21. 

Hemlock, water, 120. 

Hemoglobinuria, 141. 

Hemorrhagica septicemia, 132; note, 296. 

Hemp seed for birds, 173. 

Hen pigeons, 521. 

Hengerveld, Professor, quoted, 356. 

Henry Clay, 502, 503, 505. 

Henry, G. W., quoted, 33. 

Henry, Professor, quoted, 92, 109. 

Henry VIII quoted, 497. 

Hens, period of incubation, 31. 

Hepatic toxemia, 20. 

Herd wick sheep, 631. 



694 



INDEX 



Hereditary diseases, note, 125. 

Heredity, 36-38; as a cause of variation, 34; effect on 
fecundity, 33, 36. 

Hereford cattle, 351-355; for baby-beef, 318; period 
of gestation, 31 ; heredity in, 36; note, 303, 319; oxen, 
366; Polled, 355. 

Hermaphrodites, 24. 

Herod, 501, 506. 

Herring, canned, 263. 

Herterozygotes, 530. 

Hess, Mr., quoted, 447. 

Heteromyidse, 167. 

Heyl, Jacob, quoted, 475. 

Hiatogas, 476. 

Hide industry, 272; preserving, 252; shipping, 260; 
tanning, 271. 

Highball, 505. 

High-flyer pigeon, 522. 

Higgins quoted, 131. 

Highland Denmark 730, 490. 

Highland man, 503. 

Highland sheep, Black-face, 631. 

High-school horse, 427. 

Hillhurst Stock Farm quoted, 467. 

Hills, H. W., quoted, 335. 

Hills, J. J., quoted, 373. 

Himalayan rabbit, 518. 

Hinny, 507. 

Hipparion, 419. 

Hippuric acid, 22. 

Hives, 437. 

Hoard, W. D., article by, 246. 

Hobbes, Fisher, quoted, 666. 

Hobbles, 477. 

Hodge, C. F., articles by, 576, 584. 

Hofmeister quoted, 18. 

Hog, carcasses, shipping, 260; dressing, 252; pulse, 
436; respiration, 437; temperature, 436. (See Swine.) 

Hog cholera, 137. 

Holbart, A. B., quoted, 452, 463. 

Holbert, J. A., quoted, 343. 

Holderness cattle, 379; note, 335. 

Holland Land Company quoted, 357. 

Hollow horn, 19, 330. 

Holloway, Col. Robert, quoted, 457. 

Holstein-Friesian cattle, 355-361 ; milk percentage of 
butter-fat in, 177; note, 303; oxen, 366. 

Holstein horse, 463. 

Home District Agricultural Society quoted, 373. 

Homer (Homing) pigeon, 521 ; for squab-raising, 583. 

Hominy chop, 74; composition, 92; digestible nutri- 
ents and fertilizing constituents, 100; digestible 
nutrients in stated amounts, 115; nutritive ratio and 
protein-equating value, 105. 

Homozygotes, 530. 

Honduras turkey, 586. 

Honey, 281. 

Honey-bees. (See Bees.) 

Honey-plants, 285, 286. 

Hooded Jacobin pigeon, 521. 

Hoofed mammals, 163. 

Hoofs, disease of, in reindeer, 592; fitting for exhibi- 
tion, 155. 

Hook-in-the-eyes, 329. 

Hoomes, Colonel, quoted, 498. 

Hoose, 606. 

Hopley & Co., Peter, quoted, 495. 

Hopples, 477. 

Hornaday quoted, 290, 291. 

Hornless cattle, notes. 331. 

Horns, fitting for exhibition, 155; note, 174. 

Horse, 415-507; age to breed, 30; ailments of, 436-446; 
branding, 151; capacity of stomach, 17; care of feet, 
149; causes of variation in, 34; cost of maintaining, 
14; determining age, 433-436; development, notes, 
274,275; digestibility, notes, 61; diseases, 122-146; 
notes, 123; distemper, 144; docking, 150; dry matter 
per day for, 13; education, harnessing and gaits, 
421-424; extent of sweating, 23; feeding, 428-433; 
feeding for work-production, 86-92 ; feeding stand- 
ards, 107; fitting and exhibiting, 153-158; inspection, 
161; maintenance requirements, 78, 79; mastication 
in, 17; amount of blood in body, 21 ; number of 



respirations, 21; native American, 498; number, 7, 
10; notes, 9; marketing, 158-162; number of acres 
cultivated by one, 11; of the Sahara, 449; origin of 
domestic, 418; period of heat, 30; poisoning, 120, 121 ; 
puberty, 30; pulse in, 21, 436; respiration, 437; tem- 
perature, 21, 436; training and handling, 424-428; 
types, 44-47; value, 10; value of grinding grain for, 
69; vomiting, 19. 

Horse bean, composition, 93; digestible nutrients and 
fertilizing constituents, 101; roughage, 95; straw, 95. 

Horseman pigeon, 521. 

Horseshoeing, 149. 

Horsetail, 121. 

Hot iron test of acidity, 212. 

Hothouse lambs, 593, 597. 

Houdan fowls, 567; notes, 529. 

Hounds, 516. 

House wren, 170. 

Hoven, 326. 

Howard B. (Fig. 481), 485. 

Howard, H. P., quoted, 624. 

Howard, L. O., article by, 640. 

Hoxie, Solomon, article by, 355; quoted, 358. 

Huajilla as honey-plant, 285. 

Huart du Plessis quoted, 409, 411. 

Hubback (319), 370. 

Huber quoted, 278, 279, 281. 

Humblies, note, 331. 

Humming-birds, 173. 

Humped cattle, note, 303. 

Humphrev, Col. David, quoted, 619, 620. 

Humphrey, G. C, article by, 598. 

Humphrey, William, quoted, 614. 

Hungarian grass, composition, 94; digestibility, 97, 
98; digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 
101, 109; hay, 104, 111; nutritive ratio, 104; produc- 
tion value, 67; seed, note, 93. 

Hunt, Thomas F., articles by, 7, 421. 

Hunter horse, 468-470; gaits, 427. 

Hunter, John, quoted, 281. 

Huntington, Randolph, quoted, 450. 

Hunziker, O. F., article by, 190. 

Husk, 606. 

Hutchins goose, 576. 

Hutchinson quoted, 370. 

Hybrids, animal, sterility of, 24. 

Hydrophobia, 144. 

Hymettus, 504. 

Hypohippus, 419. 

Ibex, 408. 

Ice, harvesting, 235; houses, farm, 232-236. 

Ice-cream manufacture, 195-198; poisoning, 198. 

Ices, 195. 

Ictero-hematuria in sheep, 140. 

Illinois Experiment Station quoted, 13; State Fair 

rule, 15S. 
Illustrious, 372. 
Immunity, disease, 145. 
Imp Diomed, 490. • 

Imp Hedgeford, 490, 500. 
Imp Saltram, 490. 
Imp Whip, 490. 
Impeyan pheasant, 580. 
Imperial rabbit, 519. 
Imported Bellfounder, 467, 502. 
Imported Traveller, 505. 
Improved Black-top Merino sheep, 623. 
Improved Essex swine, 666. 
Improved land in United States, 11. 
Inbreeding, 42, 43; effect on fecundity, 33. 
Incestuous breeding, 142. 
Incompatibility, 33. 
Incubation, 542-543; periods, and factors affecting, 

31. 
Indian Chief 1718, 491. 
Indian fowls, 56S; games, note, 529. 
Indian pony, 483, 484. 
Indian Runner duck, 570. 
Indianapolis, 506. 
Individuality as related to milk-production, 83, 84; 

relation to feeding, 77; to meat-production, 81. 
Infantado Merino sheep, 620. 



INDEX 



695 



Infection. 124. 

Infectious abortion, 143; entero-hepatitis in turkeys, 
140; mastitis, 125; suppurative cellulitis, 125 

Influenza, 123, 143. 

Inglis quoted, 362. 

Inguinal hernia, 657; note, 149. 

Inheritance of acquired characters, 39. 

Inoculation, protective, against disease, 145. 

Insectivorous mammals, 168. 

Insects as carriers of disease, 127. 

Inspection of live-stock, 161. 

Insulating materials for ice-houses, 235; for refrig- 
erator, 236. 

Inter-breeding, 42. 

International Encyclopedia quoted, 296. 

International Live-stock Exhibition quoted, 156, 157. 

International Stock Food Farm quoted, 502. 

Intestinal juice, 19. 

Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station quoted, 644, 
645. 

Ipomoea sida?folia as honey-plant, 2S6. 

Irish deerhound, 516; setter, 514; terrier, 516; water 
spaniel, 515. 

Irish Grazier swine, 673. 

Irish Hunter horse, 468. 

Irish rats, 520. 

Iron, notes, 106. 

Isaac, George, quoted, 373. 

Isabella, 371. 

Isigny cheese, 225. 

Ismailoff, Lieut., quoted, 475. 

Italian greyhound, 517. 

Italian cowpea, 94. 

Italian rye-grass, 94. 

Ivor}-, 174. 

Jack rabbits, 167. 

Jackass. (See Ass.) 

Jacks, breeds of, 508, 509. (See Ass.) 

Jackson, Dr. Sheldon, quoted, 5S9, 590, 592. 

Jackson, Wm., quoted, 490. 

Jacobin pigeon, hooded, 521. 

Jacoby quoted, 390. 

Jafarabadi buffalo, 294, 295. 

James I quoted, 497. 

James L., 505. 

Jamestown cattle, 368. 

Japanese bantam, 569; peafowl, 580; robin, 524. 

Japanese millet, composition, 94; seed for birds, 173. 

Japanese pony, 489. 

Japanese rats, 520. 

Jarvis, Lieut. D. H., quoted, 591. 

Jarvis, William, quoted, 357, 619. 

Jasmine (Fig. 494), 499. 

Java fowls, 563; jungle-fowl, 582; peafowl, 580. 

Java pony, 489. 

Java sparrow, 523. 

Jav, 170, 171, 173. 

Jay Eye See, 505. 

Jay Gould, 505. 

Jefferson, Thomas, quoted, 490, 499. 

Jeffries, Capt. James, quoted, 662. 

Jeffries, Mr., quoted, 368. 

Jennets, 276. 

Jenny Cockracy, 490. 

Jensen quoted, 133. 

Jersey cattle, 361-36.5; milk, percentage of butter-fat 

•in, 177; note, 303. 
Jersev-Red swine, 665. 
Jilt 15th (Fig. 361), 332. 
Jockey Club quoted, 470. 
Joe Johnson, 372. 
Joe Patchen, 476, 478. 
Joe Young, 478, 505. 
John Dillard, 490, 492. 
John Nolan, 504, 505. 
Johnson, Arthur, quoted, 373. 
Johnson-grass, composition, 94; digestibility, 98. 
Johnston, Robert, quoted, 458, 623. 
Johnston quoted, 467, 479. 
Jolly quoted, 370. 
Jones, C. J, quoted, 290, 291. 
Jordan, W. H., article by, 56. 



Josephine, 372. 

Jowari buffalo, 294. 

Judas tree as honey-plant, 285. 

Judging poultry, 547. 

Jumping mice, 167. 

Juncus Gerardi, 98. 

Jungle-fowl, 528, 5S2 ; note, 529. 

Justin Morgan, 497, 500, 503, 505, 506. 

Jutland cattle, 357. 

Kafir, nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 105. 
Fodder: Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constitu- 
ents, 101; nutritive ratio and protein-equating 
factor, 104. Meal; Nutritive ratio and protein-equat- 
ing value, 105. Seed: Composition, 93, 100. Stover: 
Nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 104. 

Kaiser Wilhelm, 463, 494. 

Kaleege pheasants, 581, 5S2. 

Kangaroo rats, 167. 

Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station quoted, 165. 

Kate Spray 4th (Fig. 131), 154. 

Keheilan Ajus Arabs, 448. 

Kellner quoted, 66, 67, 81, 85, 86, 89. 

Kennedy, W. J., article by, 649. 

Kent sheep, 632. 

Kentucky blue-grass, composition, 94; digestible nu- 
trients and fertilizer constituents, 101 nutritive ratio 
and protein-equating value, 104. 

Kentucky Importing Company, 372. 

Kentucky Prince, 505. 

Kentucky saddle horse. (See saddle horse.) 

Kephir, 187. 

Kerry cattle, 379, 380; note, 301, 303. 

Kian'g, 276. 

Kilbarne, quoted 141. 

Kingbird, 171, 172. 

King Charles dog, 517. 

King, Col. W. S., quoted, 373. 

King of Diamonds, 504. 

King Herod, 497, 506. 

Kings' mares, 497. 

Kip, 272. 

Kitasato quoted, 138. 

Klatawath, 505. 

Klein, Louis A., article by, 603. 

Klippart quoted, 357. 

Knight of Malta, 276. 

Knox, Mr., quoted, 379. 

Koch, W., quoted, 134, 338. 

Kohlschmidt, Dr., quoted, 411. 

Kolmogorian cattle, 357 

Korean pony, 489. 

Koster quoted, 279. 

Kremlin, 505. 

Kumyss, 187. 

Kurdistan ponies, 451. 

Kyloe cattle, 382. 

LaFayette, Marquis de, quoted, 276. 
La Fleche fowls, 567. 
La Mancha Union Jack (Fig. 392), 380. 
La Tristeza, 141. 

Lactic acid, 177; bacteria in milk, 188. 
Lactobutryometer, 17S. 
Lactocrite, De Laval, 178. 
Lactometer, 180, 181. 
Lactoscope, 178. 
Lactose, 177. 

Lady Amherst pheasant, 582. 
Lady Amy 7th (Fig. 276), 249. 
Lady Betty Shorthorns, 371. 
Lady Fragrant, 371. 
Lady Gulnare, 372. 
Lady Jackson, 490. 
Lady Matchless 2nd (Fig. 377), 353. 
Lady Suffolk, 502, 503. 
Lady Vere de Vere (Fig. 329), 299. 
Lakenvelder cattle, 341 ; poultry, 342. 
Lamarck quoted, 35, 39. 
Lamarre, L. Bert de, quoted, 293. 

Lamb, characteristics of good, 265; composition and 
food value, 264, 269; docking, 150; hothouse, 593, 599. 
Lambert, D. J., article by, 544. 



696 



INDEX 



Laminitis, inheritance of, 38. 

Lamp Girl, 506. 

Lampas, 438. 

Lampers, 438. 

Lancashire cheese, 226. 

Lancashire Short-Face swine, 660. 

Lance, Dr. H. W., quoted, 342. 

Landrum, Wm. M., quoted, 406. 

Langshan fowls, 565. 

Langstroth, L. L., quoted, 278, 282. 

Langworthy quoted, 89. 

Lanolin, 23. 

Lantz, D. E., quoted, 164, 166, 167. 

Lapidist, 503. 

Lard, 174; production, 647-649; notes, 644, 645, 646; 
shipping, 260; trying-out, 256. 

Lard hog, finishing, 651. 

Large Black swine, 679; White swine 669-671; York- 
shire swine, 669-671. 

Larkspur, 120. 

Laryngitis, 440. 

Latax marina, 397. 

Laugher pigeon, 522. 

Laurel, 121 ; as honey-tree, 285. 

Laut, Miss Agnes, quoted, 396, 398. 

Law, James, article by, 122. 

Lawes and Gilbert quoted, 11, 13. 

Lawrence, A. A., quoted, 464, 466, 618. 

Lea, Overton, article by, 376. 

League of Amateur Driving Clubs, 506. 

Leather, 271 ; industry, 272; notes, 8, 174. 

Leather carp, 393. 

Leeches, 139. 

Lefebure, E., quoted, 452; & Sons, quoted, 452. 

Leghorn fowls, 566; notes, 529. 

Legumes as source of coarse fodder, 69 ; factors affecting 
feeding value, 71. 

Leguminous grains, feeding value, 72, 73. 

Leicester sheep, 615. 

Leicester swine, 669. 

Leicestershire cheese, 218. 

Leopard, 450. 

Leopard frog, 395. 

Leporida?, 167. 

Leucanthemum vulgare, 98. 

Leuckart quoted, 280. 

Leucocytes in milk, 190 

Levroux cheese, 411. 

Lexington, 498. 

Libyan horse, 449. 

Lice on animals, 329; on fowls, 552; sheep, 607. 

Ligard, George, quoted, 455. 

Light horse types, 46, 47. 

Lighting stables, 147, 182. 

Lignieres quoted, 141. 

Lignum-vitie as honey-plant, 286. 

Lima beans as honey-plant, 285. 

Limberneck, 555. 

Limburger cheese, 225; notes, 220. 

Lime, slaked, as disinfectant, 146. 

Lincoln sheep, 617, 618. 

Linden tree, 450. 

Lindsley, D. C, quoted, 505. 

Line-breeding, 43. 

Lineated pheasant, 581. 

Liner felt as insulating material, 239. 

Linnet, 522. 

Linnirus trunculatus minutis, 604. 

Linseed, cake, available energy in, 66; for horses, 430. 
Meal, 75, 76; composition of, 93; digestibility of, 97; 
digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents in, 
100; digestible nutrients in stated amounts, 115; 
for calves, 313; for dairy cows, 316; nutritive ratio 
and protein-equating value, 105; production value, 
67. Oil, notes, 76. 

Lion, period of gestation, 31. 

Lippia repens as honey-plant, 285. 

Lisonjero, 505. 

Livarot cheese, note, 225. 

Live-stock, cost of producing, 13; distribution, 10; 
exchange, 160; inspection, 161; place in civilization, 
7-14; relation of crop rotation, 11. 

Liver, function, 19, 20. 



Liver and lung disease of reindeer, 592. 

Liver-rot, 604. 

Livingston, Robert, quoted, 619. 

Lizard canarv, 522. 

Llama, (Fig."ll), 2, 7, 9, 296; note, 5. 

Lloyd, Frederick Freeman, articles by, 386, 388. 

Lobelia, 120. 

Lobster, 635, 636. 

Lockjaw, 138; note, 150. 

Loco-weed, 121. 

Locomotion, energy required for, 87. 

Locust as honey-plant, 285. 

Loeffler quoted', 133, 143. 

Logan, John A., quoted, 467. 

Loggeihead, 681. 

Logwood as honey-plant, 285, 286. 

Long Island Black Hawk, 503, 505. 

Long, Professor, quoted, 677. 

Long yearlings, fattening, 319. 

Longhorn cattle, 380, 381. 

Long-tailed fowl (Fig. 5), 5. 

Lonk sheep, 631. 

Lop-eared rabbit, 518. 

Lophophorus impeyanus, 580. 

Lophura nobilis, 581 ; prselata, 581 ; rufa, 581. 

Lopp, W. T., quoted, 591. 

Lord Clinton, 506. 

Lord Derby II (417), 467. 

Lord Russel, 505. 

Lord Rothschild quoted, 388. 

Lord Western quoted, 42. 

Lorillard, Pierre, quoted, 498. 

Losing the cud, 19. 

Lou Dillon, 478, 501, 505. 

Louden Duchesses, 372. 

Louis Napoleon, 10, 480. 

Loup Cervier, 403. 

Loups-Marius, 399. 

Low quoted, 334, 335, 357, 364, 611, 619. 

Lowther Barb, 505. 

Lucilia macellaria, 607. 

Lumpy jaw, 138. 

Lunch cheese, 225. 

Lung plague, notes, 123. 

Lung-worm disease, 606. 

Luob, No. 2107 (Fig. 364), 338. 

Lupine, feeding value, 72; poisonous, 121. 

Lutra Canadensis, 401. 

Lydlin quoted, 133. 

Lynx, 403; Canadensis, 403; notes, 167; rufus, 403. 

Macdonald quoted, 631. 

MacGregor (1487), 457. 

Macgregor, Sir William, quoted, 592. 

MacNeilage, Archibald, quoted, 456. 

Mack, G. A., article by, 296. 

Mad staggers, 119. 

Madison County (Ohio) Importing Company, 372. 

Madras buffalo, 294. 

Madrona as honey-plant, 285. 

Maeterlinck quoted, 281. 

Maggots in sheep, 607. 

Magic, 491. 

Magna, 492. 

Magna Charta, 506. 

Magnolia as honey-plant, 285. 

Magpie, 521 ; finch, 524. 

Mahogany as honev-plant, 286. 

Maid of Melrose, 372. 

Maine Experiment Station quoted, 275. 

Maintenance requirements of farm animals, 76-79; 

of cattle, 77; horse, 78; sheep, 78; swine, 78; values 

of feeding-stuffs, 65. 
Maize feed (Chicago), composition, 92; digestibility, 

96. 
Major, W., quoted, 373. 
Major Delmar, 504. 
Majorca ass, 277, 508, 509. 
Mai de caderas, 140. 
Malaclemmys centrata, 681 ; centrata concentrica, 681 ; 

litteralis, 681; macrospilota, 681; pileata, 681. 
Malaria, bovine, 141; canine, 139; equine, 140. 
Malay fowl, Black-breasted Red, 568. 






INDEX 



697 



Malignant catarrhal fever of sheep, 60S; malarial 

jaundice, 139. 
Mallard duck, 569, 572. 
Maltese ass, 277; goat, 409; jacks, 508, 509; terrier, 

516. 
Maltose, 17. 
Malt-sprouts, 74; composition, 93; digestibility, 96; 

digestible nurients and fertilizing constituents, 100; 

digestible nutrients in stated amounts, 114; for 

calves, 313; nutritive ratio and protein-equating 

value, 105; production value, 67. 
Mambrino, 467, 478, 501, 502; Chief II, 467, 502, 503, 

505; Chief familv, 505; Gift, 505; Patchen, 505; 

Paymaster, 467, 501, 502; Pilot, 459, 505. 
Mammals, wild, in their relations with agriculture, 

163-169. 
Mammitis, 323. (See Mastitis.) 
Management of animals, 82, 122—151. 
Manchester canary, 522. 
Manchurian pheasant, 580. 
Mandarin duck, 571. 
Mange, 32S, 654. 
Mangel, composition, 95; digestibility, 99; digestible 

nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 102; digestible 

nutrients in stated amounts, 110; feeding value, 71; 

nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 105. 
Mangrove as honey-plant, 286. 
Manipuri pony, 489. 
Mann's acid test, 180. 
Mantilinis Shorthorns, 371. 
Manufacture of animal products, 174—272. 
Manx cat, 300. 
Manyplies, 18. 

Manzanito as honey-plant, 285. 
Maracaibo parrot, 524. 
Maraldi quoted, 278. 
Mare, fecundity, 33; feeding brood, 430; milk, 96, 176; 

notes, 24; period of gestation, 31; prolificacy, 13. 
Market grades of stock, 161. 
Marketing farm stock, 151, 158-162; poultry products, 

544-547. 
Markhor, 405. 
Marlot quoted, 428. 
Marquis of Salisbury quoted, 487. 
Marsh-hen, note, 400. 
Marsupials, 163. 
Marten, 401 ; notes, 396. 
Martin (bird), 170, 171, 173. 
Martin, H. A., article by, 367. 
Martingale, 422. 
Martin quoted, 376. 
Mary Marshall, 350, 
Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture 

quoted, 350. 
Masterman quoted, 370. 
Mastication, 17. 
Mastiff, 516. 

Mastitis, infectious. 125; non-infectious, 323; strepto- 
coccus, 129. 
Matchem, 497. 

Matchless Theodore (Fig. 132), 154. 
Mate, 492. 
Mating, double, 532. 
Maud S., 505. 
Maxie Cobb, 505. 
Mayflower (Fig. 486), 488. 
Maynard quoted, 370, 372. 
Maynard, Isaac, quoted, 612, 629. 
Mayo, N. S., articles by, 118, 146; quoted, 139. 
Mazurka, 372. 

McClave, Charles, articles by, 569, 572, 585. 
McClelland Bros, quoted, 622. 
McCormick Brothers quoted, 338. 
McCrae, David, articles by, 609, 611,615, 617, 629,633; 

quoted, 615. 
McDonald, W. T., notes by, 151. 
McDowell, James, quoted, 622. 
McGrew, T. F., articles by, 578, 586. 
McKerrow, Geo., article by, 632; quoted, 625. 
McKissiek, N. E., quoted, 291. 
McLaughlin Bros., quoted, 452. 
McLaury Brothers quoted, 338. 
McLean, J. A., article by, 649. 



McMonagle, Dr., quoted, 503. 

McQueen (3513), 457. 

Meade, R. W., quoted, 622. 

Meadow, area in United States, 11. Grass, composition, 
digestibility and total nutrients at different stages, 70. 
Hay, available energy in, 66; digestibility, 97. 

Meadow fescue, composition, 94; digestible nutrients 
and fertilizing constituents, 101 ; nutritive ratio and 
protein-equa*ing factor, 104. 

Meadow fox-grass, low, digestibility, 98. 

Meadow mice, 166. 

Meadowlark, 170. 

Meat, 248-271; buffalo, 295; composition, 261; cook- 
ing, 262; cost of producing, 13, 14; inspection, 161; 
nature and composition, 79; notes, 174; production 
79-S3; scrap, 96, 99, 105; shipping, 260 

Mecklenburg horse, 464. 

Meehan, W. E., articles by, 390, 394. 

Megapodes, 542. 

Megrim, 584. 

Mehring quoted, 283. 

Meise, Samuel, quoted, 627. 

Melanosis, inheritance of, 38. 

Melanotus pheasant, 5S2. 

Meleagris Americana, 5S6; Mexicana, 586; ocellata, 
5S6. 

Melipona tetrasoma, 279; trigona, 279. 

Menapause, 24. 

Mendel's law, 530. 

Menhaden, 263. 

Menier, Mr., quoted, 404. 

Meningitis notes, 119. 

Mephitis mephitica, 402. 

Mercuric chlorid as disinfectant, 146. 

Merino sheep, 618-624; fitting for exhibition, 154; 
notes, 275, 598; period of gestation, 31. 

Merrell, Arthur, quoted, 576, 5S4. 

Merriam, Dr. C. H., quoted, 171. 

Mertoun flock of Leicester sheep, 617. 

Mesohippus, 419. 

Mesquite as honev-plant, 285. 

Messenger, 497, 501, 502, 505; note, 467, 500. 

Messenger, Thomas, quoted, 615. 

Metabolism, 62. 

Metastasis, 124. 

Metcalf, Henry, quoted, 615. 

Metcalf, Mrs., quoted, 565. 

Metchley Wonder, 384. 

Mexican turkey, 586. 

Mice, 165, 166; pet, 520. 

Michigan Agricultural College quoted, 38, 39; Expert 
ment Station quoted, 359. 

Micrococci, diseases caused by, 129. 

Micrococcus caprinus, 129. 

Microtus, 166. 

Middle Yorkshire or M. White Swine, 680. 

Middlings, 73; composition, 93; for show animals, 153. 

Migula quoted, 128. 

Milbank quoted, 370. 

Milch cows, increase in number, 9, 10; numbers in 
United States, 176; value, 10. 

Milch goats, 408-412. 

Miles, Dr., quoted, 34, 38, 41. 

Military horses, 470-474. 

Milk, 176-187; bacteria, 187-190; beverages, 187; 
buffalo, 295; certified, 186; clean, 175; composition 
and fuel-value, 85, 96, 176, 194, 264; computing 
total solids of, 181; condensed; 190-194; cost of 
producing, 13, 14; digestible nutrients and fertilizing 
constituents, 102; digestibility, 99; feeding show 
animals, 153; fermentation test of milk, 184; for 
poultry fattening, 540; for young stock, 308, 313; 
increase in production, 10; market milk, 185, 186; 
modified, 186; notes, 174, 175; nutritive ratio and 
protein-equating value, 105; pasteurization, 184, 185; 
physical properties, 177; powder, 194, 195; produc- 
tion 83-86, 181-184, 309-313; records, 181; refrige- 
ration, 236; sanitary, 181-184; score-cards for pro- 
duction of sanitary, 182-184; secretion, physiology, 
310, 312; standard, 186; standardized, 186; tests, 
178-180; transportation rates, 185, 186. 

Milk-bottling plants, refrigeration in, 245. 

Milk-fat. (See Butter-fat.) 



698 



INDEX 



Milk-fever, 324. 
Milk-room, 205. 
Milk-sugar, 177. 

Milk-weed, 121. 

Milking, 308, 312; in relation to milk-production, 84; 
machines, 312, 313. 

Mill feeds for calves, 313; for dairy cows, 316. 

Miller, E. D., quoted, 482. 

Miller, George, quoted, 373, 612. 

Miller, H. P., articles by, 612, 614, 624, 626, 627. 

Miller, Mr., quoted, 371. 

Miller, Robert, quoted, 625. 

Miller, W. S., quoted, 375. 

Miller, William, quoted, 373. 

Millet, barnvard, composition, 94. Hay, for dairy cows, 
316; for beef cattle, 319. Japanese, 94. Seed: com- 
position, 93; seed, digestible nurients and fertilizing 
constituents, 100. 

Milling residues for feed, 73, 74. 

Mimulus, 373. 

Mineral wool as insulating material, 237, 239. 

Miniature cheese, 225. 

Mink, 400; notes, 166, 168, 396, 404; protection, 397. 

Minna, 372. 

Minor, talking, 523. 

Minorca fowls, 566. 

Mirror carp, 393. 

Miss Craigie, 490. 

Miss McKinley 17203, 369. 

Miss Russell, 506. 

Missouri Agricultural College quoted, 33. 

Mites on fowls, 553. 

Moberly, Col. T. S., quoted, 373. 

Mockern Experiment Station quoted, 66, 77. 

Mockingbird, American, 523. 

Modified milk, 186. 

Modjeska 2194 (Fig. 466), 459. 

Mohair, 407; note, 174. 

Moliler, J. R., articles by, 321, 436, 653; quoted, 129, 
137. 

Molasses, as meat preservative, 254; beet, composition 
96; beet, digestible nutrients in stated amounts, 116 
beet, nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 105 
digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 102 
feeds, 175; feeding to show animals, 153; feeding 
value, 75; pulp, 75. 

Moles, 1G8; garden, notes, 35; mice, 166. 

Mollusks, notes, 390, 392. 

Moltke 13, 463. 

Monaul pheasant, 580. 

Mongolian pheasant, 581. 

Mongolian pony, 489. 

Monkey skin, 396. 

Mont d' Or cheese, 411. 

Montrose 106, 490. 

Moon blindness, 438. 

Moore quoted, 131. 

Moore, John, quoted, 520. 

Moore, J. Percy, quoted, 644. 

Moore, Veranus A., article by, 124. 

Moose, 2. 

Morgan Eagle, 506. 

Morgan family, 505, 506; horse, 503, 505, 506; notes, 
274, 275, 507. 

Morocco, 411. 

Morphine for poisoning, 120. 

Morphodites, 24. 

Morris and Becar Shorthorns, 373. 

Morrison, Alexander, quoted, 41. 

Morrison, Wm., quoted, 288. 

Morrison, W. K., article by, 278; quoted, 279. 

Morse, Mrs. Tyler, quoted, 388. 

Morton's Traveller, 505. 

Mosquito as an agent of infection, 125. 

Moss Roses, 371. 

Moufion, 596. 

Mound-birds, 542. 

Mountain fever, 144. 

Mountain Hero II (Fig. 4S4), 487. 

Mountain loin, 167. 

Mouse, 165; note, 401; white-footed, note, 401. 

Mouson, quoted 372. 

Mousse t 195. 



Mouth, sore, in sheep, 608; in swine, 656. 

Mueller quoted, 2S4. 

Mule, 507-510; acres cultivated by one, 11; diseases, 

122-146; sweating, 23; militarv, 473; number of, 

7, 10; notes, 9; pulse, 436; value, 10. 
Mule-Foot hog, 679. 
Mulev cattle, note, 331. 
Mumford, Frederick B., articles by, 28, 44, 302, 418; 

quoted, 598. 
Mumford, H. W., articles by, 146, 369, 3S3. 
Munster cheese, 219; notes, 220. 
Muntz quoted, 79. 
Muridae, 165. 

Mus musculus, 165; Norvegicus, 165; rattus, 165. 
Muscatoon 7057, 372. 
Muscovey duck, white, 571. 
Muscular structure, 265. 
Musical grakle, 523. 
Musk-ox, 2. 

Muskrat, 166; notes, 396; skins, notes, 396, 404. 
Musmon, 596. 
Mussel, 634. 
Mustang, 4S3, 484. 
Mustard, wild, tainting milk, 86. 
Mustela Americana, 401 ; Pennauti, 401. 
Mustelida;, 168. 
Mute swan, 585. 
Mutilations, transmission of, 37. 
Mutton, characteristics of good, 265; composition and 

fertilizing value, 264, 269; cutting, 253; pressing, 252; 

production, 599; notes, 595; sheep, type, 51, 52, 53; 

storing, 25S. 
Mya arenaria, 634. 
Mycotic stomatitis, 139, 325. 
Mylton, Mr., quoted, 490. 
Myopia, notes, 37. 
Myristin, 177. 
Myrtle of Avondale 24942 (Fig. 373), 346. 

Nagana, 140. 

Nail in the heart, 18; penetrating, 445. 

Nancy Hanks, 502, 505. 

Nancy Lee, 502. 

Nannie Garrett 472, 491. 

Narragansett pacer, 476, 503. 

Nathusius quoted, 39. 

National Association of Medical Milk Commissions, 

176. 
National Association of Wool Manufacturers quoted, 

598. 
National Delaine sheep, 622. 
Navel-ill, 126. 
Neapolitan, 195. 
Neapolitan swine, 666, 679. 

Nebraska Experiment Station quoted 319, 320. 
Necklace, 371. 

Necrotic erysipelas, 133. • 

Necrotic stomatitis, 656. 
Nectar (4177) (Fig. 491), 495. 
Needham, James G., articles by, 392, 393. 
Negrette Merino sheep, 619. 
Negri bodies, 144. 
Nehring, quoted, 1. 

Nelson, Julius, articles by, 393, 634, 635, 636, 640, 643. 
Nemours, M- Dupont de, quoted, 619. 
Neolupparion, 419. 
Neotoma, 166. 

Nether Craig Spicy Sam (Fig. 362), 335. 
Neufchatel cheese, 221. 
New Forest pony, 487. 

New International Encyclopedia quoted, 272. 
New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station quoted, 

350. 
New Leicester sheep, 616. 
New Mexican goat, 409. 
New-process linseed meal, 76. 
New York Agricultural Experiment Station quoted, 

177, 350. 
New York Board of Health lactometer, 181. 
New York Mills sale, 371, 373. 
Newfoundland dog, 516; seals, 399. 
Newton, Mr., quoted, 194. 
Niger, 459, 460. 



INDEX 



699 



Nigger (Fig. 479), 482. 

Nighthawk, note, 170, 171. 

Nightingale, 522 ; Virginia, 523. 

Nightshade, 121. 

Nitrate of soda, poisoning cattle, 118. 

Nitrogen-free-extract, 59. 

Nitrogenous constituents of milk, 177. 

Nivernaise horse, 462. 

Nixon, C. D., article by, 337. 

Noeard quoted, 126, 135. 

Nodular disease, 604. 

Nonpareil, 524. 

Nora, 374. 

Norfolk Phenomenon, 459. 

Norfolk Red Polled cattle, 369. 

Norfolk sheep, 630. 

Norfolk spaniel, 515. 

Norfolk Thin Rind pigs, 662. 

Norfolk trotter, 451, 466. 

Norman B., 505. 

Norman horses, 4S0. 

Normandy boar, 662; 

Normandy cattle, 381. 

North African horse, 449. 

North American farm animals, 273-682. 

North Star (460), 372. 

Northern Kentucky Importing Company, 372. 

Norwegian horse, 466; pony, 488. 

Norwich canary, 522. 

Nubian Milch goat, 409. 

Numida meleagris, 5*78. 

Nuns (birds), 524. 

Nuns (pigeons), 521. 

Nutbearer, 505. 

Nutboy, 505. 

Nuthatch, 170, 173. 

Nutrition, principles, 58-63, 263. 

Nutritive ratio, 103, 106, 107. 

Nuts for birds, 173. 

Nutwood, 505. 

Oaks, 498. 

Oat-grass hay, production value, 67 ; tall, composition, 
94. 

Oats, available energy in, 66; composition, 93; digesti- 
ble nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100; digesti- 
ble nutrients in stated amounts, 112; digestibility, 
97; feeding value, 72; for beef cattle, 318-321; for 
calves, 313; for heifers, 314; for horses, 428-432; 
for show animals, 153; notes, 151; nutritive ratio 
and protein-equating value, 105. Chaff: compo- 
sition, 95; digestible nutrients and fertilizing con- 
stituents, 101; digestibility, 98. Dust: composition, 
93; digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 
100. Feed (shorts): composition, 93; digestible 
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100. Fodder: 
composition, 94; digestible nutrients and fertilizing 
constituents, 101; digestibility, 9S; nutrient ratio 
and protein-equating factor, 104. Hay: composition, 
94; digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 
101 ; nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 104. 
Hulls, 74; composition, 93; digestible nutrients and 
fertilizing constituents, 100. Meal: composition, 93; 
digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100; 
nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 105. 
Straw: composition, 95; digestibility, 98; digestible 
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 101 ; digestible 
nutrients in stated amounts, 112; feeding value, 71; 
for dairy cattle, 316; nutritive ratio and protein- 
equating value, 105; production value, 67 

Oats and peas, 98; and vetch, 98. 

O'Connor, Thomas, quoted, 379. 

CEsophagostoma, 135; Columbianum, 135, 604. 

CEstrus ovis, 605. 

Ohio Importing Company quoted, 372; 

Ohio Improved Chester-White swine, 662. 

Ohio State Fair entry rules, 156. 

Ohio State University quoted, 74. 

Oidium lactis, 222, 224, 225, 226. 

Oil-cake, 75; for show animals, 153. 

Oil-meal, 75; for beef cattle, 318-321; for brood mare, 
431; for calves, 313; for dairy cows, 316; for show 
animals, notes, 151. 



Okra as honey-plant, 2S5. 

Olaf quoted, 585. 

Old English Bobtail Sheep-dog, 386-3S8; note, 383. 

Old Morrill, 506. 

Old-process linseed meal, 76. 

Old Shales, 466. 

Oldenburg cattle, 357. 

Oldenburg coach horse, 462-464. 

Olein, 177. 

Olena 18772, 369. 

Oleomargarine note, 177, 259. 

Oleo-oil, 259. 

Olor buccinator, 586. 

Oltmann Brothers quoted, 463. 

Omasum, 18. 

Omphalophlebitis, 126. 

Onager, 276. 

Onchomys, 166. 

One Eye, 467, 502. 

Onions, composition and feeding value, 264; wild, 120. 

Online, 504. 

Ontario Agricultural College quoted, 332, 377, 644, 

645; Department of Agriculture quoted, 538. 
Opossum, 163; skins, 396. 

Opthalmia, in cats, 301 ; specific, inheritance of, 38. 
Orange-breast Waxbill, 524. 
Oranges, composition and fuel-value, 264. 
Orchard-grass, composition, 94; digestible nutrients 

and fertilizing constituents, 101 ; digestibility, 97, 9S; 

nutritive ratio and protein-equating factor, 104. Hay: 

nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 104. 
Oreamnos montanus, 597. 
Oregon ground-squirrel, 164. 
Oriental Frills, 521. 
Oriental horses, 449. 
Oriole, 170, 172, 173. 
Orloff, Count Alexis, quoted, 474; Countess, quoted, 

475. 
Orloff trotting horse, 474, 475; note, 451. 
Ormskirk Olympian, 384. 
Orohippus, 419. 

Orpington fowls, 567; fattening, 539; note, 529. 
Orr, T. E., articles by, 547, 563; quoted, 372. 
Orville, 490. 
Oryzomys, 166. 

Osborn,"H. F., quoted, 418, 419, 420. 
Osprey, 172. 
Osteoporosis, 438. 
Ostrea Adriatica, 636, angulata, 636; cuculata, 636; 

edulis, 636, 638; lurida, 636, 63S; Virginiana, 636, 

638. 
Ostrich, 511-514; eggs, period of incubation, 542; 

notes, 33, 542. 
Otter, 401; farming, 404; notes, 168, 396; protection, 

397. 
Ovaries, characters and functions, 2S. 
Oven-roasting of meat, 267. 
Oven thermometer, 267. 
Ovine caseous lymph-adenitis, 132. 
Ovis ammon, 596; aries, 592; Canadensis, 597; cervinus, 

597; Dalli, 597; montanus, 597; musmon, 596; 

Stonei, 597. 
Ovum, nature and function, 29. 
Owen, Prof. Richard, quoted, 297. 
Owens quoted, 302. 

Owl, 170, 171,; notes 164, 166; pigeon, 521. 
Ox-eye daisy, digestibility, 98. 
Oxen, 366; amount of blood in body, 21; composition 

of body, 59; feeding standards, 107, 10S; nature of 

stomach, 18; notes, 9; number on farms, 11; pulse 

in, 21; respiration, 21, 437; rumination in, 18, 20; 

sweating in, 23 ; temperature in, 21, 436. 
Oxford Down sheep, 624-626. 
Oxford Shorthorns, 373. 
Oxyhemaglobin, 21. 
Oyster, 636-640; notes, 393. 
Ozokerite, 259. 

Pablo, Michael, quoted, 291, 292. 
Pace, 423 ; show, 427. 
Pacing horse, Standardbred, 476-478. 
Packing butter, 204; eggs, 546, 547. 
Page, George H, quoted, 191. 



700 



INDEX 



Painted finch, 524; bunting, 524. 

Paints, lead, poisoning cattle, 118. 

Palatability of a ration, 106. 

Paley quoted, 372. 

Palia buffalo, 294. 

Pallin quoted, 139. 

Palm-nut meal, 93, 101. 

Palmetto as honey-plant, 285, 286. 

Palmitin, 177. 

Palms as honey-plant, 286. 

Palmyra Boy, 504. 

Palo Alto, 504. 

Pan-broiling meat, 267. 

Pancreas, 20. 

Pancreatic juice, 19, 20. 

Pansy McGregor, 504. 

Pantegras cheese, 218. 

Paper as insulating material, 237. 

Paper-skin, 606. 

Paraffin for candles, 259. 

Paralysis in swine, 653. 

Paraplegia, 653. 

Parasitisms, 124. 

Parbold Paragon, 384. 

Park animals, 2. 

Parmesan cheese, 219; note, 208. 

Paroquets, 525. 

Parrots, 524, 525; Cuban, 525; dwarf, 525. 

Parsnip, composition, 95; digestible nutrients and 
fertilizing constituents, 102. 

Parson's milk test, 178. 

Part-bred horses, 499. 

Parthenogenesis, 280. 

Partridge, domestication, 576-578. 

Parturition, 31 ; difficult, 32. 

Pasang, 405, 408. 

Pastes, 322. 

Pasteur quoted, 130. 

Pasteur treatment for rabies, 144. 

Pasteurization of milk, 184, 185; notes, 189. 

Pasteurized butter, 207. 

Pasture, area in United States, 11. Grass; composition, 
94; digestibility, 98; digestible nutrients and fer- 
tilizing constituents, 101 ; supplementing pasture with 
balanced rations, 118. 

Pat Cleburne, 490. 

Pat Ryan of Red Cloud 20038 (Fig. 372), 346. 

Patchen Wilkes, 478. 

Pates, 263. 

Patrick milk test, 178. 

Patterson, John, quoted, 456. 

Patterson, John D., quoted, 624. 

Patterson, Robert, quoted, 340. 

Paul D. Kelly, 504. 

Paul Pry, 502. 

Paular Merino sheep, 619. 

Paunch, 18. 

Pavo cristatus, 580; muticus, 5S0; nigripennis, 580. 

Pea, available energy in, 66; digestible nutrients and 
fertilizing constituents, 101; digestible nutrients in 
stated amounts, 113; dried, composition and fuel- 
value, 264; sugar, 264; factors affecting feeding value, 
71; feeding value, 72; for colts, 431 ; hay, 316; meal, 
composition, 93; digestibility, 97, 99; nutritive ratio 
and protein-equating value, 105. 

Peacock, 5S0. 

Peacock pheasant, 581. 

Peafowl, 31, 580. 

Peanuts, composition and fuel-value, 264; feed, diges- 
tibility, 97; kernel, composition, 93; meal, compo- 
sition, 93; meal, digestible nutrients and fertilizing 
constituents, 101; vines, composition, 95; vines, 
digestibility, 98. 

Pea-vine 85, 491. 

Pea-vine, hay, composition, 95; silage, digestible 
nutrients in stated amounts, 116; straw, digestible 
nutrients in stated amounts, 111; digestible nutrients 
and fertilizing constituents, 102; 

Pearl, 505. 

Pearl disease, 133. 

Pearl guinea-fowl, 57S. 

Pearl millet, digestibility, 98. 

Pearlettc, 372. 



Pearson, R. A., article by, 176; quoted, 176. 

Peas and barley, digestible nutrients and fertilizing 

constituents, 101 ; digestible nutrients in stated 

amounts, 109; and oats, digestible nutrients and 

fertilizing constituents, 101. 
Pebbled grain leather, 271. 
Peccary, 163, 646. 

Pedigree versus individual excellence, 43. 
Peer, F. S., quoted, 409. 
Pegler, quoted 409. 
Pekan, 401. 
Pekin duck, 570. 
Pekinese dog, 517. 
Pelham, 503. 
Pelts, shipping, 261. 
Pembroke cattle, 302. 
Penetrating nail, 445. 

Penicillium camemberti, 224; roqueforti, 221. 
Pennant's marten, 401. 
Pennisetum spicatum, 98. 
Pennsylvania Department of Fisheries quoted, 394; 

Experiment Station quoted, 77; State Agricultural 

Society quoted, 388. 
Pennyman, Sir James, quoted, 370. 
Pens for show animals, 156. 
Pepper notes, 106. 

Pepper-tree as honey-plant, 285, 286. 
Pepsin, 17. 
Peptones, 18, 19. 
Percheron horse, 478-481. 
Perennial rye-grass, composition, 94. 
Pericarditis, 126. 
Periodic ophthalmia, 438. 
Peristalsis, 19. 

Peritonitis, 126; notes, 125, 150. 
Permanganate of potash for poisoning, 120, 121. 
Peromyscus, 166. 
Persiacot, 632. 
Persian lamb fur, 396. 
Persian sheep (Fig. 3), 4, 632. 
Persiarino, 632. 

Persimmon as honey-plant, 285. 
Perspiration in animals, 23. 
Peruvian caw, 519. 
Peter Sterling, 504. 
Peters, Richard, quoted, 405, 633. 
Peter's Halcorn, 490. 
Pets, 514-524; notes, 8. 
Pfan, (79) 381. 
Phallas, 505. 
Phasianus colchicus, 5S1 ; Ellioti, 581 ; Mongolicus, 581 ; 

Reevesi, 581; Scemmerringi, 5S1 ; versicolor, 581. 
Pheasant, 2, 579-582. 
Phenolphthalein test of milk, 180. 
Phenomena, 467. 
Phil Sheridan, 503. 
Philadelphia broilers, 544. 
Philadelphia cream, 195. 
Philip, James, quoted, 291. 
Phoca Gra-nlandica, 399. 
Phcebe, 171, 173. 
Phcenix svlvestris, 2S6. 
Phthisis, 133. 
Physiology of domestic animals, 15-26; of poultry, 

24-26. 
Phytotechny, 273. 
Picardy draft horse, 460. 
Pickering quoted, 370. 
Pickled brood, 285. 
Pickrell, Watson, article by, 511. 
Picnic cheese, 218. 
Pictou disease of the horse, 127. 
Pierce, B. N., quoted, 564. 
Pietertje 2nd, 309, 359. 
Pig, digestion in, 20; heredity in, 37; mastication in, 17; 

nature of stomach, IS; perspiration, 21; vomiting, 

19. (See Swine.) 
Pigeons, 582-584; milk, 24; period of incubation, 31; 

pet, 520-522. 
Pigmy Pouter pigeons, 520. 
Pike, "392. 
Pills, 322. 
Pilot, 476, 503; family, 506; Jr., 506. 



INDEX 



701 



Pine-marten, 401. 
Pine-mouse, note, 401. 
Pineapple cheese, 218. 
Pink (Fig. 42), 45. 
Pink eye, 144. 
Pink-footed goose, 576. 
Pioscope, 178. 
Pip in fowls, 555. 

Piroplasma bigeminum, 140, 141; canis, 139; of dogs, 
139; equi, 140; ovis, 140. 

Pisces, 390. 

Pisgah, 492. 

Plain condensed bulk milk, 190, 193. 

Plankton, 393; note, 390, 392. 

Plants, chemical basis of, 58. 

Pleuritis, 126. 

Pleuro-pneumonia, equine contagious, 128, 129; in 
cattle, 142; inoculating for immunity, 145. 

Plumb, C. S., articles by, 153, 15S, 276, 366, 377, 474; 
quoted, 447, 4S0, 61 9, 621, 678. 

Plvmlev quoted, 626. 

Plymouth Rock fowls, 563; fattening, 539; notes, 529. 

Pneumonia, contagious 123 ; in cats, 301 ; in horses, 441 . 

Pocket mice, 167. 

Pocket gopher, 167. 

Poem, 506. 

Pointer, 515. 

Poisoning, 124; bile acid, 20; stock, 118-122. 

Poisonous weeds and their eradication, 119-122. 

Poisons for rodents, 164. 

Poitou ass, 277, 509. 

Poland-China swine, 671-674; notes, 275, 644, 645. 

Polar beaV, 402; notes, 403. 

Poliakoff quoted, 419. 

Polish bantam, 569; fowls, 56S; note, 529. 

Polish rabbit, 519. 

Polish swan, 585. 

Polkan, 475. 

Poll-evil, 125, 442. 

Pollard, George H., article by, 536. 

Polled, Aberdeens, 331 ; cattle, note, 331 ; Durham cat- 
tle, 375, 376; note, 303; Hereford, 355; note, 303. 

Polo pony, 482, 483. 

Polo Pony Society quoted, 4S6, 487. 

Polworth, Lord, quoted, 617. 

Polyarthritis, 126. 

Polyplectron chinquis, 581. 

Polyps, 393. 

Pomace, apple. (See Apple pomace.) 

Pomarosa as honey-plant, 286. 

Pomeranian dog, 517. 

Ponies, 481-489 ; cow, note, 507. 

Pont L'Eveque cheese, 225; notes, 220, 225. 

Ponv breeds, note, 420; of Iceland, 488; of Ireland, 488. 

Poodles, 517. 

Population as compared with number of farm animals, 
7. 

Porcupines, 167. 

Pork, characteristics of good, 265; composition and 
fertilizer value, 264, 269; cutting, 254; dry-cured, 
256; production notes, 644, 645, 646; salt, 256; 
storing, 258. 

Port du Salut cheese, 225; notes, 220. 

Porter, John F., article by, 271. 

Porter, Lieut. D. D., quoted, 297, 298. 

Pot cheese, 221. 

Pot-roasting meat, 268. 

Potassium iodid, notes, 106. 

Potato, available energy in, 66; composition and feed- 
ing value, 95, 264; cooking for feed, 69; digestible 
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 102, 110; 
digestibility, 99; feeding value, 71; nutritive ratio 
and protein-equating value, 105; production value, 
67. • 

Potted meats, 263. 

Pouched mammals, 163. 

Poultry, 525-587; ailments, 552-556; breeding, 529- 
532; development, 275; fattening, 538; feeding, 
533-537 judging, 547 ; physiology of, 24—26 ; products, 
marketing, 544—547; relation to farm management, 
12; reproductive functions, 25; shipping, 261; tem- 
perature of body, 25; value, 9. 

Poultry-house construction, 556—562. 



Pouter pigeon, 520. 

Powder, milk-, 194, 195; notes, 193. 

Powell Brothers, 495. 

Prairie chicken, 2. 

Prairie dog, 164, 165. 

Prairie-grass, nutritive ratio and protein-equating 
value, 104. 

Pregnancy, 31. 

Prejvalsky horse, 419. 

Pre-natal influences, 41. 

Prentice, James, quoted, 372. 

Prepared cheese, 218. 

Preservatives for meat, 254. 

Preserved products, notes, 174. 

Pretender, 502. 

Priam (2452), 371. 

Prickly comfrey, 96, 102. 

Prince of Albion (617S), 457. 

Prince of Wales (673), 457. 

Princess, 502. 

Princess of Wayne, 359. 

Procamelus, 296. 

Procyon lotor, 402. 

Prodactylism, 37. 

Prodigal, 505. 

Production values of feeding-stuffs, 66—68. 

Prolificacy, 32, 33. 

Proprietary feeds, notes, 74. 

Proteids, 5S; function in animal body, 58? fuel-value, 
65; non-, 5S; notes, 17; when to feed, 18. 

Protein in foods, 265; equating factors, 104, 105; nature 
and function, 58, 62, 63. 

Prothero quoted, 11. 

Protohippus, 419. 

Prototylops, 296. 

Protozoa, diseases caused by, 139-142; infection by, 
124. 

Prowse, D. W., article by, 592. 

Prunes, composition and fuel-value, 264. 

Pseudo-tuberculosis in sheep, 132. 

Psoroptes communis, 606. 

Ptvalin, 17. 

Puberty, 30; notes, 24. 

Pug dog, 517. 

Pulmonary tubercular affection, 124. 

Pulse, defined, 21 ; of animals, 436. 

Puma, notes, 167. 

Pumpkin, composition, 96; digestible nutrients and fer- 
tilizing constituents, 102. 

Punch, 195. 

Putorius erminea, 400; vison, 400. 

Pyogenic bacteria, 125. 

Quack-grass, digestibility, 98. 

Quadrupeds, wild, in relation to farming, 163-169. 

Quagga, 419. 

Quail, domestication, 584, 585; note, 170. 

Quaker bird, 524. 

Quarantine, 146; of market stock, 162. 

Quartly family quoted, 340. 

Quartly, Francis, quoted, 340. 

Quayle, Thomas, quoted, 362. 

Quebec-Jersey cattle, 343. 

Queen Bess 20335, 369. 

Queen Dearest (Fig. 463), 454. 

Queen of the Roses, 457. 

Quevenne lactometer, 180. 

Rabbit, 517-519; fecundity, 33; heredity in, 37; 

notes, 396; period of gestation, 31; protection, 397; 

skins, 402; wild, 167. 
Rabies, 144; immunity, 145. 
Raccoon notes, 168, 396; skins, 402. 
Rachitis, 655. 
Racing Calendar, 501. 
Rack, 423, 424, 427, 492. 
Ragwort, 127. 
Raine quoted, 372. 

Raisins, composition and fuel-value, 264. 
Ralph Wilkes, 504. 

Rambouillet sheep, 623; notes, 598, 599. 
Rana catesbiana, 395; clamitans, 395; virescens, 395. 
Randall quoted, 10. 



702 



INDEX 



Randolph, John, quoted, 499. 
Range stock, feeding, 317-321. 
Rangifer lapponicus, 588; tarandus, 588. 
Ranunculus acris, 98. 

Rape, composition, 96; digestible nutrients and ferti- 
lizing constituents, 102; for show animals, 153; 
nutritive ratio and protein-equating factor, 104; 
seed, feeding value, 73; tainting milk, 86; seed, cake, 
93, 101. 
Raspberry, wild, as honey-plant,2S5. 
Rat, 165; note, 401; period of gestation, 31; pet, 520. 
Rations, computing balanced, 106-118; for dairy 
cattle, 316, 317; method of exact balancing, 103-105. 

Ravenel quoted, 144. 

Rawlence, James, quoted, 615. 

Rav fungus, 138. 

Razorback swine, 680, 681 ; note, 646, 667, 675. 

Reality (665), 467. 

Reaumur quoted, 278. 

Reciprocal crosses, 532. 

Records, butter, 207; cow, 181. 

Redbird, Virginia, 523. 

Red, canary, 522; linnet, 523. 

Red clover hay, available energy in, 166; 

Red fox, 401. 

Red Polled cattle, 367-369; note, 303. 

Red Rose, 380. 

Redcap fowls, 567. 

Redfield, F. B ., quoted, 332. 

Redfield's theory of dynamic development, 40. 

Redstart, American, 170. 

Red-top, composition, 94; digestible nutrients and 
fertilizing constituents, 101; digestibility, 97; hay, 
104; nutritive ratio and protein-equating factor, 
104; notes, 69,71. 

Reed, Alex., quoted, 622. 

Reeve's pheasant, 581. 

Refrigeration of dairy products, 232-246; of meat, 258. 

Regginao cheese, 219. 

Reindeer, 588-592, note, 176. 

Reithrodontomys, 166. 

Remy quoted, 390. 

Renick, Abram, quoted, 372. 

Rcnick, Felix, quoted, 372. 

Renick, George W., quoted, 372. 

Renick 903, 372. 

Reproductive functions and processes of animals, 23, 
24, 28-34; of fowls, 25. 

Respiration, calorimeter, notes, 56; in animals, 21, 22; 
in poultry, 25. 

Reticulum, 18. 

Retriever, 515. 

Reversion, 39; in fowls, 532. 

Rex arbuckle 1467, 492. 

Reybold, Clayton, quoted, 625. 

Rheumatism, 439; of fowls, 135. 

Rhinitis, catarrhal, 656. 

Rhode Island Red fowls, 529, 565. 

Ribbons, show, 158. 

Rice, James E., articles by, 533, 556. 

Rice: composition and feeding value, 93, 264; digestible 
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100. Bran, 73; 
composition, 93; digestible nutrients and fertilizing 
constituents, 100. Hulls: composition, 93; digestible 
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100. Meal, 73; 
composition, 93; digestibility, 97. Polish, 73; com- 
position, 93; digestible nutrients and fertilizing con- 
stituents, 100. 

Rice-field mice, 166. 

Richard II quoted, 497. 

Richards, A. Keene, quoted, 447. 

Richards, H. B., quoted, 342. 

Richardson quoted, 381. 

Richardson, Sir John, quoted, 400. 

Richardson, W. D., article by, 261. 

Richmond quoted, 178, 181. 

Rickets, 655. 

Ricotte cheese, 219. 

Ridgeway quoted, 420, 449, 450, 497. 

Ridgling defined, 149. 

Riding, horse, 427, 428. 

Riding horses for military purposes, 474. 

Rigor mortis, 265. 



Rinderpest, 145; notes, 122, 123, 296. 

Ringbone, 445; heredity of, 38. 

Ring-neck pheasant, 581. 

Ring-worm, 329. 

Ripened Cottage cheese, 226. 

Ripening cream for butter, 200, 207; milk for cheese, 

Rivolta quoted, 139. [210. 

Roadster horse, 420; type, 46, 47. 

Roaring, 22; inheritance of, 38. 

Roasters, 544. 

Robert Mac, 505. 

Robert McGregor, 505, 506, 507. 

Robertson quoted, 370. 

Robertson, J. W., quoted, 213. 

Robin, 170, 171, 172, 173. 

Rock cotton as insulating material, 237, 239. 

Rodents, 163. 

Romane cheese, 219. 

Romatur cheese, 226. 

Rommel, George M., quoted, 374. 

Romney Marsh sheep, 632. 

Root, A. I., quoted, 279. 

Root crops, 69; factors effecting feeding value, 71 ; for 
dairy heifer, 314; for show animals, 153; production 
value, 67. 

Ropy milk, 188. 

Roquefort cheese, 221; notes, 220, 411. 

Roquefort Penicillium, 222. 

Rosabella, 372. 

Rose-apple as honey-plant, 286. 

Rose-comb bantam, 569. 

Rose, Dr., quoted, 629. 

Rose, Flora, article by, 263. 

Rose of Sharon, 272. 

Rosentein cattle, 357. 

Rosewood as honey-plant, 2S6. 

Ross goose, 575. 

Rotch quoted, 372. 

Rotch, Francis, quoted, 629. 

Rouen duck, 569. 

Rouget immunity, 145. 

Roughage, 69; composition, 94, 95; digestibility, 97-99; 
for dairy cattle, 316. 

Roundworms in dogs, 3S6. 
Roup, 142, 553, 554. 

Rowen, composition, 94; digestibility, 97, 98; diges- 
tible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 101 ; hay, 
nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 104. 
Royal Agricultural Society (England) quoted, 454. 
Royal Fearnaught, 506. 
Roval George 9, 502. 
Royal Gift, 276. 

Royal Guernsey Agricultural and Horticultural So- 
ciety quoted, 349. 
Roval' Jersev Agricultural and Horticultural Society 

quoted, 362. 
Royal mares, 497. 
Roval palm as honey-plant, 286. 
Rubies, 339. 
Rubner quoted, 65. 
Ruddick, J. A., article by, 208. 
Rufus, 467. 
Rumen, 18. 

Ruminants, digestibility notes, 61. 
Rumination, 18, 19. 
Rumor, 506. 

Running horse type, 46, 47. 
Running-walk, 423, 424, 427, 492. 
Runt pigeons, 521. 
Rural New-Yorker, The, quoted, 33. 
Russell quoted, 1S4, 185. 
Russell, R. H., quoted, 622. 
Russell, Thomas, quoted, 373. 
Russet leather, 271. 
Russia swine, 672, 673. 
Russian deerhound, 516. 
Russian mulberry for birds, 172. 
Russian Orloff horse. (See Orloff trotting horse.) 
Russian pony, 488. 
Russian sable fur, 396. 

Rutabaga, composition, 95; digestible nutrients and 
fertilizing constituents, 102; digestibility, 99; nutri- 
tive ratio and protein-equating value, 105. 



INDEX 



703 



Rye, composition, 93; digestible nutrients and fertiliz- 
ing constituents, 100, 112; digestibility, 9S; feeding 
value, 72; nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 
105; production value, 67. Bran: composition, 93; 
digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100, 
114; digestibility, 99; nutritive ratio and protein- 
equating value, 105; production value, 67. Flour: 
composition, 93. Fodder: composition, 94; diges- 
tible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 101 ; nutri- 
tive ratio and protein-equating factor, 104. Meal: 
digestibility, 96. Silage: composition, 95. Shorts: 
composition, 93; digestible nutrients and fertilizing 
constituents, 100. Straw: composition, 95; digesti- 
bility, 9S; digestible nutrients and fertilizing constit- 
uents, 101; feeding value, 71; as insulating material, 
235, 239; nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 
105; production value, 67. 

Rye-grass, 67. 

Saanen goat, White, 410. 

. American, 401 ; Alaska, 402. 
Sable island ponies, 4S4. 
Saceharomvcosis farciminosus, 139. 
Sacred cattle, 378. 
Saddle horse, American, 4S9-492; horse type, 46, 47; 

influence of Thoroughbred on, 500; notes, 34. 
Saddle horses for mountain batteries, 471; note, 420; 

training, 427, 42S. 
Saffian, 411. 
Saffron finch, 524. 
Sage as honey-plant, 2S5. 
Sage cheese, 21S. 

Sainfoin as honey-plant, 2S5, 2S6; digestibility, 9S. 
Saleratus as meat preservative, 255. 
Salicylic acid as meat preservative, 254. 
Saliva, 17. 

Salmon quoted, 131. 
Salmon, canning, 263. 
Salt, for horses, 429; for show animals, 153; as meat 

preservative, 254; as a poison to sheep, 118. 
Salt hay, digestibility, 94, 9S. 
Salt pork, 256. 

Saltpeter as meat preservative, 254, 255. 
Saltram mare, 490. 
Salvator, 499. 
Sampson, 467, 501, 502. 
Sanborn quoted, 429. 
Sanders, Frank R., article by, 341. 
Sanders, Colonel Lewis, quoted, 372. 
Sanders, J. H., quoted, 451, 481, 660. 
Sandpiper, 170. 

Sanitarv milk-production, 1S1-1S4 
Santa Claus, 47S. 
Sapremia, 124. 
Sapsucker, red-bellied, 170. 
Sarcoptes scabiei, 654. 
Sardines, canning, 263. 
Sarrasin, Monsieur, quoted, 400. 
Sassenage cheese, 411. 
Saturettes, 521. 
Saunderson, Dr., quoted, 38. 

Sausage, 257; canned, 263; production notes, 645. 
Saw-palmetto as honey-plant, 2S5. 
Sawdust as insulating material, 235, 237. 
Saxon Merino sheep, 620. 
Saxon ram, notes, 37. 
Scab, sheep, 606. 
Scale carp, 393. 
Scalv-leg, 553. 
Scallops, 634. 
Scamorze cheese, 219. 
Scanderoon pigeons, 521. 
Scandinavian pony, 488. 
Scarlet fever germs in milk, 188. 
Schmierkase, 221. 
Schottelius quoted, 133. 
Schutz quoted, 128, 129. 
Schweineseuche, 133. 
Schweitzer cheese, 218. 
Scioto Valley Importing Company, 372. 
Sciuridae, 164. 
Score-cards, 44—55; for the production of sanitary 

milk, 182-1S4; note, 330. 



Scoring fowls, 550. 

Scorpion mice, 166. 

Scotch Black-face sheep, 631. 

Scotch Cheddars, 20S. 

Scotch deerhound 516. 

Scotch Gray fowls, 529. 

Scotch greyhound, note, 383. 

Scott & Harris quoted, 33S. 

Scott County Importing Company, 372. 

Scottish terrier, 516. 

Scott's Shales, 501, 502; (692), 467. 

Scours, sheep, 609. 

Scovell, M. A., article bv, 361. 

Scrapple, 256. 

Scratches, 444. 

Screech owl, 173. 

Screenings, 73; composition, 93. 

Scribner, F. Lamson, article by, 292. 

Scrofula, 133. 

Scrofulous diseases, inheritance of, 38. 

Sea-otter, 397, 39S; notes, 395. 

Sea-wolves, 399. 

Seal, 39S, 399; notes, 404. 

Sealskins, Alaska, note, 395. 

Searchlight, 504. 

Sebastapool goose, 575. 

Sebright Cochin fowls, 564. 

Sebright fowls, 569. 

Sebum, 23. 

Second Duke of Athol, 372. 

Seglawi Arabs, 448. 

Selection, as applied to animal-breeding, 35, 36; 
methodical, 35; natural, 35, 39. 

Selling stock, 160. 

Senecio Jacobea, 127. 

Separating milk, 19S. 

Separators, centrifugal, 199. 

Septicemia, 124, 125; hemorrhagica, 132. 

Serradella, composition, 95; digestibility, 98. 

Servin, Mrs. S. A. F., quoted, 343. 

Setters, 514. 

Sewell, B. D., quoted, 630. 

Sex control, 532; controlling, of offspring, 40, 41. 

Shad, gizzard, 392. 

Shadines, 263. 

Shafor, W. A., quoted, 409, 625. 

Shafor and Clawson quoted, 375. 

Shakers, Society of, quoted, 673. 

Shaler quoted, 9. 

Shales, 500, 501, 502. 

Shales (699), 466, 467. 

Sharter quoted, 370. 

Shavings as insulating material, 235, 237, 239. 

Shaw quoted, 677. 

Shaw, E. L., articles by, 405, 631, 632. 

Shawl goat, 405. 

Sheep, 592-633; age to breed, 30; ailments, 603-609; 
amount of blood in body, 21 ; branding, 151; carcasses, 
shipping, 260; composition of body, 59, SO; cost of 
producing, 13; determining age, 603; development, 
275; digestibility notes, 61; diseases, 122-146; dis- 
tribution, 11; dressing, 252; dry matter per day for, 
13; farming, 592-595; feeding, 600-603; feeding 
standards, 107, 10S; fitting and exhibiting, 153-15S; 
increase in number, 9, 10; inspection, 161; mainten- 
ance requirements, 78; marketing, 15S-162; nature 
of stomach, IS; notes, 582; number in relation to 
size of farm, 12; pelt, shipping, 261; period of ges- 
tation, 31; period of heat, 30; poisoning, 120, 121; 
prolificacy, 13; proteid requirements, SI ; puberty, 30; 
pulse, 21, 436; respiration, 21, 437; temperature in, 
21," 436; types, 51-53; value, 10; wild, 596; wool- 
production, 10. 

Sheep-dog, Old English Bobtail, 386-3SS; note, 3S3; 
trials, 388, 3S9. 

Sheep-pox, inoculating for immunity, 145. 

Sheepshead, 392. 

Sheepswool, 643. 

Shell-fish, 2, 634-640. 

Shelter of animals for meat-production, 83. 

Shepherd F. Knapp, No. 2S2, 466. 

Shepherds' Pride 2. 615. 

Sherbet, 195. 



704 



INDEX 



Sherman, 503, 506. 

Sherringham window, 147. 

Shetland pony, 4S4-4S6; notes, 34, 35. 

Shetland Ponv Studbook Soeiety quoted, 485. 

Shetland sheep, 597, 631. 

Shipment, preparing cattle for, 151. 

Shipping fever, 144. 

Shipping meat and hides, 260, 261. 

Shire horse, 493, 494: notes, 274. 

Shire Horse Soeiety quoted, 466. 

Shoat, 647. 

Sluicing horses, 149. 

Short two-vear-olds, fattening, 319, 320. 

Shorthorn cattle, 369 376; milk, percentage of butter- 
fat in, 177; note, 34, 303; oxen, 366; period of ges- 
tation, 31. 

Shorts, 73; composition, 93; for calves, 313; for heifers, 
314; for horses, 431, 432; for show animals, 153. 

Shote, 647. 

Show-ring rules and methods, 157. 

Shrews. 168. 

Shrimp, 640. 

Shrirron's cord, 150. 

Shropshire Down sheep, 626, 627; notes, 31, 38, 152. 

Siamese eat, 300. 

Siamese Fireback pheasant, 5S1. 

Siamese swine, 679; note, 658. 

Sierra cheese, 226. 

Sidney, 478. 

Sidney quoted, 669. 

Sidney Dillon. 478. 

Siebold, Prof. Von, quoted, 278. 

Sigmodon hispidus, 166. 

Signal Jerseys, 364. 

S.higr. beef cattle, 318-321; for cows, 316; for dairy 
heifer, .'ill; for show animals, 15; notes. 151,306, 
307, 308; poisoning of stock, 119; production value, 
07 ; summer, 315. 

Silesian Merino sheep, 620. 

Silk notes, s. 

SMkies, 569 

Silkworm, 010-643. 

Silshv quoted, 372. 

Silver, L. I'.., quoted, 662. 

Silver-bill, 524. 

Silver fox, -nil 

Silver-grey rabbit , -Mo. 

Silver pheasanl . 581. 

Silver-spangled Lizard canarv, 522. 

Silvertail, 501, 502. 

Simmenthal cattle, 381 ; oxen, 366. 

Simpson, George, quoted, 373. 

Simpson, John, quoted, 373. 

Sinclair, Sir John, quoted, 610. 

Single-loot gait, 423, 492. 

Single-Standard Polled Durham cattle, 37S. 

Single Yellow-headed parrot, 524. 

Sir Archy, 498. 

Sir Lucifer, 387. 

Sir Teddy, 481, 4S2. 

Sisson, L. P., article by, 339. 

Sketchley, Dr., quoted, 511. 

Skimmed cheese, 218. 

Skimmed milk, composition, 96; digestible nutrients 
and fertilizing constituents, 102, 111 ; for calves, 308, 
313, 319; nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 
105. 

Skimmed-milk-powder, 194. 

Skimming stations, 226-232; note, 174. 

Skin of animals, nature and function, 23; treatment of 
show animals, 154. 

Skinning cattle, 251. 

Skunks, notes, 164, 165, 166, 16S, 396; farming, 404; 
skins, 4(12. 

Skvc terrier, 516. 

Skylark, 523. 

Slugs, 634. 

Small Black swine, 676; White swine, 674, 675; York- 
shire swine, 674, 675. 

Smallpox immunity, 145. 

Smctanka, 451, 474. 

Smith quoted, 21, 133, 1 11, 1S4, 370. 

Smith, Howard R , article by, 317. 



Smith, St., quoted, 17. 

Smith, Samuel, quoted, 372. 

Smith, T., quoted, 140. 

Smoked meat, canned, 262. 

Smoking meats. 257, 258. 

Smooth cavy, 520. 

Smuggler, 476. 

Snaffle-bit, 422, 423. 

Snails, 634. 

Snakes, notes, 167, 173. 

Snapping turtles, 6S1, 682. 

Sneeze-weed, 121. 

Snow geese, 575. 

Snowball (Fig. 505), 517. 

Snowbird, note, 170. 

Snowdon quoted, 370. 

Snowflake, note, 170. 

Snuffles, 415, 656. 

Soap-making, 259. 

Soap, poisoning of stock, 118. 

Sobernheitn quoted, 130. 

Scemmerring's pheasant, 581. 

Soft cheeses, 219-226. 

Soiling, 315. 

Sole-leather, 271. 

Song thrush, 523. 

Sonnerati jungle-fowl, 582. 

Soola clover as honey-plant, 286. 

Sore throat of horses, 440; tongue, 325 

Sorghum, digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents 
101; fresh, digestibility, 98. Bagasse: composition. 
96; digestibility, 98." Fodder: composition, 94; 
digestibility, 98; nutritive ratio and protein-equating 
factor. 11)1" Hay: for beef cattle, 319; for dairy cows, 
316. Seed: composition, 93; digestible nutrients and 
fertilizing constituents, 100. Silage: composition, 95; 
digestibility, 99; digestible nutrients and fertilizing 
constituents, 102; nutritive ratio and protein-equat- 
ing factor, 101. 

Sorghum-poisoning of stock, 119. 

Sorrel as honey-plant, 2S5. 

Sotham, W. II., quoted, 612. 

Sour milk, digestibility, 99. 

Sourwood as honey-plant, 285. 

Souse, 256. 

South sea seal, 399. 

Southdown sheep, 627-629; period of gestation, 31. 

Southport Perfection. 384. 

Sovereign 181, 458. 

Sow, 647; fecundity, 33; milk, composition, 96; note, 
170; period of gestation, 31. 

Soxhlet's method of testing milk, 178. 

Soybean, composition, 93; digestible nutrients and fer- 
tilizing constituents, 101; feeding value, 72; nutritive 
ratio and protein-equating value, 104. Hay: com- 
position, 95; digestibility, 98, 99; digestible nutrients 
and fertilizing constituents, 101, 1(12; fresh, 95; 
nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 105; 
production value, 07. Meal: digestibility, 97; 
nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 105; 
Silage: composition, 95; digestible nutrients and 
fertilizing constituents, 102. Straw: composition, 95; 
digestibility, 9S; digestible nutrients and fertilizing 
constituents, 102; nutritive ratio and protein-equat- 
ing value, 105. 

Spaniels, 514, 515. 

Spanish-fly Misters, 23. 

Spanish-Maltese goat, 409. 

Sparrow, 170, 171,; pet 524. 

Spartina juncea. 98; stricta, var. glabra, 98. 

Spasm of the diaphragm, 656. 

Spavin, 445; inheritance of, 3S. 

Spaying, 150. 

Special Delight (Fig. 462), 453. 

Specific infectious diseases, 124, 126, 127. 

Speed horses, 420. 

Spencer quoted, 37, 39. 

Spermatozoon, nature and function, 29. 

Spermophilcs, 164. 

Spiess (413), 381. 

Spinach, composition and fuel-value, 264. 

Spitz dog, 517. 

Splendens, 364. 



INDEX 



705 



Splint, 446; inheritance, 38. 

Sponges, 643. 644; notes, 392, 393. 

Spongia gossipina, 643. 

Spoon-bill (Pohjodon), 392. 

Sporadic aphtha?, 325. 

Spots, 521. 

Spotted liver, 135. 

Spotted Race cattle, 3S1. 

Sprague, Elizabeth, quoted, 26S. 

Spraying solutions poisonous to cattle, IIS. 

Spur-winged goose, 576. 

Spurry, composition, 96; digestible nutrients and fer- 
tilizing constituents of, 102. 

Squabs, 582-5S4; broilers, 544. 

Squid, 634. 

Squirrels, 164; flying, notes, 33; notes, 173: period of 
gestation, 31; pet, 520; protection, 397: skins, notes, 
403. 

St. Andreasburg canary, 522. 

St. Bernard dog, 516. 

St. Clair, 476, 503. 

St. Helena waxbill, 524. 

St. Julien, 505. 

St. Lambert Jerseys, 364. 

St. Lawrence, 476, 503. 

St. Leger, 498. 

St. Quintin, Sir William, quoted, 370. 

Stable, construction and management, 147. 

Stabling dairy stock, 307; of show animals, 155. 

Stag defined, 149. 

Staggers, 605. 

Stallion, feeding, 431. 

Stalls for show animals, 156. 

Stamboul, 505. 

Standard milk, 186. 

Standardbred pacing horse, 476-478. 

Standardbred trotting horse, 500-507; note, 466, 468. 

Standardized milk, 186. 

Standards, feeding, 107. 

Star Pointer, 477. 

Starch, 58, 59, 75; notes, 17. Feed, 75; composition, 
92. Refuse: digestible nutrients and fertilizing con- 
stituents, 100. Test, for boiled milk, ISO. 

Starling, 523. 

Starter, artificial, 200, 207, 210. 

Steam, for dairy-house purposes, 206. 

Steam-cooker, 269. 

Steapsin, 20. 

Stebler quoted, 409, 411. 

Steeple-chasers, 470. 

Steer, defined, 149. 

Stenelus nigricollis, 586. 

Stephenson quoted, 370. 

Stepping-pace, 492. 

Stevenson mare 43, 490. 

Stickleback, 392. 

Stilton cheese, 223 ; notes, 220. 

Stirred-curd cheese, 218. 

Stoat, 400. 

Stock, branding and marking, 151 ; care of young, 
305, 306; feeding, 5S-118; management, 146-151; 
marketing, 158-162. 

Stock-cars, 15S, 159. 

Stock-poisoning, 118-122. 

Stock-yards, care of market stock at, 160. 

Stocking, W. A., Jr., article by, 187. 

Stomach-worm disease, 603. 

Stone, Frederick William, quoted, 373. 

Stone, John L., article by, 106. 

Stone, Livingston, quoted, 390. 

Stone, R. J., quoted, 625. 

Storage of meat, 25S. 

Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station quoted, 222, 
359. 

Stracathro Ralph, 384. 

Strangles, 123, 128, 442. 

Strathmore (408), 502, 505. 

Straw, available energy in, 66 ; digestibility, notes, 61 ; 
factors affecting feeding value, 71 ; for feeding dairy 
cattle, 316; for horses, 430; notes, 11; production, 
value, 67. 

Strawberry tribe of Shorthorns, 371. 

Streeter, M. B., quoted, 630. 

C45 



Streptococci, diseases caused by, 12S, 129. 

Streptococcus equi, 12S; mastitis, 129. 

Stringy milk, 1SS. 

Strongylus con tortus, 603; filaria, 606; ovis-pulmonali* 
606; paradoxus, 655. 

Struthers quoted, 37. 

Struthis Australis, 511; Camelus, 511. 

Strychnine for pests, 164. 

Stu'bbs & Sons, D. P., quoted, 452. 

Stump-the-dealer, 490. 

Sturdy, 605. ' 

Sturtevant, E. Lewis,_quoted, 360. 

Stuyvesant theory of sex control, 40. 

Succulent feeds, S6, 316. 

Succus entericus, 19. 

Sucker, 392. 

Sudbourn Count (3257) (Fig. 490), 495. 

Suet for birds, 173. 

Suffolk Down Sheep, 629, 630. 

Suffolk or Suffolk Punch horse, 494-496. 

Suffolk Red Polled cattle, 369. 

Suffolk Studbook, quoted 495. 

Suffolk swine, 675, 676; note, 660. _ 

Sugar, 58, 59; feeding to show animals, 153; as meat 
preservative, 254; notes, 17. Feed, 75; composition, 
92. Meal: digestible nutrients and fertilizing consti- 
tuents, 100. 

Sugar, milk, 177. 

Sugar-beets, composition, 95; digestible nutrients and 
fertilizing constituents, 102, 110; digestibility, 99; 
feeding value, 72; nutritive ratio and protein-equat- 
ing value, 105. Leaves: composition, 96; digestible 
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 102, 116; nutri- 
tive ratio and protein-equating value, 105. Pulp: 
digestible nutrients in stated amounts, 116; nutri- 
tive ratio and protein-equating value, 105. 

Sugar-cane as honey-plant, 286. 

Sugar-cured bacon, 256; ham, 256. 

Sulfate of aluminum for poisoning, 120; of iron, notes, 
106; of soda, notes, 106. 

Sulfur, notes, 106. 

Sultan, 505. 

Sultana of Paxtang 8732 (Fig. 375), 350. 

Sultans, 569. 

Sumatra pony, 4S9. 

Summer silage, 315. 

Sunflower seed, composition, 93; digestible nutrients 
and fertilizing constituents, 101; for birds, 173. Cake: 
composition, 93; digestible nutrients and fertilizing 
constituents, 101. 

Sunol, 504. 

Superfecundation, 31. 

Superfcetation, 31. 

Surface, H. A., quoted, 172. 

Surra, 140, 296. 

Surti buffalo, 294. 

Sus cristatus, 646; Indicus, 646; scrofa, 644, 646. 

Susette, 490. 

Sussdorf quoted, 21. 

Sussex cattle, 376, 377; note, 303; oxen, 366. 

Sussex sheep, 615. 

Sussex spaniel, 515. 

Sutton, Samuel, quoted, 627. 

Suworow (626), 371. 

Swallow, 170, 171, 173. 

Swallow pigeon, 521. 

Swallowing, 17. 

Swammerdam, Jan, quoted, 278. 

Swamp camas, 121. 

Swamp-hay as insulating material, 235; digestible nu- 
trients and fertilizing constituents, 101; digestibility, 
98. 

Swan, 585, 5S6. 

Swanwick quoted, 611. 

Sweating in animals, 23. 

Sweepstakes 6230, 372. 

Sweet clover as honey-plant, 285, 286. 

Sweet corn, digestible nutrients and fertilizing consti- 
tuents, 100; digestibility, 97. Silage: digestibility, 
99. 

Sweet Marie, 501. 

Sweet-oil, use on show animals, 154, 155. 

Sweet-potato, composition, 95. 



706 



INDEX 



Swi lied head, of horses, 438. 

Swift, 171. 

Swine, 644-681; age to breed, 30; ailments, 653-657; 
amount of blood in body, 21 ; branding, 151 ; com- 
position of body, 50, 80; cost of producing, 13; 
determining age, 653; development, 275; diseases, 
122-146; notes, 123; dry matter per day for, 13; 
erysipelas, 133; feeding, 649-653; feeding standards, 
108; notes, S2; fitting and exhibiting, 153-15-;; in- 
crease in number, 9, 10; inspection, 161 ; maintenance 
requirements, 78; marketing, 158-162; number in 
relation to size of farm, 12; origin, 646, 647; period 
of heat, 30; plague, 133; poisoning by cottonseed 
meal, 119; prolificacy of. 13; proteid requirements, 
81; puberty, 30; temperature. 21; tuberculosis, 135; 
types, 54, 55; value, 10; value of grinding grain for, 
69. 

Swinhoe's pheasant, 582. 

Swiss cheese, 218. 

Sylvia, 373. 

Syracuse Farmers' Club quoted, 1S2. 

Taber, G. F., quoted, 36S. 

Tabes, 133. 

Tacitus quoted, 331, 357. 

Ticnia csenuris, 605; expansa, 604; fimbriata, 604. 

Taints in milk, 86. 

Takosis, 129 

Talabda buffalo, use, 295 

Talking minor, 523. 

Tallow, rendering, 259. 

'1 amworth swine, 676, 677; notes, 644, 645. 

Tan rabbit, 519. 

Tankage for show animals, 153; note, 174. 

Tanning hides, 271. 

Tapeworms, 604; in dogs, 3S6. 

Tarpan, 419. 

Tattersall, 192. 

Tattler, 506. 

Taurocholatc of soda, 19. 

Tauroeholic acid, 19. 

Tea-bone porterhouse steak, 266. 

Teak as honey-plant, 286. 

Teats, chapped, 323. 

Teeswater .-attic. 369; notes, 335. 

Teeswater sheep, 616; note, 617. 

Telegi >ny, 41 . 

Telfor, \V. B., quoted, 373. 

Teller, Senator, quoted, 589. 

Temperature of animals, 21, 436; of animal body in 
relation to feeding, 77; in relation to meat-produc- 
tion, 82; in relation to milk-production, 84. 

Terrapin, 681. 

Terriers, 515. 

Tessier quoted, 31. 

Tetanus, 138; immunity, 145; neonatorum, 138; note, 
1511. 

Texas fever, 141; inoculating for immunity, 145; notes, 
123. 

Texas Longhorn cattle 3S1, 3S2. 

Texas steer, 381. 

Tliaer quoted. 57. 

Thayer, A., quoted, 613. 

The Abbot, 504. 

The Moor, 492, 505. 

"The Original," 466. 

Thermometer, oven, 267. 

Thin Rind swine, 667-669. 

Thistles as honey-plants, 2S5. 

Thorn, Charles, articles by, 218, 220. 

Thompson quoted, 370. 

Thompson, G. F., quoted, 409. 

Thompson, Joseph S., quoted, 373. 

Thorne, Samuel, quoted, 373. 

Thoroughbred horse, 496-500; heredity in, 36; notes, 
420, 450, 451, 451. 468, 409, 47(1, 475, 489, 490, 501; 
type, 46, 47 ; for polo ponies, 4S2, 4S3. 

Threadworms in dogs, 386. 

Thrush, 1711. 171 ; s >ng, 523. 

Thumps in horses, 440; hi swine, 656. 

Tick, sheep, 607. 

Tiger, notes, 35. 

Tigerstedt quoted, 264. 



Timothy, composition, 94; digestible nutrients and 
fertilizing constituents. 101, 110: digestibility, 97, 98; 
fordairycows, 316; for horses, 428-432;fuel and 
tenance values, 66; notes, 69, 71. 70; nutrith 
and protein-equating factor, 104; production value 

Timothy and clover hay, 98. [67. 

Tippler pigeon, 521, 522. 

Tit Bits (Fig. 183), 186. 

Ti-to as honey-plant, 2S5. 

Titmice, 170.' 

Toda buffalo, 294. 

Todd, Isaac, quoted, 662. 

Todd, S. II., quoted, 002. 

Todd's Improved Chester-White swine, 662. 

Toggenburg milch goat, 409. 

Tokishige quoted, 139. 

Tom Hal. 476, 477, 490. 

Tome de chevre, 411. 

Tomhave, W. H., article by, 260. 

Tongue, canned, 262. 

Tonic foods, 106, 153. 

Toofy, Mr., quoted, 616. 

Topgallant, 502. 

Tormentor Jerseys, 364. 

Torquatus pheasant. 581. 

Torrance, A. H., quoted, 612. 

Tortoise, 6S1. 

Toulouse geese. 573. 

Townsend, Capt. Chas. H., quoted, 63S. 

Toxemia. 124. 

Toxins, 124. 

Tragopan pheasant, 580. 

Training horses, 424—428; show stock, 155. 

Trakehner horse, 451, 463. 

Transportation of show stock, 156; of market stock, 
158. 

Traumatic pericarditis, 327; notes, IS; tetanus, 13s. 

Trimtt, Philip, quoted. 467. 

Trionyx Japonicus, 682. 

Trojan, 506. 

Troopial, 523. 

Trot, 423. 424, 427, 491; fox, 427. 

Trotter, feeding, 430. 

Trotting, energy required for, 87. 88. 

Trotting and pacing horse, American Standardbred 
500-507; notes, 36, 38; type, 46, 47. 

Trotting Register, American, 503. 

Trout, brook, 392. 

Truckle cheese, 218. 

True Briton, 505. 

Trueman, J. M., article by, 303. 

Trumpeter pigeon, 522. 

Trumpeter swan, 5S6. 

Trustee, 467. 

Trypanosoma cquinum. 140; Evansi, 140. 

Trypsin. 20. 

Ts.'tsc-fly disease, 140. 

Tuberculin test, 1.10. 

Tuberculosis, 133-136; effect on meat, note, 248; 
germs in milk, 188; notes. 123, 181, 182; quarantine 
notes, 102. 

Tubers, factors affecting feeding value, 71. 

Tulip-tree as honey-plant, 285. 

Tumbler pigeon, 521. 

Tunguse deer. 5.S8, 589. 

Tunis sheep, 0.33, notes. 599. 

Tupelo as honey-plant, 285. 

Turbit pigeon, 521. 

Turcoman, 451 . 

Turk horse, 451 ; note, 497. 

Turkey, 2, 505, 586, 587; canned, 263;_feeding. 536; 
period of incubation, 31 ; statistics, 52] . 

Turnip, composition, 95; digestible nutrients and fer- 
tilizing constituents, 102, 110; digestibility, 99; feed- 
ing value, 71; nutritive ratio ami protein-equating 
value, 105; production value, 07; tainting milk, Mi. 

Turn-sick, 605. 

Turtles and turtle-farming. 2. 0S1, 0S2. 

Twin Brother to Ben (660), 371. 

Twvnham, John '1'., quoted, 625. 

Type, defined, 421. 

Typhoid fever germs in milk, 182, 188. 

Typhoid fowl, 131. 



INDEX 



707 



Udder. 310. 

Ulcer. 125. 

Unadilla Valley Breeders' Association quoted, 357. 

Ungulata. 163. 

United States Department of Agriculture quoted, 10, 

222. 224. 264, 269, 645. 
United States War Department quoted, 471. 
University of Missouri quoted, 44. 
Unripened Isignv cheese, 225. 
Urea, 22. 
Uric acid, 22. 
Urine, 22, 26. 

Ursus, Americanus 402; horribilis, 402; maritimus, 402. 
Urticaria, 437; swine, 133. 
Urton, Captain, quoted, 501. 
Urus, 1, 302. 
Useful Cub, 501, 502. 

Utah Agricultural Experiment Station quoted, 429. 
Utensils, care of dairy, 1S2, 206. 
Uterus, character and function, 29. 
Uwharie, 476. 

Vaccinating animals, 145. 

Valaisan goat, Black-necked, 410. 

Van Hoorebeke, Dr. A. G., quoted, 452. 

Van Home, Sir William, quoted, 342. 

Van Meter's Waxy, 490. 

Van Xorman, H. E., article bv, 195. 

Van Raub, B. H., quoted, 409. 

Van Slyke's recipe for viscogen, 1S5; test for boric acid 
in milk, 179; for coal-tar dyes, ISO. 

Variation, causes of, in animals, 34, 35. 

Variety in the ration, 106. 

Variola in animals, 145. 

Varnish-tree as honey-plant, 2S5. 

Veal, 251; composition and fuel- value, 264, 269; char- 
acteristics of good, 265; cutting, 254; storing, 258; 
shipping, 260. 

Vcldlarker cattle, 341. 

Ventilation of stables, 147, 1S2. 

Venus mercenaria, 634. 

Vergil quoted, 278. 

Verminaus bronchitis, 655. 

Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station quoted, 
506. 

Vermont Black Hawk, 490. 

Vermont Hero, 506. 

Vermont horse-breeding experiments, 274, 275. 

Vermont Morgan, 506. 

Versicolor pheasant, 581. 

Vetch hay, composition, 95; digestibility, 9S; note, 71. 

Victor-Beall Delaine Merino sheep, 622. 

Victor Jersevs, 364. 

Victoria 20th., 372. 

Victoria swine, 678, 679. 

Villemin quoted, 134. 

Villiot's Fireback pheasant, 581. 

Violet 4th., 373. 

Vireo, 170, 173. 

Virginia nightingale, 523; redbird, 523. 

Viscogen, 185. 

Voles, 166. 

\"oIunteer, 505. 

Volunteer quoted, 504, 505. 

Vomiting, 19. 

Von Behring quoted, 136. 

Von Homej'er, Baron F., quoted, 624. 

Von Hruschka Major, quoted, 284. 

Von Ihering, quoted 279. 

Von Planta, Dr., quoted, 279, 281. 

Von Vinke quoted, 620. 

Vulcan (4145), 493. 

Vulpes argentatus, 401 ; decussatus, 401 ; fulvus, 401. 

Vulturine guinea, 578. 

Wade, William, quoted, 387. 

Waistell quoted, 370. 

Walcott and Campbell quoted, 373. 

Walk, 423, 424, 427. 

Walker-Gordon Laboratory Company quoted, 175. 

Walking, energy required for, 87, 8S. 

Wall Street Journal quoted, 247. 

Wallace quoted, 293, 275, 370, 453, 466. 



Wallace, John Henry, quoted, 503, 507. 

Wallace's Monthly, 503, 507. 

Walnut, composition and fertilizing constituent:, 264. 

Wapiti, 2. 

Wapsie, 505. 

Warbler, 170. 

Ward quoted, 131, 142. 

Ward, Archibald, quoted, 45S. 

Warder, Dr., quoted, 2S1. 

Warfield, Benjamin, quoted, 372. 

Warfield, William, quoted, 372. 

Warren county hog, 673. 

Warthog, 646. 

Warts, 327. 

Washburn quoted, 129, 137. 

Washington, George, quoted, 276, 499, 50S, 616. 

Water-bag, IS, 19. 

Water, for animals, 147; effect on health of cows, 1S2; 
function in animal body, 5S; percentage in food- 
stuffs, 5S; proportion in milk, 177. 

Water-buffalo, 292-296. 

Water-fowl feeding, 536, 537. 

Water-glass for preserving eggs, 546. 

Water hemlock, 120. 

Water-ice, 195. 

Water spaniel, 514. 

Water-supply for animals for meat-production, S3; 
for dairy-house, 205; for milk-production, 84. 

Watering horses, proper time, IS, 42S, 429. 

Watson, Hugh, -quoted, 331, 370. 

Watt quoted, 293. 

Watts, Dr. Arthur, quoted, 372. 

Waxbill, 524. 

Wayne, Maj. Henry C, quoted, 297, 29S. 

Weasels, 16S; notes, 165, 166, 167; white, 400. 

Webb, Jonas, quoted, 615, 62S. 

Webb, Seward, quoted, 467. 

Webster, Daniel, quoted, 665. 

Webster, Edwin H., article by, 19S. 

Weed, Clarence M., article by, 163. 

Weeds, poisonous, eradication, 119-122. 

Weismann quoted, 39, 40. 

Weld quoted, 4S0. 

Wellsbourne Conqueror, 3S4. 

Welsh cattle, Black, 377, 37S. 

Welsh Mountain sheep, 631. 

Welsh pony, 4S5. 

Welsh terrier, 516. 

Wensleydale cheese, 226. 

Wensleydale sheep, 633. 

West-Country Down sheep, 615. 

West Highland cattle, 382. 

Western goose, 576. 

Western, Lord, quoted, 666 

Wether denned, 149. 

Wetherell quoted, 370. 

Wheat, composition, 92; digestible nutrients and fer- 
tilizing constituents, 100, 112; feeding value, 72; 
for show animals, 153; nutritive ratio and protein- 
equating value, 105; production value, 67. Bran: 73, 
74; digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 
100, 113; digestibility, 96, 99; nutritive ratio and 
protein-equating value, 105; production value, 67. 
Chaff: as insulating material, 235, 239; composition, 
95; digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 
101; digestibility, 9S. Flour: composition and fer- 
tilizing constituents, 264. Middlings: digestible 
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100,- 113; 
digestibility, 96; for calves, 313; nutritive ratio and 
protein-equating value, 105. Screenings: compo- 
sition, 93 ; digestible nutrients and fertilizing constitu- 
ents, 100. Shorts: digestible nutrients and fertilizing 
constituents, 100; digestibility, 99; nutritive ratio 
and protein-equating value, 105. Straw: as insulating 
material, 235; composition, 95; digestible nutrients 
and fertilizing constituents, 101, 112; digestibility, 
98; feeding value, 71; for dairy cattle, 316; nutritive 
ratio and protem-equating value, 105; production 
value, 67. 

Whey, composition, 96; digestible nutrients and fer- 
tilizing constituents, 102; nutritive ratio and protein- 
equating value, 105. 

Wild (Canadian) geese, 574. 



708 



INDEX 



Wild geese of North America, 575; White-fronted, 575. 

Whippet, 516. 

Whippoorwill, notes, 35. 

Whistling swan, 5S5. 

Wliitaker quoted, 372. 

White Appenzeller goat, 410. 

White-footed mice, 166. 

White Heifer That Traveled, 370. 

White Roses, 375. 

White Saanen goat, 410; note, 409. 

White scours, 126. 

White sheep, 597. 

White swine, Large, 669-671. 

White weed, 98. 

Whitefish, 392. 

Whitehall Sultan 163573 (Fig. 384), 370. 

Whitfield, George, quoted, 332, 373. 

Whiting, C. L., quoted, 625. 

Whiting, Thomas E., quoted, 357. 

Whittaker, Mr., quoted, 564. 

Whyte, Mr., quoted, 482. 

Wickliffe, Robert, quoted, 290. 

Wilch-grass, digestibility, 98. 

Wilcox quoted, 480. 

Wilcox, E. V., article by, 119. 

Wild life and its relation to farming, 163-173. 

Wild-oat grass, composition, 94; digestibility, 98. 

Wild parsnip, 120. 

Wildcat, 403; note, 167. 

Wildund Rinderseuche, 132. 

Wilkesberrv, 478. 

Willard. {See Failver and Willard.) 

Willard, J. T., article by, 103. 

Williams, Jesse, quoted, 20S. 

Williams, Samuel, quoted, 372. 

WUloughby quoted, 520, 521. 

Wilson, D. B., quoted, 343. 

Wilson, James, article by, 274; quoted, 161, 641. 

Wilson, Professor, quoted, 627, 643 

Wiltshire cheese, 218. 

Wiltshire-horned sheep, 614. 

Wiltshire side, note, 659, 668. 

Wing, H. H., articles by, 309, 321, 433, 603, 653. 

Wing, Joseph E., article by, 618. 

Wingfield, Roland, quoted, 373. 

Winnetka Christopher, 384. 

Wintering idle horses, 430. 

Winthrop Morrill, 506. 

Winton disease of the horse, 127. 

Wire-haired Fox terrier, 515. 

Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station quoted, 

13, 599. 
Wishaw Clinker, 384. 

Woif. i(- )7t 402; no te 31; wolf-dog hybrid, 595. 
Wolf-in-the-tail, 19, 330. 

Wolff quoted, 78, 79, 85, 89; standard, 85, 117, 314. 
Wolff-Lehmann standard, S5. 
Wolfhound, 516. 
Woll, F. W., article by, 313. 
Wolverine, 397. 
Wood duck, 173, 571. 
Wood lark, 523. 

Woodburn herd of Shorthorns, 372. 
Woodburn pilot, 506. 
Woodbury, 503, 506. 
Woodchuek, 164, 165. 
Woodcock, 170. 
Wooden tongue, 138. 
Woodford Mambrino, 505. 



Woodpecker, 170, 173. 

Wood-rats, 166. 

Woodruff quoted, 502. 

Wood-terrapin, 6S1. 

Woods, Prince T., article bv, 552. 

Wool-eating, 60S. 

Wool fabrics, 174. 

Wool-production, 59S, 599; influence of food on, 7S; 

notes, S, 11, 595; increase in, 10. 
Wool sheep type, 52, 53. 
Woolless sheep, 631. 

Work, effect on digestion, 61 ; feeding for, 86-92. 
Work, H. F., quoted, 667, 66S. 
Worm-in-the-tail, 330. 

Worms in dogs, 3S6; in fowls, 555; in horses, 443. 
Wound infection, 124-126; treatment, 322, 323. 
Wrangel, Count, quoted, 464. 
Wren, 170, 173. 
Wright quoted, 370. 
Wright, J., quoted, 42. 
Wright, Thomas, article by, 582. 
Wyandotte fowls, 564; fattening, 539; notes, 529. 
Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station quoted 

59S 
Wzmakh, 475. 

Xanthium Canadense, 121. 

Yankee, 503. 

Yearbook, Canada, quoted, 302, 416. 

Yearbook, United States Department of Agriculture 
quoted, 302, 409, 416. 

Yellowbird, American, 524. 

Yellow-headed parrot, 524. 

Yellowwood as honey-plant, 285. 

Yeo quoted, 106. 

Yorkshire coach horse, 453-455; influence of Thorough- 
bred on, 500. 

Yorkshire Coach Studbook quoted, 454. 

Yorkshire swine, Large, 669-671; Middle, 680; Small, 
674, 675; notes, 644, 645, 64S, 660. 

Yorkshire terrier, 516. 

Youatt quoted, 31, 376, 487, 4S8, 679. 

Youghort, 1S7. 

Young, Arthur, quoted, 628. 

Young, Milton, quoted, 499. 

Young, Robert, quoted, 610. 

Young Adonis 476, 463. 

Young Altma I 45S, 463. 

Young America cheese, 21S. 

Young Bashaw, 505. 

Young Mary, 372. 

Young Morrill, 506. 

Young Phyllis, 372, 375. 

Zacinthe, 460. 

Zapodidoe, 167. 

Zebra mule, 419; notes, 9, 419. 

Zebra waxbill, 524. 

Zebroid, 419. 

Zebrule, 419. 

Zebus, 378; notes, 303. 

Zelicia, 478. 

Zilcaadi, 450. 

Zoolak, 187. 

Zootechnv, 273. 

Zuntz quoted, 79, S7, 88, 89. 

Zygadenus venenosus, 120. 



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